KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

KVS RO, JAIPUR

CLASS:-X
SUBJECT: - SCIENCE (086)
Session: - 2020-2021
LAST MINUTE REVISION STUDY MATERIAL
CHIEF PATRON: - SH. B L Morodia
Deputy Commissioner
KVS, RO, Jaipur
PATRON:- SH DIGG RAJ MEENA
Assistant Commissioner
PATRON:- SH Mukesh Kumar
Assistant Commissioner
CONVENOR: - MR. S N MEENA
PRINCIPAL
K V BEAWAR
Team Members: -
1. MR ABHISHEK SANWARIYA, TGT(SCIENCE), KV No 1, JAIPUR
2. MRS VINEETA SHARMA, TGT(SCIENCE), KV No 4, JAIPUR
3. MRS SUNITA CHOUDHARY, TGT(SCIENCE), KV No 1, KOTA
4. MR BRAJESH BAGHERWAL, PGT(PHYSICS), KV BHILWARA
5. MR RAVI ARORA, PGT(PHYSICS), KV LALGARH JATTAN
 CHAPTER: 01 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
1) Chemical reaction— Chemical changes or chemical reactions are the changes in which one or more new
substances are formed.
2) Chemical Equations–Representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of the
reactants and products is known as chemical equation.
3) Balanced Chemical equations– The chemical equation in which the no. of atoms of different
elements is same on both sides of the arrow is called balanced chemical equation.
Balancing of a chemical reaction is done by “Hit and Trial Method.”
Balancing of a chemical reaction is depending on “Law of Conservation of mass.”
4) The chemical reactions can be classified into different types such as—
a) Combination reaction– The reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a new
substance are called combination reaction. For example-
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) →2 MgO (s)
b) Decomposition reaction: A single reactant breaks down to yield two or more products.

• Thermal decomposition: 2Pb(NO2)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

• Electrolysis: 2H20 → 2H2 + O2
• Photochemical reaction: 2AgBr → 2Ag + Br2

c) Displacement reactions-The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element

displaces a less reactive element from a compound are known as displacement reactions. For example,
i) Zn (s) +CuSO4(aq)→ZnSO4(aq)+Cu (s).
ii) Cu (s)+2AgNO3(aq) →Cu (NO3)2(aq) +2Ag(s).
d) Double Displacement Reactions- The chemical reactions in which compounds react to form two
different compounds by mutual exchange of ions are called double displacement reactions.
These reactions take place in solution two common types of this reaction are
(i) Precipitation reactions and (ii) Neutralization reactions
(i) Precipitation reaction: In this reactions, aqueous solution of two salts are mixed where by some
salts precipitate due to mutual exchange of ions between the two salts. For example
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq)

2KI(s) + Pb(NO3) 2(s) → 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

(ii) Neutralization reaction: In this type of reaction an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water by
exchange of ions.
NaOH (aq)+ HCl (aq) →NaCl (aq)+H2O.
e) Redox reaction: Chemical reaction which shows both oxidation and reduction reaction.
Oxidation: Reaction that involves the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously and hence called redox reaction.
ZnO + C→ Zn + CO
ZnO reduce to Zn----reduction & C oxidize to CO------ oxidation
Q.What does one mean by Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions ? Give examples.
(i) Exothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is produced.
C + O2→CO2 (g) + heat
(ii) Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed.
CaCO3 + Heat → CaO +CO2
5 Corrosion– The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable compounds due to their
reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the atmosphere is called corrosion.
Rusting–Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance called rust.
Q.Define Rancidity.How it can be prevented?
6 Rancidity – The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when they are left
exposed to air for longtime. This is called rancidity. It is caused due to oxidation of fat and oil present in
food material.
It can be prevented by using various methods such as by adding antioxidants to the food materials,
Storing food in airtight container and by flushing out air with nitrogen.
 CHAPTER: 02 ACIDS, BASES, SALTS
1. The word acid comes from the Latin word “acere” which means sour.
Acids are sour in taste, turn blue litmus red, and dissolve in water to release H+ ions
e.g. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3etc.
2. Bases are bitter in taste, have soapy touch, turn red litmus blue and give hydroxide ions in solution.
e.g. NaOH , KOH etc.
3. A salt is a compound which is formed by neutralization reaction between an acid and base. e.g.
sodium chloride. Nacl
4. Indicators–Indicators are substances which indicate the acidic or basic nature of the solution by their
color change. The color of some acid– base indicators in acidic and basic medium are given below

Sr. INDICATORS COLOUR IN COLOUR IN

No. ACIDIC MEDIUM BASIC MEDIUM
1 Litmus solution Red Blue
2 Methyl Orange Pink Orange
3 Phenolphthalein Color less Pink
4 Methyl red Yellow Red

