PREPARATION OF GASES

ACIDIC GASES

Examples: H2S (g), HF (g), HCl (g), HBr(g), SO2 (g), SO3 (g), NO2 (g), etc.

 Preparation of Hydrogen (H2) gas

Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and salt.
Example: Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

 Mode of Delivery-Upward delivery or downward displacement because it is less dense than

air

 Test for Hydrogen(H2) gas

When you light a match or in the presence of a glowing splint, it gives a pop sound which
indicates the presence of hydrogen (H2) gas.

 Uses of Hydrogen(H2) gas

 It is used for filling balloons.
 It is used as a reducing agent.
 is used for the production of oxygen-hydrogen flame.

 Properties of Hydrogen(H2) gas

Physical
 It is a Colourless gas
 It is not soluble in water
 It is less dense than air (lightest gas)

1
 Chemical
 It is a reducing agent
 It reacts with oxygen or air to form an explosive mixture
 It does not support combustion or burning
 Preparation of Carbon dioxide or Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) gas
Acids react with carbonated [thus trioxocarbonate (IV) or hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV)]
compounds to produce carbon dioxide or carbon (IV) oxide gas, water and salt.

Example: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq)+ CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Mode of Delivery-Downward delivery or upward displacement because it is denser than air

 Test for Carbon dioxide or Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) gas

 It can be tested in the laboratory by passing the gas through limewater. If the limewater
turns milky then it indicates the presence of Carbon dioxide or Carbon (IV) oxide (CO 2)
gas.
 But the limewater turns colourless when the gas is in excess.

Equation: Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

limewater gas milky water

CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) [gas in excess]
milky water gas colourless

 Uses of Carbon dioxide or Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) gas

 It is used as a raw material during photosynthesis
 It is used as an effective refrigerant
 It is used to improve the taste of soft drinks like Coca-Cola, etc.
 It is used to preserve fruits
 It is used as a rising agent in baking dough
 It is used in fire extinguishers to put out unwanted flames since it does not support
combustion
2
  Properties of Carbon dioxide or Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) gas
Physical
 It is a colourless and odourless gas
 It is fairly soluble in water (slightly acidic when dissolved in water)
 It is denser than air

Chemical
 It turns milky in the presence of limewater but turns colourless in excess.
 It reacts with reactive metals to remove the oxygen
 It supports combustion or burning
 It forms weak acids with water hence turning blue litmus red

BASIC/ALKALINE GAS
Examples: Ammonia (NH3) gas (inorganic) and Amines (-NH2) (organic)

 Preparation of Ammonia (NH3) gas

Bases or Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas, water and salt.
Example: NH4Cl(s) + NaOH(aq) NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

Mode of delivery: Upward delivery or downward displacement of air. This is because it is less
dense than air.

 Test for Ammonia (NH3) gas

 Dip a glass rod in concentrated hydrochloric acid and then insert it in the gas jar containing
the gas. The formation of white dense fumes confirms the presence of the ammonia (NH3)
gas.
Equation: conc. HCl (aq)+ NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)
acid gas white fumes

 Hold a damp red litmus paper in the gas jar containing the unknown gas. If the red litmus
paper turns blue, then the gas is probably ammonia gas (because it is basic).
3
  Uses of Ammonia (NH3) gas
 It is used in the manufacture of rayon and urea
 It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers
 It is used as a refrigerant in ice plants
 It is used as a cleaning agent for furniture and glass surfaces.

 Properties of Ammonia (NH3) gas

Physical

 It is a colourless gas
 It has a pungent odour and a soapy taste.
 It brings tears to the eye when inhaled suddenly
 It is highly soluble in water

Chemical
 It is easily combustible (burn) in air or oxygen
 It turns red litmus paper blue
 It gets oxidized to nitrogen (gas) when passed over heated metal oxides
 It easily forms complex compounds.

4
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Definitions:
 Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds except carbonates and oxides of
carbon (CO, CO2, CO32-, H2CO3, etc.)

