GENERAL

CHEMISTRY&
TERMINOLOGY

Mr. YILMAZ S.
Associate Professor
Department of
Science Education
 Course Content or Weekly Distribution
1 Introduction to course, Matter and Its Classification
2 Chemical Reactions
3 Chemical Stoichiometry
4 Solutions
5 Solubility
6 Colloidal Mixtures and Colligative Properties
7 Reaction in Aqueous Solutions
8 Precipitation Reactions
9 Acid-Base (Neutralization) Reactions
10 Titrations
11 Redox reactions
12 Balancing Redox Reactions
13 Gases
14 Ideal Gases
15 Gas Mixtures
Credits :3 hours (Lecture: 1 Practice:1 Lab:
1
Course assessment:
Mid term exam (20%)
Practice (20%)
Lab work (20%)
Final exam (40%)
Recommended Resources

1- Petrucci R H. General chemistry,

11- edition, Pearson, 2017

2- Raymond Chang, Chemistry,

McGrawHill, 2010, 10 edition
 SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS
Mass describes a quantity of matter.
Weight measures the force of gravity on an object;
weight is related to gravity force, but different from mass.
Volume has the units of (length)3 . So in SI system,
volume has units of m3 . But again, in chemistry
laboratories, smaller volumes are used. Hence, volume is
often denoted in cm3 or dm3 units. A common unit, litre (L)
which is not an SI unit, is used for measurement of volume
of liquids. 1 L = 1000 mL , 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit
volume. d=m/v ----Kg/m3 or g/cm3
 MATTER AND ITS
PROPERTIES
Matter is anything that occupies
space and displays the properties of
mass and possesses inertia
Composition of matter: the parts or
components of a sample of matter and
their relative proportions. Example H2O
and H2O2
 MATTER PROPERTIES
Properties are qualities or attributes that we can
use distinguish one sample of matter from others
Properties used to describe matter can be
classified as extensive or intensive properties.
Intensive Properties, depend on the type of
matter in a sample, not the amount of matter.
Hardness, color, conductivity, reactivity
Extensive Properties depend on the amount of
matter in a sample. Mass, Volume
 Matter can undergo two types of
changes: Physical and Chemical
Physical
changes are Chemical changes or
changes in reactions are changes in
composition of matter; all
physical form reactions are examples of
without changing chemical change
the substance’s H2 + ½ O2 ----- H2O
composition Na +H2O -- NaOH + ½ H2
 EXAMPLES

Salty water Freezing water

Sand and stone mixture Melting iron
Oil and water mixture Melting ice
Alcohol and water solution Cooking food
Burning wood Rusting iron
Wood dust and sand
 STATES OF MATTER
There are three states of matter; Solids, Liquids,
Gases
Solid ⇀heat ⇀ Liquid Melting
Liquid ↽cool ↽ Solid Freezing
Liquid ⇀heat ⇀ Gas Vaporization
Evaporation

Gas ↽cool ↽ Liquid Condensation

Solid ⇀heat ⇀ Gas Sublimation
Gas ↽cool ↽ Solid Deposition
 Physical Changes
• Sublimation is a physical
change. The shape of the
matter changes during
sublimation, but the
composition does not change.
• Iodine sublimes at room
temperature

Iodine
 Exercises about the changes of matters
State whether the following properties of matter are
physical or chemical ?
(a)An iron nail is attracted to a magnet.
(b) A piece of paper spontaneously ignites when its
temperature reaches 231 °C.
(c)A bronze statue develops a green coating (patina)
over time.
(d)A block of wood floats on water

What type of change in followings is physical or

chemical?
(e)sugar from a sand/sugar mixture
(f)iron from iron oxide (rust)
(g)pure water from seawater
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Substance= form of a matter consisting of a great number of elementary particles: atoms,

ions and molecules
 Elements

• Any substance that contains only one

kind of an atom is known as an element.
• Each element is represented by a
unique symbol. The notation for each
element can be found on the periodic
table of elements.
• The elements can be divided into some
categories: metals, nonmetals,
semimetals, noble gases, transition
metals, and lanthanide-actinide elements
 Compounds
Elements combine to form chemical
compounds that are often divided into two
categories.