5. Chemical properties of acids:

(i) Acids react with active metals to give hydrogen gas.
Zn+H2SO4→ZnSO4+H2
(ii) Acids react with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate to give carbon dioxide.
NaHCO3+HCl→NaCl + H2O +CO2
(iii) Acids react with bases to give salt and water. This reaction is called as neutralization reaction.
NaOH+HCl→NaCl +H2O
(iv) Acids react with metals oxides to give salt and water.
CuO +H2SO4→CuSO4+H2O
6. Chemical properties of Bases:
i) Reaction with Metals-Certain reactive metals such as Zinc, Aluminum, and Tin react with alkali
solutions on heating and hydrogen gas is evolved.
2NaOH+Zn→Na2ZnO2+H2
ii) Reaction with acids-Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
KOH +HCl→KCl+H2O
iii) Reaction with Non-metallic oxides – These oxides are generally acidic in nature. They react with
bases to form salt and water.
2NaOH+CO2→ Na2CO3+H2O
7. PH Scale: The full form of pH is Potential of Hydrogen.
The concentration of hydrogen ion in solution is expressed in terms of pH The pH of a solution is defined
as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter. pH =-log[H+]
Importance of pH in Everyday Life:-
(i) Our body works within the pH range 7.0 to 7.8. When ph of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid
rain.
(ii) HCl produces in our stomach which helps in the digestion of food. Sometime stomach produces too
much acid and this causes pain and irritation (acidity). To get rid of this pain people use antacids:-
Magnesium hydroxide ( Milk of magnesia).
(iii) Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth Enamel made up of calcium
phosphate is the hardest substance in the body.
(iv) Bee sting have Formic acid ( Methanoic acid) which causes pain and irritation. Use of mild base (
Baking soda) gives relief.
For water neutral solutions, pH =7; For acidic solutions, pH <7; For basic solutions, pH >7
8) Some Important Chemical Compounds:
(a) Common Salt (NaCl)
Sodium chloride is known as common salt. Its main source is sea water. It also exists in the
form of rock sand is called rock salt.
Common salt is an important component of our food. It is also used for preparing sodium hydroxide,
baking soda, washing soda etc.
 (b) Sodium Hydroxide or Caustic Soda (NaOH)
It is prepared bypassing electricity through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride also known as brine
solution.
2NaCl (aq)+2 H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) +Cl2(g) +H2(g)
This process is known as chlor-alkali process.
(c) Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2)
Its chemical name is calcium oxy chloride. It is prepared by passing chlorine gas through dry slaked lime.
Ca (OH) 2+Cl2→CaOCl2+H2O
Uses –
1. For bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry and wood pulp in paper industry
2. For disinfecting drinking water.
(d) Baking Soda (NaHCO3)
Chemical name is Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
It is prepared bypassing CO2gas through brine solution saturated with ammonia. NaCl + H2O
+CO2+NH3→ NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Properties:
1. It is white crystalline solid and sparingly soluble in water at room temperature.
2. On heating it decomposes to give sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.
3. It reacts with acids to give carbon dioxide gas.
4. It aqueous solution is weak alkaline due to hydrolysis.
Uses:
1. It is used in soda –acid fire extinguisher.
2. It acts as mild antiseptic and antacid.
3. It is used as a component of baking powder .In addition to sodium hydrogen carbonate baking soda
contains tartaric acid.
(e) Washing Soda (Na2CO3.10 H2O)
Chemical name is sodium carbonate deca hydrate.
It is prepared by heating baking soda. Recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing soda.
2NaHCO3→ Na2CO3+H2O +CO2
Na2CO3+10 H2O →Na2CO3. 10 H2O
Uses:
1.It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
2.It is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
3.It can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
f) Plaster of Paris (CaSO4.1/2H2O)
Its chemical name is calcium sulphate hemi hydrates. It is obtained by heating Gypsum upto373K.
CaSO4.2H2O → CaSO4.1/2H2O +11/2H2O
On treatment with water it is again converted into gypsum and sets as a hard mass.
CaSO4.1/2H2O+11/2H2O→ CaSO4.2H2O
Uses:-
1. It is used by doctors for setting fractured bones.
2. It is used for making statues, models and other decorative materials.

CHAPTER 3: METALS AND NON–METALS

Elements are classified broadly into two categories on the basis of properties: Metals, Iron, Zinc, Copper,
Aluminum etc.
Non – metals: Chlorine, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur etc.
A part from metals and non-metals some elements show properties of both metals and non – metals,
e.g. Silicon, Arsenic, Germanium .They are called metalloids
• Gold is the most ductile metal.
• Silver and copper are the best conductor of heat.
• Mercury is a metals which is present in liquid state.
• Lithium, sodium and potassium can easily cut with a knife.
 Comparison of Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals:-