 Inorganic compound is a compound which does not contain the element carbon but includes
carbonates and oxides of carbon

 (thus CO, CO2, CO32-, H2CO3, etc.)

Differences
Organic compounds
They are mostly covalent compounds
Their reactions are very slow
They have very low melting and boiling
points
They are mostly soluble in organic
solvents but insoluble in water
They are usually volatile
Inorganic compounds
They are mostly ionic compounds
Their reactions are very fast
They have high melting and boiling points
They are mostly soluble in water but
insoluble in organic solvents
They are less volatile

Special Characteristics of Carbon

a. Carbon is tetravalent
b. Carbon can form ring or cyclic compounds
c. Carbon can form single, double and triple bonds.
d. Carbon can bond with other atoms to form stable compounds
e. Carbon can form open, straight and branched chain compounds

Homologous Series
They are a series of carbon compounds with the same molecular formula but differ in
structural formula by CH2. Example: CH4, C2H6, C3H8 etc.

Characteristics of homologous series

 All members have the same general formula
 Each member differs in the molecular formula from the next by CH2
 All members have similar methods of preparation
 All members have the same functional group
 All members have similar chemical properties but different physical properties

5
Functional groups
They are a group of bonded atoms which give an organic compound/molecule its characteristic
chemical properties. A functional group replaces a hydrogen atom in a hydrogen molecule.
Example: CH3CH2-OH
CH3CH2-COOH

Substituent
It is an atom or group of atoms except hydrogen bonded to the longest continuous carbon
chain.
Example: CH3CH(CH3)-OH

Isomerism
It is the occurrence of two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but
different structure and physical or chemical properties

Geometric isomerism
This results where there is restricted motion about the carbon-carbon double bond. This is
exhibited in alkenes only.

Families of organic compounds include;

(a) Hydrocarbon (d) Alkanol
(b) Alkanoic acids (e) Alkyl alkanoates
(c) Fats and Oils (f) Aldehydes and Ketones

HYDROCARBONS
They are organic compounds that contain the elements carbon and hydrogen only.

Types of hydrocarbons
(a) Aromatic compound- contains one or more benzene rings.
(b) Aliphatic compounds-
 They exist as alkanes, alkenes or alkynes.
 Alkanes are called saturated hydrocarbons.
 This is because they contain single-bond
 Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated because they contain double and triple bonds
respectively. They can decolorize bromine water and KMnO4.

6
NAMING OF HYDROCARBONS

 Substituents are other atoms that replace hydrogen atoms on a main chain. Examples: F,
Cl, Br, I, etc.
 Alkanes used as substituents are called alkyl substituents.
 Alkyl substituents are alkyl groups used to replace hydrogen atoms on the main chain.
 Examples: CH3 – methyl, CH3CH2 or C2H5 – ethyl , etc

ALKANES (PARAFFINS)
 They contain the functional group with general formulae – CnH2n+2, where n=1, 2, 3, etc.
 They are named with a suffix – “ane”.
 They contain carbon-carbon single bond
 They are saturated hydrocarbon
 They do not show geometric isomerism

PROPERTIES
Physical properties
1. They are colourless in their pure state
2. They are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene and
ether.
3. C1 – C4 alkanes are gases, C5 – C18 alkanes are liquid and C19 and above alkanes are solids all
at room temperature.

Chemical properties (Reactions)

1. They undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of UV light or
sunlight, to produce haloalkanes.
U.V light
Equation: CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
alkane halogen (sunlight) haloalkane

2. They undergo combustion in the presence of excess air (oxygen) to produce carbon
dioxide and water.
Equation: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
alkane excess air carbon dioxide water

Limited oxygen leads to incomplete combustion hence producing carbon monoxide and water.
Equation: CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO (g) + 4H2O (l)
alkane-limited air carbon monoxide water

Naming of Alkanes
 Chlorine, Fluorine, Iodine and Bromine are named chloro, fluoro, iodo and Bromo
respectively.
 If the alkyl group occurs as a substituent, they are named as CH3-methyl,
CH2CH3-ethyl, CH2CH2CH3-propyl
 In naming the parent carbon chain, start from either end of the chain that results in the
lowest number.
 If the same substituent occurs more than once indicate this by the prefix
7
 ‘di’ = 2
tri’ = 3
‘tetra ’ = 4 etc.