Metals often react with nonmetals to form ionic

compounds. These compounds are
composed of positive and negative ions
formed by adding or subtracting electrons from
neutral atoms and molecules.
Nonmetals combine with each other to
form covalent compounds, which exist as
neutral molecules.
C + O2 ------ CO2
 Mixtures
Mixtures of substances can be classified as
homogeneous or heterogeneous
Homogeneous mixture – solution
Alcohol and water
Heterogeneous – sand and water
Oil and water
In heterogeneous mixtures the components separate
into distinct regions. for example; sand and water
Classify the following substances as pure
substances or mixtures:
salt water
helium
air
dust
steel
sodium hydroxide
muddy water
hydrochloric acid
cobalt (II) chloride
NAMING TYPE-I
COMPOUNDS
Compounds containing simple anions:
NaBr = Sodium bromide;
CaF2 = Calcium fluoride;
Al2O3 = Aluminum oxide;
Mg3N2 = Magnesium nitride
KI = Potassium iodide
BaCl2 = Barium chloride
Li2S = Lithium sulfide
NAMING TYPE-II
COMPOUNDS
Compounds containing polyatomic ions:
CaSO4 = Calcium sulfate;
Na2CO3 = Sodium carbonate
NaHCO3 = Sodium hydrogen carbonate;
KNO3 = Potassium nitrate
Ca3(PO4)2 = Calcium phosphate
KH2PO4 = Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
K2HPO4 = Potassium hydrogen phosphate
POLYATOMIC IONS (3)
ClO– = Hypochlorite ion
ClO2– = Chlorite ion
ClO3– = Chlorate ion
ClO4– = Perchlorate ion
BrO– = Hypobromite ion
BrO2– = Bromite ion
BrO3– = Bromate ion
BrO4– = Perbromate ion
POLYATOMIC IONS (4)
IO– = Hypoiodite
IO2– = Iodite
IO3– = Iodate
IO4– = Periodate
OH– = Hydroxide
CN– = Cyanide ion
NH4+ = Ammonium ion
TYPE-II COMPOUNDS
Naming system uses Roman numerals to indicate the charge on cation.
Examples:

FeCl2 = Iron(II) chloride; (contains Fe2+)

FeCl3 = Iron(III) chloride; (contains Fe3+)
CrO = Chromium(II) oxide; (contains Cr2+)
Cr2O3 = Chromium(III) oxide; (contains Cr3+)
CuS = Copper(II) sulfide; (contains Cu2+)
Cu2S = Copper(I) sulfide; (contains Cu+)
TYPE-II COMPOUNDS
Compounds containing polyatomic ions – same
system of nomenclature:
Co(NO3)2 = Cobalt(II) nitrate; (contains Co2+)
Co(NO3)3 = Cobalt(III) nitrate; (contains Co3+)
FeSO4 = Iron(II) sulfate; (contains Fe2+)
Fe2(SO4)3 = Iron(III) sulfate; (contains Fe3+)
Pb(C2H3O2)2 = Lead(II) acetate; (contains Pb2+)
Pb(C2H3O2)4 = Lead(IV) acetate; (contains Pb4+)
 TYPE III COMPOUNDS
Examples:
N2O = Dinitrogen monoxide
NO = Nitrogen monoxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
N2O3 = Dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 = Dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 = Dinitrogen pentoxide

(prefix mono not used for the first element)

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE
#6
(a) NF3 = Nitrogen trifluoride
(b) PCl5 = Phosphorus pentachloride
(c) SO2 = Sulfur dioxide
(d) SF6 = Sulfur hexafluoride
(e) Cl2O7 = Dichloride heptoxide
(f) P4O10 = Tetraphosphorus decoxide
ACIDS NOMENCLATURE
Acids:
compounds that produce hydrogen ion (H +)

Types of acids
1. Binary acids – that do not contain oxygen;
2. Oxo-acids – one that contains O-atoms
 NAMING BINARY ACIDS
(Acids without oxygen in the formula):

Hydro + first syllable of anion + ic acid

HF = hydrofluoric acid (weak)

HCl = hydrochloric acid (strong)
HBr = hydrobromic acid (strong)
HI = hydroiodic acid (very strong)
H2S = hydrosulfuric acid (weak)
HCN = hydrocyanic acid (very weak)
 NAMING OXOACIDS
Acids with oxygen in the formula:
Examples:
HNO3 – nitric acid (strong)
HNO2 – nitrous acid (weak)
H2SO4 – sulfuric acid (strong)
H2SO3 – sulfurous acid (weak)
H3PO4 – phosphoric acid (weak)
H3PO3 – phosphorous acid (very weak)
HC2H3O2 - acetic acid (weak)
MORE ON OXOACIDS