1 Reaction Metal + Oxygen→Metal oxide Non-metal + Oxygen →

with 4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s) Non-metal oxide
Oxygen 4Al(s)+3O2(g) →2Al2O3 C +O2→ CO2
Metals form basic oxides S+O2→ SO2
Amphoteric Zn and Al form amphoteric oxides Non-metals form acidic oxides.
oxides (they show the properties of both CO and H2O are neutral oxides(they
acidic and basic oxides) are neither acidic nor basic in nature)
Non- metal oxides are soluble in
water. They dissolve in water to
form acids
SO2+H2O →H2SO3
2 Reaction Non-metals do not react
Metals react with water to form metal
with water oxides or metal hydroxide and H2 gas is
with water, steam to evolve hydrogen
released. gas. Because Non-metals cannot give
2Na(s)+2H2O(l) →2NaOH+H2(g)+heat electrons to hydrogen in water so that
it can be released as H2 gas.
3 Reaction Metal + Acid→Metal salt + Hydrogen Non-metals do not react with acids to
with dilute 2Na(s)+H2SO4→ Na2SO4(aq) +H2(g) release H2 gas.
Acids Metal + HNO3→ H2 gas is not released. Reason- Non-metals cannot lose
Reason-HNO3 is strong oxidizing agent electrons and give It to Hydrogen ions
Mn +2HNO3→Mn(NO3)2+ H2H2gas from of acids so that the gas is released.
HNO3
4 Reaction When metals react with salt When non-metals react
with salt solution, more reactive metal will with salt solution, more reactive
solutions displace a less reactive metal from its non-metal will displace a less
salt solution. reactive non-metal from its salt
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s)→ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) solution.
2NaBr(aq) +Cl2(g)→
2NaCl(aq)+Br2(aq)
5 Reaction Metal + Chlorine → Metal Chloride Non-metal + Chlorine
with Ionic bond is formed. Therefore Ionic →Non-metal Chloride covalent bond
Chlorine compound is formed. Therefore covalent
compound.
FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE (IONIC COMPOUND)
Q. Show the formation of Magnesium Chloride by the transfer of electron.

Properties of ionic compounds

1. Physical nature: solid and hard due to strong force of attraction. (generally brittle)

2. Melting point and boiling point: have high M.P and B.P, as large amount of heat energy is
required to break strong ionic attraction.
3. Solubility: soluble in water and insoluble in kerosene and petrol.
4. Conduction of electricity: (a) ionic compounds in solid state are does not conduct electricity.
Reason—Ions cannot move due to rigid solid structure.
(b)Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten state.
Reason--Ions can move freely since the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions are overcome due to heat.
 CHAPTER 4 : Carbon and its compounds
Important terms:
Versatility of carbon: Carbon is non-metal and occurs in free as well combined state in nature.
Free state: Diamond, graphite and coal.
Combined state: 1. Solid state: All animals and plants products.
2. Liquid state: Petroleum and vegetable oil.
3. Gaseous state: CO2 in air, Methane, Ethane.
Q.Carbon can not form C4+ and C4- .Why?
Carbon has 4 valance electrons. It cannot form an anion C4- by gain of electrons. It cannot forma action
C4+ by loss of electrons. It can share its valence electrons with other carbon atoms or other Atoms of
non-metals to forms covalent bonding.
Compounds of carbon: Simplest compounds of carbon are hydro carbons.
Hydrocarbons: -Compounds which are consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Simplest hydro
carbon is methane.
Classification of hydro carbon:
SATURATED HYDRO CARBON UNSATURATED HYDRO CARBON

ALKENES ALKENES ANDALKYNES

Gen. formula (CnH2n+2) Alkenes (CnH2n) & alkynes. (CnH2n-2)

Compounds having single bond(C-C) Compounds having double and triple

bonds.(C=C) (C≡C)
e.g. Ethane (C2H6) e.g. Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2

Isomerism:-The phenomenon of existence of compounds in two or more forms with same molecular
formula but different structure.
Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the
following nature of carbon,

• Catenation
• Tetravalent nature.
(i) Catenation: The self linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through covalent bonds to form
long straight, branched and rings of different sizes are called Catenation.
This property is due to

• The small size of the carbon atom.

• The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms of other
elements.
Tetravalent Nature: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon
or some other hetero atoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple bond.
Properties of Homologous Series: A series of compounds of same functional group in which two
consecutive members are differ by CH2 group in molecular formula and by 14 in molecular
mass,Follow same general formula and chemical properties.
Covalent bond:-The bond which is formed by sharing of electrons is called covalent bond.
Covalent compounds:- The compound which is formed by covalent bond is called Covalent compound.
 CHAPTER-5: PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Dobereiner's Triads:- Dobereiner stated in his law of triads that the arithmetic mean of the atomic
masses of the first and third element in a triad would be approximately equal to the atomic mass of the
second element in that triad.