Example 1: Name the following alkanes

i. CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2CH3
ii. CH3CH2CH(CH3) CH2C(CH3)2CH3
iii. CH3CH2CHClCH2Br
iv. CH3CH(CH3) CH2CH(C2H5) CH2CH3
v. CH3CClBrCH(CH3) CH3

Example 2: Write the structural formula for the following compounds

vi. Pentane
vii. 2-methyl pentane
viii. 2,2-dimethylbutane
ix. 2,2-dimethylpropane
x. 2-methyl butane

ALKENES (OLEFINS)
 They contain the functional group with general formulae – CnH2n,
where n=1, 2, 3, etc.
 They are named with a suffix – “ene”.
 They are unsaturated hydrocarbon
 They contain a double bond
 They show geometric isomerism

Properties Of Alkenes (Olefines)

Physical properties

1. They are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene and ether.
2. For straight chain alkenes at room temperature C2 – C4 alkenes are gases, C5 – C18 alkenes are
liquid and C19 and above alkenes are solids.
3. Their boiling points are comparatively lower than alkanes. They increase with molecular
weights.

Chemical properties (Reactions)

1. They undergo combustion in the presence of excess air (oxygen) to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
Equation:
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
alkene excess air carbon dioxide water

 Limited oxygen leads to incomplete combustion hence producing carbon monoxide &
water.
 Equation: C2H4 (g) + 2O2 (g) 2CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
8
 alkene limited air carbon monoxide water

2. They undergo additional reaction with water (hydration reaction) to produce their
corresponding alcohol/alkanol.

Equation: C2H4 (g) + H 2O (l) C2H5OH (aq)

alkene water alkanol/alcohol

3. They undergo an addition reaction with hydrogen (halogenation reaction) to give

corresponding haloalkanes.
Equation: C2H4 (g) + Br2 (g) C2H4Br2 (g)

alkene halogen dihaloalkanes

4. They undergo an addition reaction with hydrogen (hydrogenation reaction) in the presence
of Pt, Pd and Ni catalysts to give the corresponding alkane.
Ni/Pd/Pt
Equation: C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) C2H6 (g)

alkene hydrogen alkane

5. They undergo self-addition (polymerization reaction) to form large molecules under high
temperatures.
Equation: C2H4 (g) + C2H4 (g) (- C4H8 -)n (g)
ethene ethene polyethene

(monomers of alkenes) (polymer of alkene)

Example1: Name the following alkenes

xi. CH3CH=CHCH3
xii. CH2=CHCH3
xiii. CH2=C(CH3) CH3
xiv. CH2BrCHClCH=CHCH3
xv. CH3C(CH3) =CHCH2CH3

Example 2: Write the structural formula for the following compounds

xvi. 1-chloro-2,3-dimethyl but-2-ene
xvii. 5-bromo-4-chloroprene-2-ene
xviii. Trans 2-butene
xix. Cis-1,2-dibromoethene
xx. 2-methyl-2-butene

AKLYNES (ACETYLENES)
 They contain the functional group with general formulae – CnH2n-2, where n=1, 2, 3, etc.
 They are named with a suffix – “yne”.
 They are unsaturated hydrocarbon
 They don’t exhibit geometric isomerism

Properties Of Alkynes (Acetylenes)

Physical properties

9
1. They are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene and ether.
2. Their boiling points are generally lower than corresponding alkanes and alkenes but increase
with molecular weights.

