CHEMISTRY MOST

IMPORTANT TOPICS
BALANCING EQUATION

A balanced equation is an equation for a chemical

reaction in which the number of atoms for each
element in the reaction and the total charge are
the same for both the reactants and the products.

In every chemical reaction, the same mass of

matter must end up in the products as stated in the
reactants.

Balanced chemical equations show that mass is

conserved in chemical reactions. The total mass
and energy in a system remain constant. This
amendment incorporates the fact that mass and
energy can be converted from one to another.
However, the law of conservation of mass remains
a useful concept in chemistry since the energy
produced or consumed in a typical chemical
reaction account for a minute amount of mass.
HOW TO BALANCE
CHEMICAL EQUATION
Balancing a chemical equation involves
a certain amount of trial and error. In
general, follow these steps:

1. Write down the given equation.

2. Write down the number of atoms
per element. (This must be done for
each side of the equation. Look at
the subscripts next to each atom to
find the number of atoms in the
equation. When writing it, connect it
 back to the original equation, noting
how each element appears.)
3. Saving hydrogen and oxygen for
last, as they are often on both sides
(Hydrogen and oxygen are both
common in molecules, so it is likely
that they will be on both sides of the
equation. It is best to balance them
last.)
4. Starting with single elements. (If
there are more than one element left
to balance, select the element that
appears in only a single molecule of
reactants and in only a single
molecule of products. This means
that the carbon atoms need to be
balanced first.)
5. Using a coefficient to balance the
single carbon atom. Adding a
coefficient to the single carbon atom
on the right of the equation to
 balance it with the 3 carbon atoms on
the left of the equation.
6. Balancing the hydrogen atoms
next. Since all atoms have been
balanced other than hydrogen and
oxygen, the hydrogen atoms can be
addressed.
7. Balancing the oxygen atoms. It is
important to remember to account for
the coefficients that were used to
balance out the other atoms.
A chemical equation shows us the
substances involved in a chemical
reaction - the substances that react
(reactants) and the substances that are
produced (products). In general, a
chemical equation looks like this:

REACTANTS —-----> PRODUCTS

this chemical reaction, nitrogen (N2)
reacts with hydrogen (H) to produce
ammonia (NH3).The reactants are
nitrogen and hydrogen, and the product
is ammonia. If we look at this equation,
we can see that the equation is not
balanced.

The equation is not balanced because in

the reactants side, there are 2 nitrogen
(N) atoms and 2 hydrogen (H) atoms. In
the products side, there are 1 nitrogen
(N) atoms and 3 hydrogen (H) atoms.
The number of the atoms is not
balanced on both sides.
To balance the chemical equation
above, we need to make use of
coefficients. A coefficient is a number
that we place in front of a chemical
formula. In the chemical equation, to
make the number of nitrogen (N) atoms
equal on both sides, first, we place a
coefficient of 2 in front of NH3.

Once we do that, the number of nitrogen

(N) atoms on both sides is balanced.
However, the number of hydrogen (H)
atoms is not balanced on both sides. We
need to make use of another coefficient
in front of H2. This time, we put a
coefficient of 3 in front of H2 to balance
the chemical equation.
The equation above is now balanced.
There are 2 nitrogen (N) atoms and 6
hydrogen (H) atoms on both the
reactants and products side. Since there
is no coefficient in front of N2, that
means the coefficient is equal to 1.

Examples:-
•CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2

•SiCl4 + H2O → H4SiO4 + HCl.

•Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

•C7H6O2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O.

•Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH → K2SO4 +

Fe(OH)3

•Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 +

CaSiO3
•KClO3 → KClO4 + KCl.

SALT FORMATION

It is present in large quantities in

seawater, where it is the main mineral
constituent. Salt is essential for animal
life and saltiness is one of the basic
human tastes. Salt is an ionic compound
that has a cation other than H+ and an
anion other than OH– and is obtained
along with water in the neutralization
reaction between acids and bases.
Eg:- NaCl, CuCl2 etc.