Drawback of Dobereiner's Triads:-

Dobereiner could identify only three triads. He was not able to prepare triads of all the known elements. All
the known elements could not be arranged in the form of triads.
Newland’s Law of Octaves:- The law of octaves states that “Every eight element has similar properties when
the eighth element, when the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses.
Limitations of Newlands' law of octaves:- The major limitations of Newlands' law of octaves were : (i) It
was applicable to only lighter elements having atomic masses upto 40 u, i.e., upto calcium ..... (ii) It was assumed
that only 63 elements existed in nature and no new elements would be discovered in the future.
Mandeleev’s Periodic Table:-
Mandeleev’s Periodic law:- “Properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic mass.”
ACHIEVEMENTS OF MENDELEEV PERIODIC TABLE:
1. It is systematic study of elements
2. It is based on similarity in chemical properties
3. He left some gaps for newly invented elements including Noble gases.
LIMITATIONS OF MENDELEEV, PERIODIC TABLE:
1. Position of hydrogen was not assigned correctly.
2. No separate position has been given to isotopes of an element.
3. Some element having higher atomic mass are placed before the elements with lower atomic mass.
MODERN PERIODICTABLE:
Modern Periodic law:- “Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic
number.”
Moseley modified the Mendeleev’s periodic table by taking atomic number as the fundamental property instead
of atomic mass.
Modern periodic table consists of 18 vertical columns known as group, and 7 horizontal rows known as
periods.
 Chapter 6: LIFE PEOCESSES Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
1)food is synthesis Taken directly or
Autotrophic Nutrition from simple inorganic indirectly from
It is a kind of nutrition in which inorganic materials like CO2, water etc are utilized materials,CO2 and autotrophs.
to prepare organic food by the process of photosynthesis. Example – Green plants water
Heterotrophic Nutrition 2)chlorophyll is No pigment required
• Organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize their own food. necessary Can be prepared all
They depend on autotrophs 3)prepared during times.
• Example – Animals, Fungi day time Eg- all animals and
• Types:Holozoic Nutrition ,Saprophytic Nutrition,Parasitic Nutrition 4)eg-allgreen fungi
Equation for photosynthesis plants,some bacteria.
6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O (In the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll)
Main Events Of Photosynthesis
• Absorption of light energy by photosynthesis
• Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting (breaking)
of water into hydrogen and oxygen
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates
Stomata
Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves
Functions of Stomata
• Exchange of gases O2/CO2
• Loses a large amount of water (water vapour) during transpiration
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:

FUNCTIONS OF GLANDS AND DIGESTIVE JUICES: HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. starch is converted into glucose by saliva (Salivary amylase) 2.Gastric juices:
FUNCTIONS OF SMALL INTESTINE AND VILLI:
1. Small intestine – it is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats,
2. intestinal enzyme converts carbohydrates into glucose,
Fats in fatty acid + glycerol and Proteins into amino acids
3. It has villi (finger projection) which help in the absorption of food into
blood FUNCTION OF BILE JUICE: Bile salts break LARGE FAT PARTICLES into
smaller particles for enzyme action.
RESPIRATION IN HUMANS

Q DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC &ANAEROBIC

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1) Occurs in the 1) Occurs in the absence of
presenceof oxygen oxygen
2) occurs in mitochondria 2) Occurs in Cytoplasm
3)End products are water 3) End products and lactic
Respiration In Plants and carbon di oxide acid and alcohol
1) Gaseous exchange occurs through: 4) more amount of energy 4) Less amount of energy is
2) Stomata in leaves released released
3) Lenticels in stem
4) General surface of the root
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS

Blood pressure-The force that blood exerts

against the wall of a vessel is called blood
pressure
Systolic pressure diastolic pressure
Ventricle contract Ventricle relax
120 mm of Hg 80 mm of Hg
Hypertension hypotension
Systolic range increase diastolic decrease

1. Double Circulation: Blood travels twice through the heart in one complete cycle of the body
2.Direction of blood flow through Human Heart
Pulmonary Circulation – Blood moves from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
Systemic Circulation – Blood moves from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD:
A}BLOOD CELLS: Differentiate between
• RBC (Red Blood Cells) – It carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
BLOOD LYMPH
• WBC (White Blood Cells) – It provides body defense
• Blood Platelets – it helps in blood clotting Red coloured yellow coloured
B} Plasma – Yellow colored fluid with 90% water and 10% organic substances RBC present RBC absent
Lymph:It is a yellowish fluid which escapes from the blood capillaries ARTERIES VEINS
into the intercellular spaces It contains less proteins than blood
Thick walled thin walled
Transportation in Plants
i) Xylem moves water and minerals obtained from soil Valve absent valve present
ii)Phloem transports food from leaves to other plant parts

Excretion System in Human Beings:

FUNCTION OF EACH PART OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

• The Kidneys – The excretory organ

• The ureters – The ducts which drain out urine from the kidneys
• The urinary bladder – The urinary reservoir
• The urethra – The channel to the exterior
•
Excretion: Excretion is a process by which nitrogenous wastes are removed from our body.
Excretory wastes:Urea ,uric acid ,ammonia, sweat .
Each kidney contains many filtration units called as nephrons.
Functions of Nephron
• Excretion of nitrogenous wastes STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON
• To maintain the water and ionic balance
b) Process of urine formation

Excretion in Plants
1) Oxygen and carbon dioxide is diffused through stomata
2)Excess water is removed by transpiration
3)Plants can also lose some of their old parts like old
4)leaves and bark of trees
 CHAPTER -8 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to themselves.
Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth. Q1. We are similar to our parents but not exactly copy to them.
Why? We are not exactly copy of our parents because copying of DNAs is not a foolproof exercise, even minute
changes bring about variation in the blue print of the off springs. Importance of variations-Variations help the
species to withstand drastic environmental changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time. Q2.Show different types of Asexual Reproduction with example.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Binary Amoeba
Fission