Chemical properties (Reactions)

1. They undergo combustion in the presence of excess air (oxygen) to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
Equation: C2H2 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
alkyne excess air carbon dioxide water

 Limited oxygen leads to incomplete combustion hence producing carbon monoxide &
water.
Equation: C2H2 (g) + 3O2 (g) 4CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
alkyne limited air carbon dioxide water

2. They undergo an addition reaction with hydrogen (hydrogenation reaction) in the presence
of Pt, Pd and Ni catalysts to give corresponding alkene and alkane.
Equation: C2H2 (g) + H2 (g) Ni/Pd/Pt C2H4 (g)
alkyne hydrogen alkene

Ni/Pd/Pt
Equation: C2H2 (g) + 2H2 (g) C2 H 6 (g)
alkyne hydrogen alkane

3. They undergo an addition reaction with halogens (halogenation) to give corresponding

haloalkanes
Equation: C2H2 (g) + 2Br2 (g) C2H2Br4 (g)
alkyne halogen tetra haloalkanes

Equation: C2H2 (g) + 2HBr (g) C2H4Br2 (g)

alkyne hydrohalide dihaloalkanes

Example1: Name the following alkynes

xxi. CH3C(CH3)2CΞCH
xxii. CH3CH2CH2CΞCCH(CH3)Cl
xxiii. CH3CH2CH2CH2CΞCH
xxiv. CH2BrCΞCH

Reading Assignment (Study Table 43 of the Int. Science GAST and other textbooks)

Sources and uses of the following: Methane, Ethane, Ethene and Ethyne.

10
 ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS)
 They contain the functional group –OH
 General formulae – CnH2n+1 OH, where n=1, 2, 3, etc
 They are named by replacing the last letter of the name of the parent alkane with the
ending – “ol”

TYPES OF ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS)

 Primary (10) Alkanol/ The functional group –OH is normally found at the end of the
organic compound. Example: CH3CH2CH2OH.
 Secondary (20) Alkanol/The functional group –OH is normally found on the second carbon
in the organic compound. Example: (CH3)2CH(OH).
 Tertiary (30) Alkanol/The functional group –OH is normally surrounded by three (3)
carbons in the organic compound. Example: (CH3)3C-OH.

PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS)

Physical properties
1. Lower alkanols (alkanols with few carbon atoms) are liquids.
2. They are very soluble in water.
3. They are neutral to litmus paper.
4. They are separated by distillation.
5. They are normally used as domestic fuels.

Chemical properties (Reactions)

1. They undergo dehydration (removal of water) to give out water to form corresponding
alkenes
 Equation: C2H5OH (l) - H2O (l) C2H4 (g)
alkanol/alcohol water alkenes

2. They undergo combustion in the presence of excess air (oxygen) to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
 Equation: C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
alkanol/alcohol excess air carbon dioxide water

3. They undergo oxidation in the presence of an acidified potassium dichromate

(K2Cr2O7 / H+) to produce an Alkanoic acid.
 Equation: C3H7OH (l) K2Cr2O7 / H+ C2H5COOH(g)
alkanol/alcohol alkanoic acid

4. They undergo esterification and thus react with carboxylic or alkanoic acid to produce
esters and water.
 Equation: C3H7OH (l) + C2H5COOH(g) C2H5COOC3H7 (l) + H2O (l)
alkanol/alcohol alkanoic acid alkyl alkanoate water

11
 ALKANOIC ACIDS (ORGANIC/CARBOXYLIC ACID)
 They contain the functional group – COOH and general formulae - CnH2n+1 COOH.
 They are naturally occurring and normally found in plants and animals.
 Their names are gained by replacing the last letter of the name of an alkane with the
ending – “oic acid”.
 Naming or nomenclature of Alkanoic acids would be discussed in class (illustrations)

PROPERTIES OF ALKANOIC ACIDS (ORGANIC/CARBOXYLIC ACID)

Physical properties
1. They normally have a sour taste.
2. They are normally fatty acids since many are originally obtained from fats.
3. C1 – C3 alkanoic acids are liquids with a sharp vinegary smell.
4. They turn blue litmus paper red due to their acidic nature.
5. They (especially Butanoic acids) are very soluble in water.