Acid + Base → Salt + water

Sodium chloride is one of the

best-known salt. One salt is known to
almost everyone because of its
widespread use in every day.

Types of Salt
1. Acidic salt – The salt formed by partial
neutralization of a diprotic or a polyprotic
acid is known as an acidic salt. These
salts have ionizable H+ ion along with
another cation. Mostly the ionizable H+
is a part of the anion. Some acid salts
are used in baking.

For eg:- NaHSO4­, KH2PO4 etc.

Basic or Alkali Salt – The salt formed by
the partial neutralization of a strong
base by a weak acid is known as a basic
salt. They hydrolyze to form a basic
solution. It is because when hydrolysis
of basic salt takes place, the conjugate
base of the weak acid is formed in the
solution.

For eg:- White lead (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2).

Properties of Salt
The compound’s sodium chloride has
very different properties from the
elements sodium and chlorine.

Saltwater contains ions and is a fairly

good conductor of electricity.
This electrostatic force of attraction
holds the ions together and a chemical
bond is said to form between them.
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
An exothermic reaction is a reaction in
which energy is released in the form of
light or heat. Thus in an exothermic
reaction, energy is transferred into the
surroundings rather than taking energy
from the surroundings as in an
endothermic reaction.
Combustion
Combustion refers to the process where
a substance burns in the presence of
Oxygen, giving off heat and light in the
process.
•These reactions give out good amounts
of energy in the form of heat, but also
form some byproducts such as smoke.
• An example of a combustion reaction
would be the combustion of methane
which can be represented as follows:
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Heat
•Another example of a combustion
reaction is the combustion of glucose,
given by the following reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O +
Energy

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
An endothermic reaction is any chemical
reaction that absorbs heat from its
environment. The absorbed energy
provides the activation energy for the
reaction to occur. A hallmark of this type
of reaction is that it feels cold.
Endothermic Reaction Examples
● When ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is
dissolved in water, an endothermic
reaction takes place. The salt
dissociates into ammonium (NH4+)
and chloride (Cl–) ions. The chemical
equation can be written as follows:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) ⟶ NH4Cl (aq) –
Heat
 ● Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), an
important component in instant cold
packs, dissociates into the
ammonium cation (NH4+) and the
nitrate anion (NO3–) when dissolved
in water. These ions go on to form
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and
nitric acid (HNO3) respectively (by
reacting with the OH– and H+ ions in
water). This reaction is endothermic
in nature since it cools the
surroundings by absorbing heat from
it.

WASHING SODA
Na2CO3. 10H2O is called Hydrated
Sodium Carbonate. Sodium carbonate
decahydrate is also known as Washing
soda.
Uses of washing soda:
 ● It is used as a laboratory reagent.
● It is used in removing stains.
● It is used in removing the permanent
hardness of the water.
● It is used in the manufacturing of
soap, paper as well as glass.
● It is also used in textiles and
petroleum refining.

Physical properties and chemical

properties of sodium carbonate:
•It is a crystalline solid which is white.
•It exists as a monohydrated salt
(Na2CO3.H2O), anhydrous salt
(Na2CO3), heptahydrate salt
(Na2CO3.7H2O) and decahydrate
salt (Na2CO3.10H2O).
•Sodium carbonate is basic in nature.
•It has a melting point of 851°C.
 •In the presence of heat, it loses its
water to form an anhydrous salt
(soda ash).
Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2CO3.H2O →
Na2CO3 (at 373 K)

BAKING SODA
Baking soda is the common name of
sodium bicarbonate. The chemical
formula of baking soda is NaHCO3.