ASEXUAL Multiple Plasmodium

REPRODUCTION

Fragmentation Spirogyra

Regeneration Planaria

Yeast, Hydra
Budding

Spore formation Rhizopus

Vegetative Bryophyllum
Propagation

Sexual Reproduction in Plants-

Pollination-The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is pollination.
Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grain from the Anther to the stigma of another

flower or another flower of a different plant of the same

species.
Fertilization-Fertilization is the process of fusion of male
and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual
reproduction. Post fertilization changes-
Ovary- develops into Fruit Ovule- develops into seed
Zygote- develops into Embryo
 Parts of Embryo Plumule -future shoot Redicle- future root

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMAN

Q.3 Draw well labeled diagram of male reproductive system in human and write the functions of its different
parts.

Testes: A pair of testes are situated in scrotum that lie outside the abdominal cavity. Testes produce sperms and
hormone, Testosterone hormone. Testosterone brings about changes in appearance of boys at the time of puberty.
Vas deferens: From each testis, a duct arises which is known as vas deferens which unites with a tube coming from
urinary bladder. It brings sperms from testis.
Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a common tube called urethra. .
Accessory Glands: Glands like prostate and seminal vesicles and Cowper’s gland add their secretions which make
transport of sperms easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.

Q.3 Draw well labeled diagram of female reproductive system in human and write the functions of its different parts.
Parts of Female reproductive system
Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney. Ovaries produce female gamete
(ovum or egg) and secrete female hormones (estrogen and progesterone). One egg is produced every month
alternately by one of the ovaries.
Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the ovary to womb/uterus through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube. It is
the site of fertilization in female body.
Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus. Developing foetus is attached
with its wall with the help of Placenta. Placenta acts as Nutritive, Respiratory, Excretory Organ of developing
Embryo.
Vagina: Uterus opens into the vagina
Q4. What happens when the egg is not fertilized?
The uterus prepare itself to receive the fertilized egg. It grows thick, muscular and rich in blood and tissues.
When the egg is not fertilized, the thick uterus lining breaks down. The blood, tissues and the non-fertilized
egg come out of the vagina as menstruation.
Q5.What do you mean by STDs? Name any two STDs caused by bacteria and virus.
Reproductive Health:--A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be caused by bacteria for example;
syphilis, gonorrhea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can
be avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.
Q.6 Write about different methods of contraception.
Methods of contraception: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical. Mechanical methods: Use of
condoms ,Diaphragm, Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop Cchemical method-- Use of
spermicides, Oral contraceptive pills Surgical methods—Vasectomy, Tubectomy , Medical termination
of pregnancy (MTP)
 CHAPTER: 09- HERIDITY & EVOLUTION

Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from parents to offs prings

Mendel’s Experiment: Gregor Johann Mendel regarded as the ‘Father of Genetics’ performed his experiments
with garden peas (Pisum sativum) in the garden behind his monastery.Mendel selected Garden Pea plant for his
experiments because it is-easy to grow,has short life period and seven pairs of contrasting
characters. Mendel started his experiment on the pea plants. He conducted first monohybrid and then dihybrid
crosses.

Monohybrid Cross: The cross in which Mendel showed

transmission of single pair of contrasting character is
monohybrid cross and observed inheritance of dominant and
recessive characters Conclusion: Phenotypic ratio—Tall :
Dwarf 3 : 1
Genotype ratio—Pure Tall : Hybrid Tall Pure Dwarf

1:2:1

Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting

characters are crossed then only one character expresses
itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character and the character/factor which cannot express
itself is called the recessive character.

Dihybrid Cross: Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters,
which is called dihybrid cross.This experiment
shows that allel pairof gene get segregated
independently during gamete formation.

Conclusion: Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1

Round and yellow seeds-9

Round and green seeds-3.

Wrinkled and yellow seeds-3.

Wrinkled and green seeds-1. How is the sex of a newborn individual determined?
It is the process by which sex of a newborn can be determined. Autosomes: Those chromosomes which do not play
any role in sex determinations chromosomes: Those chromosomes which play a role in determining sex of the
newborn.

If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have XX
chromosome and it will be female. If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome
then the baby will have XY chromosomes and it will be male.
CHAPTER: 15- : OUR ENVIRONMENT
 Characteristics of food chain

• There is a unidirectional flow of energy from producers to consumers.

• There are generally 3 to 4 trophic levels.
• It is always straight
• Organism can occupy different trophic levels in different food chain.
A 10 percent law is followed in energy transfer which was given by
Raymond Lindeman. This law states that “only 10 percent of energy
is transferred from one trophic level to another trophic level”. The
remaining 90 percent will be used by the present trophic level in
different processes. Therefore, there are usually 3-4 trophic levels in a food chain.