Chemical properties (Reactions)

1. They react with reactive metals to produce hydrogen gas and salts.
 Equation: 2CH3COOH (l) + Mg (s) (CH3COO)2 Mg (aq) + H2 (g)
Alkanoic acid metal metallic organic salt hydrogen gas

2. They react with carbonates (CO32-) and bicarbonates (HCO32-) to produce carbon dioxide
gas effervescence and water.
 Equation: 2CH3COOH (l) + Na2CO3(g) 2CH3COONa + CO2 (g) + 3H2O(l)
Alkanoic acid carbonated salt metallic organic salt carbon dioxide water

Equation: CH3COOH (l) + NaHCO3 (g) CH3COONa + CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
Alkanoic acid bicarbonate salt metallic organic salt carbon dioxide water

3. They undergo a neutralization reaction with alkalis/bases to produce salts and water.
 Equation: CH3COOH (l) + NaOH (g) CH3COONa + H2O (l)
Alkanoic acid alkali metallic organic salt water

4. They undergo an esterification reaction and thus react with Alkanols/alcohols to produce
esters and water.
Equation: C3H7OH (l) + C2H5COOH(g) C2H5COOC3H7 (l) + H2O (l)
Alkanol/alcohol Alkanoic acid Alkyl alkanoate Water

ALKYL ALKANOATE (ESTERS)

 Esterification reaction is the reaction between an alkanol and an Alkanoic acid to form
esters (alkyl Alkanoates) and water.

Conditions necessary for esterification

- Concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
- Application of heat

12
 NOTE

 Esters are the products of the reaction between an alkanol and an alkanoic acid.
 The general formula is RCOOR’ where RCOO H (Alkanoic acid) and R’OH (Alkanol).
 They are named by combining their alkanols and alkanoic acid parts.
 Naming or nomenclature of compounds would be discussed in class (illustrations).

Sources of Esters
 Natural Source – They are the esters that occur or are found in nature. Example: Fruits,
Flowers, etc.
 Artificial source – They are the esters which are prepared in the laboratory. Example:
Ethyl ethanoate, etc.

Preparation of Ester
 Some quantities of the alkanoic acid and the alkanol are put in a test tube.
 A few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid (as a catalyst) are carefully added and the
mixture is gently warmed.
 The mixture is cooled whilst shaking gently and an ester which has a pleasant or sweet or
fruity smell is produced.

PROPERTIES OF ALKYL ALKANOATE (ESTERS)

Physical properties

1. They are generally pleasant to smell.

2. They occur naturally in flowers and fruits (such as pear, banana, pineapple, etc).
3. They are generally good solvents for pain and other substances such as nail polish.

Esterification: Alkanol + Alkanoic acid conc. H2SO4 Ester (Organic salt) + Water

Neutralization: Base/Alkali + Acid Salt (Inorganic) + Water

Difference between;

Neutralization Esterification
1. The reaction is fast The reaction is slow
2. There is no catalyst involved There is a catalyst involved
3. The reaction is not reversible The reaction is reversible
4. Water is a by-product and the Water is a by-product and the
hydrogen is from the acid hydrogen is from the alkanol
5. The main product is an inorganic salt The main product is an ester, an
organic salt

13
 USES OF ESTERS
(a) It is used as a solvent (for drugs, antibiotics, quick-dry paints)
(b) It is used in soap-making
(c) It is used in the preparation of artificial flavouring essences and perfumes
(d) It is used in the preparation of polymers of fabrics.

FATS AND OILS

 They are esters of glycerol, propanetriol C3H5(OH)3 and long chain fatty acids.
 Fats are saturated hydrocarbon chains and exist as solids.
 Oils are unsaturated hydrocarbon chains and exist as liquids.

Assignment

 Uses of fats and oils.

