NON-METALS

The non-metals are the elements which have more than four electrons in their outermost energy levels, the non-
metals are characterized by the smallest atomic sizes and the largest electronegativity (electronegativity is the
tendency of an atom to attract electrons of the chemical bond to itself). The atomic radius is the size of the
atom, typically measured by the distance from the nucleus of the atom to the electron clouds around the nucleus
and depends on:

i. In the same group: the electronegativity decreases as we go down the group, this is due to the increase of
atomic number leading to increase the atomic radius, so, the ability of atom to attract electrons of the bond
towards itself decreases.

Ii. In the same period: the electronegativity increases as we move from left to right, this due to the increase of
the atomic number leading to decrease atomic radius, so the ability of atom to attract the electrons of the bond
towards itself increases.

Diffusion of gases: If gases have same temperature, one of them having smaller molar mass has greater
diffusion rate. If gases have equal molar mass, one of them having higher temperature has greater diffusion rate.
Rate of diffusion is defined as the volume of gas diffused per unit time which depends on density of that gas.
vapour density is the density of a particular gas or vapor relative to that of hydrogen at the same pressure and
temperature.
Molecular mass(M) = 2 X vapour density(d)

METHOD OF COLLECTING GASES

By collecting and measuring the volumes of gas produced, we can know more about the reaction which had
taken place and may also use it as a reactant for another reaction. The method of collecting a gas produced by a
chemical reaction will depend on its solubility and its density

a) Solubility – its ability to dissolve in water and

b) Density – how “heavy” it is as compared to air.

Three common methods to collect a sample of gas are:

i. Displacement of Water
This method is suitable for collecting gases which are insoluble or only slightly soluble in water. As the gases
cannot dissolve in water and are lighter in density than water, they would rise to the top of the gas jar and be
collected there. Some examples of gases collected through this way include H2, N2, O2 and CH4.

ii. Upwards Delivery (downward displacement of air)

This method is used to collect gases which are soluble in water and has a lighter density as compared to air.
Some examples of gases collected this way include NH3.
iii. Downwards Delivery (upward displacement of air)

This method is used to collect gases which are soluble in water and has a heavier density as compared to
air. CO2 and HCl is one of the gases which can be collected this way.

Drying of Gas Sample

To prepare a dry sample of gas, we can pass it through drying agents like concentrated sulphuric acid, quicklime
(calcium oxide) and fused calcium chloride (heated calcium chloride). Below are the set ups for each of the
drying agents:

1.
Using concentrated sulphuric acid to dry most gases.
2. Quicklime is used in drying ammonia

3. Fused calcium chloride can also be used to dry most of the gases

Physical properties of non-metals

1. They are not strong, or malleable, or ductile, or sonorous

2. They have lower melting and boiling points than metals

3. They are poor conductors of electricity; graphite (carbon) is the only exception. They are also poor
conductors of heat

4. They have low densities

Chemical properties non-metals

1. Like metals, most of them react with oxygen to form oxides

N2 (g) + 2O2 (g)  2NO2 (g)

S2 (g) + 2O2 (g)  2SO2 (g)

2. When they form ions, the ions are negative. They are electronegative elements. They gain electrons to be
stable hence forming ionic compound.
 N3- O2- Cl-

3. They are oxidizing agents. For example oxygen gas (O2), ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide ( H2O) halogens
(Cl2 F2), acids such as nitric acid(HNO3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

HYDROGEN

At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas exists as a diatomic molecule, H2.

Occurrence
Hydrogen occurs in water, oils and natural gas. It is so light and not present in air; as it has escaped from the
earth’s atmosphere, but out in space, it’s the most common element and without it there would be no life as it is
responsible for sun light and heat due to nuclear reaction inside the sun where hydrogen atoms fuse to form
helium atoms.

Physical properties of hydrogen.

1. It is colorless
2. It is odorless, no smell
3. It is less dense than air with density of 0.08988g/L. it is the lightest of all gases.
4. It has a boiling point of -253oC
5. Slightly solubility in water and the solution is neutral.

Chemical properties of hydrogen

1. It has no effect on litmus paper
2. It burns in oxygen with a blue flame producing a pop sound. It is highly exothermic.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
3. It is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals below it in the reactivity series
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
When hydrogen is passed over black copper (II) oxide in the apparatus above, the black powder turns pink

4. Hydrogen burns in chlorine with a white flame forming hydrogen chloride

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
A mixture of hydrogen and chlorine is explosive in sun light gas
5. Reaction with metals: at high temperatures, hydrogen reacts with strong electropositive metals like Na, K, Ca
etc. to produce metal hydrides. The metals above hydrogen on the reactivity series can displace it from acids.
H2 + 2Na  NaH

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

By action of reactive metals on;
(i) water/steam and
(ii) Dilute acids
Hydrogen is collected by upward displacement of water method.
[A]Reaction of metal with a dilute acid: The metal displaces hydrogen from the dilute acid. The gas is collected
over water since it is almost insoluble.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The gas is collected over water, the drying agent that can be Concentrated Sulphuric acid
[B] Reaction of a reactive metal with water
Example
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Note
Potassium and sodium float on water as they react with it, they must be wrapped in a wire mesh to make them
sink. The reaction of potassium with water produces a lilac flame and the reaction of sodium with water
produces a yellow flame.
Industrial preparation of hydrogen