Biological Magnification
The concentration of harmful substances increases with every trophic level. This is known as Biomagnification.
Addition of pesticides in one trophic level increases the concentration of pesticides in other trophic level.

(a) forest food chain (b) in grassland (c) in a pond

Food web
• Is formed by interconnections of different food chains.
• Is a graphical representation of ‘Who eats Whom’ in an ecosystem.

Consequences of Ozone Depletion

Exposure of UV rays causes skin cancer. UV-rays damage the eyes also. It affects humans, plants as well as
animals.
Garbage Disposal
Waste materials are known as garbage. There are two types garbage - Biodegradable Garbage and Non-
biodegradable Garbage.
Garbage that can be completely decomposed by the microorganism are called Biodegradable Garbage., such
as fruit and vegetable peel, sewage.
Substances which cannot be decomposed through microorganisms are known as Non-biodegradable
Garbage, For Example, Plastic, Glass, Pesticide, Metals, Radioactive Elements etc.
Methods of Waste Management
Waste disposal is a very important part of day to day life. There are different methods of waste disposal
management- sewage treatment plant, biogas plant, land fillings, recycling, incineration, composting and reuse.
 CHAPTER: 10- LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Reflection of light:-
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of
light in the same medium on striking the surface of any
object

LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT:-

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of (ii)The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the
reflection ( i=r ) point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the
same plane.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS:-
S.NO MIRROR DIAGRAM

1 CONCAVE (CONVERGING ) :- Reflecting surface

is curved inwards

Note:- Focal length f is negative

2 CONVEX (DIVERGING):- Reflecting surface is

curved outwards

Note:- Focal length f is positive

Note:- f = R/2

RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL MIRRORS:-

1 Ray incident on mirror parallel to principal axis

Passes (concave) or appear to pass (convex)

through focus.

2 A ray incident through the principal focus

(concave mirror) or directed towards the
principal focus (convex mirror), after reflection,
will emerge parallel to the principal axis.

3 A ray passing through the centre of curvature is

reflected back along the same path.

4 A ray incident obliquely to the pole of the

mirror is reflected obliquely
 FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE MIRROR:-
S.no. Position of object Position of image Nature and size Diagram

1 Object is at infinity At focus real and inverted, much smaller

than the object (or highly
diminished) m < 1 and negative

2 Object is beyond Between F and C real and inverted and

the centre of smaller than the object (or
curvature(C) diminished)

m < 1 and negative

3 Object is at the At C real and inverted, same

centre of size as the object
curvature(C)
m = -1

4 Object is in Beyond C real and inverted, larger

between focus(F) than the object or
and centre of magnified
curvature(C)
m > 1 and negative

5 Object is at the At infinity Real and inverted, highly

focus(F). magnified (or highly
enlarged)

m > 1 and negative

6 Object is in Behind the Virtual, erect and enlarged

between P and F mirror
m > 1 and positive

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX MIRROR:-

S.no. Position of object Position of image Nature and size Diagram
1 At infinity At focus Virtual, erect and
much smaller than
the object (or
highly diminished)
m < 1 and positive

2 Between P and Behind the mirror, Virtual, erect and

infinity Between P and F smaller than the
object (diminished)
m < 1 and positive

MIRROR FORMULA:- 1/f = 1/u + 1/v MAGNIFICATION:- m = height of the image / height of the object
= h2/h1 = - v/u
 REFRACTION OF LIGHT :- The change in path of light
when it goes from one medium to another medium.

LAWS OF REFRACTION:-

(i)The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the
interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given
colour and for the given pair of media. This is also
known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Sin i / sin r = Constant

REFRACTIVE INDEX: - The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the
speed of light in the medium. It is represented by n. So n = c/v

Relative refractive index :- 1 n 2 = n2 /n1 and 2 n 1 = n1 /n2 So 1 n 2 = 1 / 2n1

Note:- The medium with greater refractive index is referred as optically denser medium and vice-versa.

REFRACTIONS THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB:-

On passing through a rectangular glass slab, a ray of light

suffers two refractions, one while going from air to glass and
the other while going from glass to air. Light emerges from
rectangular slab in a direction parallel to that in which it
entered the glass slab. However the final emergent ray is
slightly shifted sideways from the direction of original
incident ray by a distance x called lateral shift.

SPHERICAL LENSES:- A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical, forms a
lens.

S.NO. LENS DIAGRAM

1 CONVEX (CONVERGING ) LENS:- It is thicker at

the middle as compared to the edges.

Note:- Focal length f is positive

2 CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENS:- It is thicker at the

edges than at the middle.

Note:- Focal length f is negative

 RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL LENSES:-
1 Ray incident on lens parallel to principal axis

Passes (convex) through F2 or appear to

diverge (concave) through F1

2 A ray of light passing through F1 (convex) or

appear to pass through F2 (concave) after
refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal
axis.