APPLICATION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(a) MANUFACTURE OF MARGARINE

 This is done by passing hydrogen gas into an unsaturated oil at a very high temperature
(200oC) at 3 atmospheres of pressure in the presence of a Nickel Catalyst.
 The unsaturated part of the oil is converted to saturated and the oil becomes hardened
to fat.
 Other addends (such as milk, vitamin and colour flavour) are added to produce better
margarine.

(b) FERMENTATION REACTION

The process of converting carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide in the presence of a
catalytic enzyme (in the absence of oxygen)

(c) SAPONIFICATION
o Saponification is the reaction between fats or oils and an alkali to form soaps.
o The by-product is Glycerol.
o The main product, Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain fatty acid.

heat
NB: Fats or Oils (Ester) + Alkali Soap + Glycerol
heat
CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + C2H5OH (aq)

14
 Preparation of Soap

There are two methods of preparing soap thus; Traditional and Industrial (Modern) methods

Traditional method (Saponification Only)

(i) Burn dry cocoa pods or plantain peels into ashes to obtain KOH.
(ii) Add water to the obtained ashes and then boil the mixture with palm oil.
(iii) Add salt to the mixture (to separate the soap from the glycerol) and allow it to cool.
(iv) Remove the crust on top of the mixture, by filtering to get the soap.
(v) Wash it with a little water to get the soap.
(vi) The process is purely Saponification.
(vii) Colour and perfume can be added to improve the quality of the indigenous soap by re-
melting the soap.

Industrial (Modern) method

(i) Saponification
This gives the crude product which sometimes includes colouring and glycerol called lye.
Other impurities include excess alkali such as ash particles or excess oil which can cause
itching of the skin, and undesirable colour and odour respectively.

(ii) Salting out to separate the soap from the glycerol

(iii) Repeated washing with water
(iv) Fitting-adding water and boiling the resulting mixture to give a uniform consistency
(v) Drying

Difference between;
SAPONIFICATION NEUTRALIZATION
1. It involves an ester and an alkali It involves an inorganic acid and an alkali
2. It requires heating It requires no heating
3. The main products are soap (organic The main products are inorganic salt
salt)
4. The by-product is glycerol The by-product is water

DETERGENTS
Detergents are substances or cleansing agents that have cleaning power and can remove dirt
from objects or substances easily.

Locally manufactured detergents (household cleaners)

(a) Ariel (c) Omo

(b) Surf (d) Klin Soft or So Klin, etc.
15
 Why detergents are preferred to soaps
- Detergents do not produce scum in hard water
- Detergents lather easily with both soft and hard water

Kinds or Classification of Detergents

(a) Soapy detergents – They are biodegradable (can be decomposed by biological activity)
detergents made from fats of long-chain alkanoic acids and alkalis.
Examples: Key Soap, Guardian Soap, Rexona, Duck soap, etc

(b) Soapless detergents – They are non-biodegradable detergents made from sulphonic acids
and alkalis or distilled from petroleum-based substances. Examples: Laundry detergents,
household cleaners, personal care products

Difference between
Soapy detergents Soapless detergents
They are biodegradable They are biodegradable
They are made from fats of long-chain They are made from sulphonic acids and
alkanoic acids and alkalis alkalis
They do not lather easily and therefore They lather easily and therefore do not
form scum with hard water form scum with hard water
They cause greying when used to wash They do not cause greying when used to
white materials wash white materials

(C) POLYMERS
 Polymerization is the process in which many smaller unit molecules of organic compounds
(monomers) join together in a long chain to make a large molecule.
 Monomers are simple and relatively small molecules which join together to form a large
molecule called Polymer. Example: amino acid (monomer of protein), etc.
 Polymers are large molecules formed by the joining together of many smaller and simple
molecules called monomers. Example: Polythene (joint monomers of ethene), etc.

catalyst, high tempt.

Equation: C2H4 (g) + C2 H 4 (g) + C2 H 4 (g) +… (- C3H12 -)n (g)
(monomers of ethene) high pressure (part of the polythene)

16
 Types of Polymers

 Natural polymers – They are naturally occurring polymers

Examples: Starch, Protein, Carbohydrates, Cellulose, Rubber, etc.