HClO – hypochlorous acid (very weak)

HClO2 – chlorous acid (weak)
HClO3 – chloric acid (moderate)
HClO4 – perchloric acid (very strong)
HBrO4 – perbromic acid (strong)
HIO4 – periodic acid (strong)
CHAPTER 2-3

Chemical Reactions and

Stoichiometry
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
AND CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
A chemical reaction is a
process in which new
substances (products) are
produced from original
substances (reactants).

Reactants Products

H2 +O2 H 2O

2 H2 +O2 2 H 2O
Basis of balancing is that
atoms can neither created
nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction

Balanced equations;
C3H8 + 5O2 ------ 3CO2 + 4H2O
 PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) ------ H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
3PbO(s) + 2NH3(g) ------ 3Pb(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
TYPES OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
Chapter 3
Chemical Stoichiometry

2 mole H2 + 1 mole O2 ---------- 2 mole H2O

Consumed Produced

Stoichiometry includes all the quantitative

relationships among reactants and products

Amounts Amounts
calculations Grams Moles
Volumes
 STOICHIOMETRY
STRATEGY
A + B ------ C + D
known A unknown unknown unknown

By proportion

The conversion pathway is from the given known

substance to the unknown substance.
 STOICHIOMETRY
STRATEGY
A + B ------ C + D
unknown known B unknown unknown

By proportion

Ex 1: How many moles of CO2 are produced in the

combustion of 2.72 mole of triethylene glycol,
C6H14O4 ,in an excess of O2 ?

Solution
C6H14O4 + 15/2 O2 ------ 6CO2 + 7H2O
2.72 moles Answer
16.32 moles CO2
(Known)
 STOICHIOMETRY
STRATEGY
A + B ---> C + D
Known A Known B unknown unknown

1st step Determination of which substance limiting and excess reagent

2nd step Limiting reagent unknown unknown

By proportion
 Ex If 4 moles of Al and 9 moles of HBr
allowed to react, what is the maximum mole
number of H2 produced?
Al + HBr----AlBr3 + H2
Determination of Limiting reagent – Excess
reagent
3 times
By proportion

2Al + 6HBr------------ 2AlBr3 + 3H2

4 moles Al 9 moles HBr

In first experiment, assume Al is limiting In second experiment, assume HBr is

limiting
4 moles Al equals 12 moles HBr
9 moles HBr equals 3 moles Al
1 mole Al excess
 Determination of Limiting reagent – Excess
reagent In9 moles
second experiment, HBr is limiting
HBr equals 3 moles Al
1 mole Al excess

2Al + 6HBr------------ 2AlBr3 + 3H2

3 moles Al 9 moles HBr 1.5 times
By proportion

2 moles Al results 3 moles H2

3 moles Al results ?

Answer
The reactant that is completely consumed— 4.5 moles H2 are produced
the limiting reactant—determines the
quantities of products formed.
Ex 5 How many grams of water are produced
when 4 g of H2 and 8 g of O2 are reacted?
Answer: 9 g H2O
Limiting reagent – excess reagent
SOLUTIONS AND
COLLOIDS
 SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more
substances in a single phase.

Solution contains two

components; solvent and
solute
Solvent is the greatest
quantity
Solute is the less
quantity than solvent.
Solute is dissolved in
solvent.
An aqueous solution is a type of solution, where water acts as a solvent that dissolves
the solute.
 PREPARING
PREPARING SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
Preparing
solution:
Weigh out a
solid solute
and dissolve in
a given
quantity of
solvent.

*Unsaturated solution

A saturated solution contains the Table salt solubility in 100 g of water at

maximum quantity of solute that room temperature, is 36 gram
dissolves at that temperature.