3 A ray of light passing through the optical

centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS

S.no Position of Position of image Nature and size Diagram

. object

1 Object is at At focus F2 real and inverted, much

infinity smaller than the object (or
highly diminished)
m < 1 and negative

2 Object is beyond Between F2 and 2F2 real and inverted and

2F1 smaller than the object (or
diminished) m < 1 and
negative

3 Object is at 2 F1 At 2F2 real and inverted, same

size as the object
m = -1

4 Object is in Between F2 and 2F2 real and inverted,

between 2F1 and larger than the object
F1 or magnified

m > 1 and negative

5 Object is at F1 At infinity Real and inverted,
highly magnified (or
highly enlarged)

m >1 and negative

6 Object is in Same side of Virtual, erect and

between O and F1 object enlarged
m >1 and positive
 FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS:-
S.no. Position of Position of image Nature and size Diagram
object

1 At infinity At F1 Virtual, erect and

much smaller than
the object (or
highly diminished)
m < 1 and positive

2 Between O and Between O and F1 Virtual, erect and

infinity smaller than the
object
(diminished)
m < 1 and positive

LENS FORMULA:- 1/f = 1/v – 1/u MAGNIFICATION - m = v/u

POWER OF A LENS :- The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter
P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by….. P = 1/f
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’(D). Thus, 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
Q. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m.
Ans:- Power of the lens, P = 1 / f = 1 / -2 = - 0.5 D

CHAPTER: 11 - THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM:-

Prism is a transparent optical element, which must have at least two
faces with an angle between them. The angle between its two lateral
faces is called the angle of the prism. The angle between initial
direction of incident ray and final emergent ray is called angle of
deviation.
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM :-The phenomena
of splitting of white light through glass prism into it seven
component colours (VIBGYOR). The cause of dispersion is
the dependence of angle of deviation on colour(wavelength) of light.

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION:- Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial object caused by
the refraction of light rays as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere.
Why do stars Due to atmospheric refraction stars twinkle. Stars are
Q1 twinkle, but very far away from the earth. Hence, they are
planets do not? considered as point sources of light. When the light
coming from stars enters the earth’s atmosphere, it
gets refracted at different levels because of the variation
in the air density at different levels of the atmosphere.
Planets do not twinkle because these are nearer to
earth and act as extended body so canbe assumed as
made up of large number of point objects. Thus
overall effect is nullified.
Q2. ADVANCE SUNRISE The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the
AND DELAYED actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual
SUNSET sunset because of atmospheric refraction. The time
difference between actual sunset and the apparent
sunset is about 2 minutes. The apparent flattening of
the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the
same phenomenon
Q3. Sky appears as Due to scattering of sunlight by tiny atmospheric Amount of scattering is inversely
blues from particles sky appears as blue because light with proportional to the forth power of
earth’s surface shorter wavelength scatters more. For wavelength of light
but as dark to an an astronaut there is no atmosphere for scattering.
astronaut. Why?

COLOUR OF THE Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through
SUN AND thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s
Q4. SURROUNDIG AT atmosphere while light from the Sun overhead would
SUNRISE AND travel relatively shorter distance. Near the horizon,
SUNSET:
most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are
scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light
that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths. This
gives rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun.

TYNDALL EFFECT: - The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These particles include
smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine
particles, the path of the beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles.
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.

CHAPTER: 12- ELECTRICITY

► Electric current: - The rate of flow of chare through a conductor is known as electric current.
I = Q /t (I – current Q – quantity of charge t – time) The unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).

The unit of current is ampere (A). 1ampere = 1 Coulomb/ 1 second. (1 Coulomb= 6.25X 1018 electrons)
The device which causes the flow of electrons through a conductor is called a cell.
Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. Electric current flows from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal.
This is called conventional current. Electric Current is measured by an ammeter.
It is always connected in series in a circuit.
► Electric potential and Potential difference:
Potential difference between two points A and B of a conductor is the amount of work done to move a
unit positive charge from A to B.
Potential difference = V = W/Q. The unit of potential difference is volt (V).

One volt is the potential difference when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from
one point to the other. (1 VOLT= 1 JOULE / 1 COULOMB)
Potential difference is measured by a voltmeter. It is always connected in parallel across the two point
between which the potential difference is to be measured.
► Electric circuit: - is a continuous and closed path of an electric current.
► Ohm’s law:- According to Ohm’s law ‘The current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its ends provided its temperature remains constant.’
V α I or V= I R or V/I = R
Where R is a constant called resistance for a given metallic wire at a given temperature.
► Verification of Ohm’s law: -