 Artificial (Synthetic) polymers – They are synthesized in the laboratory.

Examples: Polyester, Polystyrene, Nylon, Polythene, Polyvinylchloride(PVC),
Polytetrafluoroethane (PTFE), Bakelite, etc.

(d) PLASTICS
These are polymers of hydrocarbons which can be molded into shapes as they become soft
when heated.

Uses of plastic materials

It is used in the production of the following items;
(a) Drain pipes (f) Safety glasses
(b) Floor tiles (g) Wrappers
(c) Linoleum (h) Insulators
(d) Parts of appliances (i) Bags
(e) Artificial leather for furniture (j) Polytanks or Buckets

Advantages of plastics over metals

(a) They are good insulators or poor conductors.
(b) They can be moulded easily.
(c) They are comparatively cheaper.
(d) They are comparatively light in weight.
(e) They are comparatively safer to use.
(f) They are resistant to corrosive chemicals.
(g) They are resistant to corrosion or rusting.

Disadvantages or Environmental problems Ways of minimizing these environmental

associated with the use of plastics problems

(a) They are easily littered hence making the - Proper waste disposal
environment dirty. - Recycling
- Hand picking
(b) They normally choke gutters and drains - Provision of sealed gutters and
which might lead to flooding. drains
- Distillation of gutters
- Proper waste disposal
- Recycling
(c) They normally pollute our water bodies - Proper waste disposal
too. - Recycling

17
 (d) They cause health risks to humans and - Proper waste disposal
animals. - Recycling
- Hand picking

Reading Assignment (Study Int. Science GAST and other textbooks)

 Important properties and uses of the following plastics:
(a) Polythene (b) PVC (c) Perspex

(f) POLYMERS OF CRUDE OILS (PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICALS)

 Polymers of crude oils (long chains of carbon/heavier fractions) can be reduced/ broken down
into monomers (short chains/ethene, etc) by a process called Cracking.
 Cracking is also a chemical reaction which involves breaking and reforming of bonds between
carbon atoms to form new substances
 The ethene produced after cracking is normally used to make plastics.
Equation: C10H22 (s) C8H18 (l) + C2H4 (g)

Types of Cracking

 Catalytic Cracking – The use of a catalyst under low temperature and pressure to break
carbons into shorter chains.
 Thermal Cracking – The use of high temperature and pressure without a catalyst to break
carbons into shorter chains.

PETROLEUM

 Petroleum is a mineral which consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons found in the earth's

crust.
 It was produced over millions of years from the remains of marine animals and plants, dead
organic materials under high temperature and pressure.
 It is refined for use as petrochemicals and fuels, through fractional distillation.

o PETROCHEMICALS
 Petrochemicals are organic compounds obtained or derived from petroleum and natural gas.
It is normally used as fuel.
 A fuel is a combustible substance that is obtained in commercial quantities and burned in
oxygen or air to release useful heat or energy.

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Products from fractional distillation of Crude oil and their uses

S/N Name of Products Uses of Products

1. Gasoline / Petrol - it is used as fuel for petrol engines
- it is used as a solvent for paints, etc
2. Kerosene / Paraffin oil - it is used as fuel for jet engines
- it is used as fuel for lamps or stoves
- it is used as a solvent
3. Diesel / Gas oil - it is used as fuel for diesel engines
- it is used as fuel for heating furnace
4. Lubricating oils / Grease - it is used for lubricating car engines and metal
joints
5. Petroleum jelly - it is used for medical purposes
- it is used for pomade
- it is used for lubrication
6. Paraffin wax - it is used for making candle
- it is used for making waterproofing paper
7. Bitumen - it is used for road construction
- it is used for roofing
8. Petroleum gas / LPG / - it is used as fuel for cooking and lighting
Paraffin gas - it is used as fuel for heating furnace

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