Uses of Baking Soda

•Reduces the acidity in the stomach
•Acts as an antacid which is used to
treat stomach upset and indigestion
•Used in the process of washing as a
water softener
•Due to the formation of soapy foam, it is
used in fire extinguishers
•Removes the dirt off materials without
damaging the properties of the material
•Acts as a pesticide

Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate

•It is non-flammable.
•Powder dust is not explosive.
•It has a melting point of 500C
•NaHCO3 is a white crystalline solid
which is odourless.
•It is basic in nature.

HARDNESS OF WATER
The hardness of water is due to the
presence of soluble bicarbonates,
chlorides and sulfates of calcium and
magnesium. Water which does not give
lather with soap is hard water. Water can
be classified as hard water and soft
water.

•Soft water: It lathers with soap. Water

which is obtained from the rains is soft
water. This water is suitable for
household purposes, for example,
laundry and cleaning.
•Hard water: It is known as hard water
because of the presence of calcium and
magnesium salts. Hard water does not
lather with soap but instead forms a
precipitate.
Types of Hardness of Water
Hardness of water can be classified into
two types:

Temporary Hardness
Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness of Water
The presence of magnesium and
calcium carbonates in water makes it
temporarily hard. In this case, the
hardness in water can be removed by
boiling the water.

When we boil water, the soluble salts of

Mg(HCO3)2 are converted to Mg(OH)2,
which is insoluble, and hence gets
precipitated and is removed. After
filtration, the water we get is soft water.

Permanent Hardness of Water

When the soluble salts of magnesium
and calcium are present in the form of
chlorides and sulphides in water, we call
it permanent hardness because this
hardness cannot be removed by boiling.

We can remove this hardness by

treating the water with washing soda.
Insoluble carbonates are formed when
washing soda reacts with the sulphide
and chloride salts of magnesium and
calcium, and thus, hard water is
converted to soft water.
Remove the Hardness of Water
(Temporarily)
By Boiling:
Soluble bicarbonates are converted into
insoluble carbonates, which are
removed by filtration.

Reactions: Ca(HCO3)2 → ΔCalo3↓ +

H2O + CO2

⇒ Mg(HCO3)2 → ΔMgCO3↓ + H2O +

CO2

By Clarks Method:
Calcium hydroxide is Clark’s reagent. It
removes the hardness of water by
converting bicarbonates into carbonate.

Reaction: Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 →

2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O

Micelles. In water, the soap molecule is

uniquely oriented which helps to keep
the hydrocarbon part outside the water.
When the clusters of molecules are
formed then hydrophobic tail comes at
the interior of the cluster and the ionic
end comes at the surface of the cluster
and this formation is called a micelle

.
What is Isomerism?
Isomerism is the phenomenon in which
more than one compounds have the
same chemical formula but different
chemical structures.

Chemical compounds that have identical

chemical formulae but differ in properties
and the arrangement of atoms in the
molecule are called isomers. Therefore,
the compounds that exhibit isomerism
are known as isomers.

Isomerism Types
There are two primary types of
isomerism, which can be further
categorized into different subtypes.
These primary types are Structural
Isomerism and Stereoisomerism. The
classification of different types of
isomers is illustrated below.

Structural Isomerism
Structural isomerism is commonly
referred to as constitutional isomerism.
The functional groups and the atoms in
the molecules of these isomers are
linked in different ways. Different
structural isomers are assigned different
IUPAC names since they may or may
not contain the same functional group.
Chain Isomerism

It is also known as skeletal isomerism.

The components of these isomers
display differently branched structures.
Commonly, chain isomers differ in the
branching of carbon

Position Isomerism
The positions of the functional groups or
substituent atoms are different in
position isomers.
Typically, this isomerism involves the
attachment of the functional groups to
different carbon atoms in the carbon
chain.
An example of this type of isomerism
can be observed in the compounds
having the formula C3H7Cl.

Functional Isomerism
It is also known as functional group
isomerism.
As the name suggests, it refers to the
compounds that have the same
chemical formula but different functional
groups attached to them.
An example of functional isomerism can
be observed in the compound C3H6O.