The solubility of NaCl is 36/100 ml H2O

 CLASSIFICATIONS

Solutions can be classified as

saturated or unsaturated.
A saturated solution contains the
maximum quantity of solute that
dissolves at that temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less
than the maximum amount of
Substance Solubility in 100 g of water at room
temperature

solute that can dissolve at a Table salt

Sugar
36

190

particular temperature Ethyl alcohol infinitive

KNO3 33

NaNO3 88

K2Cr2O7 12

BaCl2·2H2O 37.5

(NH4)2SO4 76.4

AL(NO3)3·9H2O 67.3
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTIONS contain
more solute than is possible to be dissolved
Supersaturated solutions are unstable. The super
saturation is only temporary, and usually
accomplished in one of two ways:
1. Warm the solvent so that it will dissolve more,
then cool the solution
2. Evaporate some of the solvent carefully so that
the solute does not solidify and come out of
solution.
 SOLUBILITY

 The concentration
of the saturated
solution is called
the solubility of the
solute in the given
solvent.
 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTE
SOLUTE

The amount of solute in a solution is given by its

concentration.

moles solute
Molarity(M) =liters of solution
 PROBLEM

DISSOLVE
DISSOLVE 5.00
5.00 GG OF
OF NICL
NICL22 IN
IN ENOUGH
ENOUGH WATER
WATER
TO
TO MAKE
MAKE 250
250 ML
ML OFOF SOLUTION.
SOLUTION. CALCULATE
CALCULATE
THE
THE MOLARITY.
MOLARITY.
Step 1: Calculate moles of NiCl2
1 mol
5.00 g • = 0.0385 mol
129.6 g
Step 2: Calculate Molarity
0.0385 mol
= 0.154 M
0.250 L

[NiCl2] = 0.154 M
USING
USING MOLARITY
MOLARITY
What mass of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, is
required to make 250. mL of a 0.0500 M
solution?
moles = M•V
Step 1: Change mL to L.
250 mL * 1L/1000mL = 0.250 L
Step 2: Calculate.
Moles = (0.0500 mol/L) (0.250 L) = 0.0125 moles
Step 3: Convert moles to grams.

(0.0125 mol)(90.00 g/mol) = 1.13 g

 EXERCISES

How many grams of NaOH are required to

prepare 400. mL of 3.0 M NaOH solution?

1) 12 g
2) 48 g
3) 300 g
OTHER CONCENTRATION
UNITS

2- MOLALITY, m
mol solute
m of solution=
kilograms solvent
3- % by mass (w/w)
grams solute
% by mass = x100
grams solution
4- % by volume (v/v)
volume solute
% by volume = x100
volume solution
 CALCULATING
CONCENTRATIONS
Dissolve
Dissolve62.1
62.1gg(1.00
(1.00mol)
mol) of
of ethylene
ethyleneglycol
glycolin
in250.
250. ggof
of
HH22O.
O. Calculate
Calculatemm and
and%%of
of ethylene
ethyleneglycol
glycol(by
(bymass).
mass).
Calculate molality
Calculate molality

1.00 mol glycol

conc(molality)=  4.00 molal
0.250 kg 2
HO
Calculate weight %
62.1 g
%glycol = x 100%= 19.9%
62.1 g+ 250. g
 EXERCISES

A solution contains 15 g Na2CO3 and 235 g of

H2O, solvent? What is the mass % of the
solution? 6%
How many grams of NaCl are needed to prepare
250 g of a 10.0% (by mass) NaCl solution? Find
the molality (m) of this resulting solution? 1.9
molality
 SOLUTION FORMATION
If the solute-solvent attractions are stronger than the solute-solute or
solvent-solvent attractions, the dissolution reaction is exothermic and
releases energy when the solute and solvent are combined. The solute
is soluble in the solvent.
SOLUTION FORMATION
Solutes successfully dissolve into solvents when solute-
solvent bonds are stronger than either solute-solute bonds
or solvent-solvent bonds.
The solubility of a solute in a solvent by using the rule
“like dissolves like”, is determined. For example, table
salt (NaCl) dissolves easily into water (H2O) because both
molecules are polar.
Polar molecules or polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents
easily.
Nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
COLLOIDS
A colloid is a mixture that particles larger than If particles` size
particles smaller than has particles ranging 1000 nanometers in is 100
1 nanometers in between 1 and 1000 diameter (1 micrometer) micrometer) in
diameter nanometers in diameter diameter, see with
a naked eye

Sol- solid particles in liquid (hydrosol- in water)

emulsion- liquid in liquid
foam- gas particles in liquid or solid
aerosol- solid or liquid particles in gas
 COLLOIDAL MIXTURES
Every colloid consists of two parts: colloidal particles
and the dispersing medium.
Colloids are common in everyday life. Some examples
include whipped cream, mayonnaise, milk, butter, gelatin,
jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper.