Set up the circuit as shown in fig First use one cell

and note the current (I) in the ammeter and the
potential difference (V) in the voltmeter across the
nichrome wire XY. Repeat by using two cells,
three cells and four cells and note the readings in
the ammeter and voltmeter. Then plot a graph
between the current (I) and potential difference
(V). The graph will be a straight line.
This shows that V α I or R= V/I where R is
a constant called resistance of the conductor.
Resistance:-The opposition offered by the
conductor to the flow of current is known as 1 Ohm= 1 Volt/ 1Amp
resistance. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
Since I=V/R The current flowing through a resistor is
R= V/I
inversely proportional to the resistance. So, if the
resistance is doubled, then the current gets halved.
► Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends:-
The resistance of a conductor (i) is directly proportional to its Length (R α l ) (ii) is inversely proportional
to Area of cross section( R α 1/A) (iii) also depends upon nature of the material of the conductor
, R α ℓ /A or R = ρ l /A [ = 𝝅𝒓𝟐- Area of cross section]
Where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity of the material of the conductor. The unit
of resistivity is ohm meter (Ωm). Conductors like metals and alloys have low resistivity 10 -8 Ωm to 10-6
Ωm. Insulators like rubber, glass etc. have high resistivity 1012 Ωm to 1017 Ωm.
The resistivity is independent from the length and area of cross section of a conductor
► Heating effect of electric current: - When electric current passes through a conductor and
conductor becomes hot this phenomenon is known as heating effect of current. It is used in Electric iron,
Electric heater, Immersion Rod & Electric Kettle etc.
If a current I flowing through a resistor R for time t. then H α I2 , H α R, & H α t or H= I2Rt this law is
also known as joules law of heating.

Q1. V-I graph for two wires A and B are shown in the figure. If both wires are of same length and
same thickness, which of the two is made of a material of high resistivity? Give justification for
your answer.

Ans. Greater than slope of V-I graph, greater will be the resistance of given metallic wire. In the given
graph, wire A has greater slope then B. Hence, wire A has greater resistance. For the wires of same length
and same thickness, resistance depends on the nature of material of the wire, i.e.

CHAPTER: 13- MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

MAGNETIC FIELD: -The space surrounding a magnet in which the force of attraction and repulsion is exerted is called
a magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES AND PROPERTIES: - The magnetic field lines are the lines drawn in a magnetic field along
which a north magnetic pole would move. These are also known as magnetic lines of forces.

1. The magnetic field lines are from north south pole outside the
magnet while these are from south to north pole inside the magnet
so magnetic field line is a closed and continuous curve.
2.The magnetic field lines are closer near the poles of a magnet
where the magnetic field is strong and farther apart where the
magnetic field is weak.
3.The magnetic field lines never intersect each other because in that
case there will be more than one direction of magnetic field at point
of intersection.
4.A uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel and equidistant
field lines.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR:-
The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor carrying current
are concentric circles whose centers lies on the wire. The magnitude
of magnetic field produced by a straight current carrying wire at a
point-(i)directly proportional to current passing in the wire.
(ii)inversely proportional to the distance of that point from the
wire.

RIGHT-HAND THUMB RULE: -

When a current-carrying straight conductor is holding in right hand
such that the thumb points towards the direction of current. Then
fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field
lines of the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A CIRCULAR LOOP:-

The strength of magnetic field produced by a circular coil carrying
current is directly proportional to both number of turns(n) and
current(I) but inversely proportional to its radius(r). At the center, all
the magnetic field lines are in the same direction due to which the
strength of magnetic field increase.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN A SOLENOID: - The insulated

copper wire wound on a cylindrical tube such that its length is greater
than its diameter is called a solenoid.
The strength of magnetic field produced by a carrying current
solenoid is directly proportional to….
(i)number of turns(n) (ii) strength of current(I) (iii) nature of core
material used in solenoid – use of soft iron as core in a solenoid
produces the strongest magnetism.
Electromagnet: - The strong magnetic field inside a current-carrying Electromagnet
solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece of magnetic material like
soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. The magnet thus formed
is called anelectromagnet.

FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:-

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a
force, except when it is placed parallel to the magnetic field. The force acting on a
current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is directly proportional to …… (i)current
through conductor (ii) length of conductor (iii) strength of magnetic field
Note:- (i) The magnitude of force is maximum when conductor is placed
perpendicular to the magnetic field. (ii) The direction of this force is reversed if the
direction of current or magnetic field is reversed and it is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:- It does state that if index finger, middle finger and
thumb of left hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other in such a way
that index finger points towards magnetic field, middle finger points towards current
then thumb will point towards the direction of force or motion of conductor.

ELECTRIC MOTOR:
An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. Electric motor is used as an important component in
electric fans, refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, computers, MP3
players etc.
Principle: The working principle of an electric motor is based on the magnetic
effect of current. A current-carrying loop experiences a force and rotates
when placed in a magnetic field. The direction of rotation of the loop is given
by the “Fleming’s left- hand rule”. Note:- A device that reverses the direction
of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator. In electric
motors, the split ring acts as a commutator.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: -
The production of electricity from magnetism is called Electromagnetic
induction. When a straight wire is made to move rapidly between the poles of
magnet or the magnetic field is made to vary then a potential difference is
developed across the conductor and an electric current is induced in the
conductor wire.

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE:- The direction of this induced current is given
by Fleming’s right hand rule. It does state that if index finger, middle finger
and thumb of right hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other in
such a way that index finger points towards magnetic field, thumb points
towards the direction of force or motion of conductor then middle finger will
point towards direction of induced current.