Examples
Whipped cream is a colloid. It consists of a gas in a
liquid, so it is a foam. N2O gas in liquid
Any colloid consisting of a solid dispersed in a gas is
called a smoke. A liquid dispersed in a gas is referred to as
a fog.
In muddy water, for example, the colloidal particles are
tiny grains of sand, silt, and clay. The dispersing medium
is the water in which these particles are suspended.
 TYPES OF COLLOIDS

Dispersion medium
Colloidal particles
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

On adding a solute to a solvent, the properties of the

solvent are modified. These changes are called
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES.
Boiling point increases (Boiling Point Elevation)
Vapor pressure decreases
Melting point decreases (Freezing Point Depression)
Osmosis is possible (osmotic pressure)

They depend only on the NUMBER of solute

particles relative to solvent particles, not on the
KIND of solute particles.
 BOILING POINT ELEVATION AND
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
∆T = K•m•i
m = molality (for solution)
K = molal freezing point/boiling point constant (for solvent)
i = van’t Hoff factor = number of particles produced
per molecule/formula unit. (For solute)
Compound i factor
glycol 1 (For covalent and organic compounds)
NaCl 2 (For ionic compounds, i = the number
of ions present (both + and -)
CaCl2 3
Ca3(PO4)2 5
 BOILING POINT ELEVATION AND
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
K = molal freezing point/boiling point constant

Substance (solvent) Kf Substance (solvent) Kb

benzene 5.12 benzene 2.53
camphor 40. camphor 5.95
carbon carbon
30. 5.03
tetrachloride tetrachloride
ethyl ether 1.79 ethyl ether 2.02
water -1.86 water 0.52
EXERCISE

20 g NaCl in 100 g H2O ∆T = Kf•m•i

∆T =-1.86x3.4x2
mol= 20/58.5=0.34 ∆T =-12.65 Co
molality=0.34/0.1=3.4 Fp=0+(-12.65) Co
∆T = Kb x m x i
= 0.52•3.4•2
= 3.54
Bp= 100+3.54= 103.54 Co
CHANGE IN BOILING POINT

Dissolve 62.1 g of glycol (1.00 mol) in 250. g of water.

What is the boiling point of the solution?
Molar mass of glycol, C₂H₆O₂ = 62.1g/mole

Kb = 0.52 oC/molal for water (see Kb table).

Solution
1. Calculate solution molality = 4.00 m
2. ∆TBP = Kb • m • i
∆TBP = 0.52 oC/molal (4.00 molal) (1)
∆TBP = 2.08 oC
BP = 100 + 2.08 = 102.08 oC
CHANGE IN FREEZING
POINT
Ethylene glycol/water
Pure water solution

The freezing point of a solution is LOWER than that of

the pure solvent
 FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

Calculate the Freezing Point of a 4.00 molal

glycol/water solution.
Kf = 1.86 oC/molal (See Kf table)
Solution
∆TFP = Kf • m • i
= (1.86 oC/molal)(4.00 m)(1)
∆TFP = 7.44
FP = 0 – 7.44 = -7.44 oC
(because water normally freezes at 0)
 FREEZING POINT
DEPRESSION

At what temperature will a 5.4 molal solution of

NaCl freeze?
Solution
∆TFP = Kf • m • i

∆TFP = (1.86 oC/molal) • 5.4 m • 2

∆TFP = 20.1 oC

FP = 0 – 20.1 = -20.1 oC
 EXERCISE
A 7.85-g sample of a compound with the empirical formula C 5H4 is dissolved in
301 g of benzene, C6H6. The freezing point of the solution is 1.05°C below that of
pure benzene. What are the molar mass and molecular formula of this compound?
C10H8 (naphthalene)

Solving Strategy

freezing-point depression>>>molality>>>number of moles solute>>>molar mass

 VAPOR PRESSURE
DECREASES
The vapor pressure of its solution is always less than that of the pure
solvent.

20 g NaCl in 100 g H2O

Bp= 103.54 Co

If Boiling point increases

Solution boils late
If it boils late, less vapor occur
Less vapor molecules makes less pressure

Pressure solution< Pressure solvent

 OSMOTIC PRESSURE
π=MRT
π=osmotic pressure (The osmotic pressure, p, is expressed in atm)
M= the molarity of solution
R= the gas constant (0.0821 L . atm/K . mol)
T=the absolute temperature

Solvent molecules moves

from less dense part to
more dense part due to reach
equilibrium (osmosis)

Initial state >>>>>>>> Final state

CONCENTRATION AND
DENSITY RELATION
As concentration increases, density increases proportionally

Second is more denser than the first.

More denser one is concentrated one
 CONCENTRATION AND
DENSITY RELATION
As concentration increases, density increases proportionally

In same volume unit (must be in liter);

Molarity= (% by mass x density)/Molecular weight

Exercise
1.85 M
 EXERCISES
1

5.5 molar

21,6 gram

A solution contains 750 g of ethanol and 85.0 g of sucrose (180 g/mol). The
3 volume of the solution is 810.0 ml. Determine
(a) the density of the solution
(b) the percent of sucrose in the solution
(c) the molality of the solution
(d) the molarity of the solution
a) 1.03 g/ml b) % 10.2 c) 0.63 molal d) 0.583 molar
 SOLUBILITY AND
TEMPERATURE RELATION
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.
Temperature affects the solubility of most substances
Solid Solubility and Temperature
The solubility of a solid substance increases with temperature
Gas Solubility and Temperature
The solubility of gases in water usually decreases with increasing
temperature
Gas solubility and Pressure
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas
over the solution: c ~ P
Concentration (c) = k x P
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
The density of an aqueous solution containing 10.0 percent of
ethanol (C2H5OH) by mass is 0.984 g/ml. (a) Calculate the molality
of this solution. (b) Calculate its molarity Answer: 2.41m; 2.13 M;
bp=101.25 Co; Fp=-4.5 Co
A 3.20-g sample of a salt dissolves in 9.10 g of water to give a
saturated solution at 25°C. What is the solubility (in g salt/100 g of
H2O) of the salt? Answer: 35.2 g salt/100 g H2O.
A solution of 2.50 g of a compound having the empirical formula
C6H5P in 25.0 g of benzene is observed to freeze at 4.3°C. Calculate
the molar mass of the solute and its molecular formula. The normal
freezing point and Kf value for benzene is 5.5 0C and 5.12. Answer:
C24H20P4
What is the osmotic pressure (in atm) of a 1.36 M aqueous solution
of urea [(NH2)2CO] at 22.0°C? Answer: 32.9 atm
Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions
 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
Precipitation Reactions
Acid Base Reactions
Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solutions: Titrations
Oxidation Reduction Reactions: Some General Principles
Balancing Oxidation Reduction Equations
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
 CONCEPTS
An aqueous solution is a type of solution, where water acts as a solvent that
dissolves the solute. Example of an aqueous solution: vinegar (acetic acid as
solute and water as solvent).
When a solute dissociates in water to form ions, it is
called an electrolyte, due to the solution being a good
electrical conductor.
In an aqueous solution a strong electrolyte is
considered to be completely ionized, or dissociated, in
water, meaning it is soluble. Strong acids and bases are
usually strong electrolytes.
A weak electrolyte then is considered to be one that
is not completely dissociated, therefore still containing
whole compounds and ions in the solution. Weak acids
and bases are generally weak electrolytes.
When no ions are produced, or the ion content is low,
the solute is a non-electrolyte. Non-electrolytes do not
conduct electricity or conduct it to a very small degree.
 CONCENTRATION
Molar Concentration = Molarity

The concentration unit is “Molarity” (M)

The bracket symbol [ ] is used to show

“concentration” .

Molarity = moles of solute/volume of

solution M (mol/L) = n (mol) / V(L)
Mi x V i = M f x V f
 Problems
1- How many milliliters of 1.10 M H2SO4 should be diluted in
water to prepare 0.500 L of 0.025 M H2SO4? 11.4 ml

2-A beaker of 175 mL of 0.950 M NaCl is left uncovered for a

period of time. If, by the end of the time period, the volume of
solution in the beaker has decreased to 137 mL (the volume
loss is due to water evaporation), what is the resulting
concentration of the solution? 1.21 M

3- A sample of saturated NaNO3 (aq) is 10 M at 25 degrees

Celcius. How many grams of NaNO3 are in 230 mL of this
solution at the same temperature? 195.5g

4- A student prepares a solution by dissolving 15.0 mL

ethanol (C2H5OH) in water to make a 300.0 mL solution.
Calculate the concentration (molarity) of ethanol in the
Precipitation reactions occur when cations and anions in aqueous
solution combine to form an insoluble ionic solid called a precipitate.
Net Ionic Equations
To understand the definition of a net ionic equation, recall the equation for
the double replacement reaction. Because this particular reaction is a
precipitation reaction, states of matter can be assigned to each variable pair:
AB(aq) + CD(aq) → AD(aq) + CB(s)

C+ (aq) + B- (aq) → CB (s) net ionic equation

Solubility rules provide guidelines that tell which ions form solids and which
remain in their ionic form in aqueous solution.
SOLUBILITY RULES
 EXERCISES
1-Predict whether mixing each pair of solutions will
result in the formation of a precipitate. If so, identify
the precipitate.
FeCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq)
NaOH(aq) + H3PO4(aq)
ZnCl2(aq) + (NH4)2S(aq)
2-Predict whether mixing each pair of solutions will
result in the formation of a precipitate. If so, identify
the precipitate.
KOH(aq) + H3PO4(aq)
K2CO3(aq) + BaCl2(aq)
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)
Exe. What mass of precipitate would you expect to obtain by mixing 250
mL of a solution containing 4.88 g of Na2CrO4 with 200 mL of a solution
containing 3.84 g of AgNO3? What is the final nitrate ion concentration?
Ans:0.05M nitrate ion
Exe. Adding 10.0 mL of a dilute solution of zinc nitrate to 246 mL of 2.00 M
sodium sulfide produced 0.279 g of a precipitate.
-How many grams of zinc(II) nitrate and sodium sulfide were consumed to
produce this quantity of product? Ans: 0.22 and 0.54 gram
- How many grams of excess reagent remains unreacted in the original
solutions? Ans:38.15 gram
-What is the concentration of the nitrate ion in solution after the
precipitation reaction, assuming no further reaction? Ans:0.022 M NO 3-ion
Exe. When solutions of lead(II) nitrate and aluminum chloride are mixed, a
precipitate forms.
a) Write a balanced formula equation for the reaction.
b) What volume of a 0.200 M lead(II) nitrate solution is needed to
completely form a precipitate when added to 2.48 ml of 0.300 M aluminum
chloride? Ans:5.58ml
c) What is the mass of precipitate formed in (b)? Ans:0.31g
Exe. What mass of precipitate is formed when 71.3 mL of 0.500 M iron(III)
nitrate are mixed with 112 mL of 0.800 M sodium carbonate? Ans:5,2g
Exe. Consider the following precipitation reaction:
What volume of 0.183 M Na3PO4 solution is necessary to completely react
with 91.6 mL of 0.106 M CuCl2? Ans; 35.35ml
 REDOX REACTIONS
Oxidation number is the number of electrons are lost or gained
Oxidation state is the increase or decrease of oxidation number in
combining atoms together to form molecules or polyatomic ions
In an reduction-oxidation (redox)
reaction certain atoms undergo an increase in oxidation state, a process
called oxidation. Other atoms undergo a decrease in oxidation state, or
reduction.
 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-REACTIONS

Oxidation is a process in which the O.S. of some

element increases as electrons are lost. Electrons appear
on the right side of a half-equation.

Reduction is a process in which the O.S. of some

element decreases as electrons are gained. Electrons
appear on the left side of a half-equation.

Oxidation and reduction half-reactions must always occur

OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS
EXERCISES ABOUT BALANCING
REDOX REACTIONS
The Half-Equation Method
1) Write and balance each half-equations
2) Balance the charges in the two half-equations
3) Add together the two half-equations to obtain
the balanced overall equation
Oxidation number method
1) Write the valence number of each atom
2) Balance the charges by crosswise valence
number
3)Balance the overall equation
Ex. Balance the following redox equation;

1) Al(s) + HCl(l) ----- AlCl3(s) + H2(g)

 EXERCISES
Balance the following redox equations

Two things are important:

balance atom numbers in equation
balance charges in equation