Hydrogen is prepared by; a. cracking; b. electrolysis of water (brine); c. natural gas

a) Electrolysis of water (brine)
High purity hydrogen (>99.9 %) is obtained by the electrolysis of water containing traces of acid or alkali or the
electrolysis of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide using a nickel anode and iron
cathode. However, this process is not economical for large-scale production.
At anode: 4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 2e-
At cathode: 2 H2O + 2 e- → 2 OH- + H2
Overall reaction: 2H2O → 2H2 +O2

b) cracking process
Is the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short ones, this process requires high temperatures
(thermal cracking).
C2H6 → C2H4 + H2
 c) Natural gas
On the large-scale, hydrogen is produced by steam-reforming of hydrocarbons. In this method hydrocarbon
such as methane is mixed with steam and passed over nickel catalyst in the range 800-900 °C and 35 atm
pressures.
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2
In another process, steam is passed over a red-hot coke to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The mixture
of gases produced in this way is known as water gas (CO + H2). This is also called syn gas (Synthetic gas) as it
is used in the synthesis of organic compounds such as methanol and simple hydrocarbons.
C + H2O  CO + H2 (syn gas)
The carbon monoxide of the water gas can be converted to carbon dioxide by mixing the gas mixture with more
steam at 400°C and passed over a shift converter containing iron/copper catalyst. This reaction is called as
water-gas shift reaction.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
The CO2 formed in the above process is absorbed in a solution of potassium carbonate.
CO2 + K2CO3 + H2O → 2 KHCO3

Chemical test for hydrogen: Hydrogen gas puts out a lighted/ burning splint with a pop sound.

Uses of hydrogen gas

Hydrogen is a non-toxic gas, very flammable gas and does not support combustion.
1. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process
2. It is used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil in the process called catalytic hydrogenation
3. Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets because it does not pollute the air (no pollutants formed such as
nitrogen oxides). In a hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water and this reaction gives
out plenty of energy. (The negative pole surrounded by hydrogen pushes electrons into a circuit, a positive pole
is surrounded by oxygen accepts the electrons and an electrolyte is made of KOH solution which provides OH-
where hydrogen loses its electrons and is oxidized while oxygen accepts the electrons and is reduced to OH-.
The electrons flow through a wire to the positive pole as a current that can be used to power a car, light bulbs or
rockets.)
4. It is used as a reducing agent for metals below it on the reactivity series of metals.
CuO (s) + H2 (g)  Cu (s) + H2O (l)

OXYGEN

Physical properties of oxygen

1) It is a colorless gas

2) It is tasteless and odorless

3) Slightly soluble in water, about o.o1g will dissolve in 1 liter at 20oC. But this is enough to keep fish alive.

4) As slightly dense as air

Chemical properties of oxygen

Oxygen is a reactive element producing oxides (neutral, basic, amphoteric and acidic oxides) when it reacts
with other elements, it oxidizes them.
1. It reacts with metals to form metal oxides
Cu + O2  CuO
2. Reacts with non-metals
N2 + O2  NO2
3. Respiration
Respiration is the process by living organisms oxidize glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
4. Combustion/ Burning
Combustion is the process by which a substance reacts with oxygen to produce an oxide and heat. It is also
defined as the burning of substances in oxygen.
Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and heat energy. [Methane/ natural gas (CH4) burns in air.]
C + O2 → CO2 + energy
Fuels are substances we burn in air to obtain energy- usually heat.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + energy
5. Rusting
Rusting is the corrosion of iron.
Corrosion is a process by which something, especially a metal, is destroyed progressively by chemical action, as
iron when it rusts. It is an electrochemical process by which iron corrodes in the presence of oxygen and
moisture.
Laboratory preparation for oxygen
(i) In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared using the following chemicals:
(a) Potassium chlorate, KClO3
(b) Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 and Potassium nitrate, KNO3
(ii) Catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
[A] Thermal catalytic decomposition of Potassium chlorate
Potassium chlorate is mixed with a catalyst manganese (IV) oxide upon heating and decomposes into
potassium chloride and oxygen gas
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

[B] Thermal decomposition of Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate

Oxygen gas can be prepared by heating sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate
(I) 2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(II) 2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
[C] Catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Oxygen gas is also prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese (IV) oxide
as a catalyst. No heating is required
 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Method of collection oxygen gas: Downward displacement of water: Oxygen gas is collected over water
Drying agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid

Industrial manufacture of oxygen

By fractional distillation of liquid air. The air is distilled into fractions of varying temperature within the tower.
The tower is coolest at the top. The air separates into fractions as nitrogen separates first at -1900C followed by
argon at -1860C then oxygen at -163 0C. By so doing oxygen will have been prepared.

Chemical test of oxygen gas: re-lights the glowing splint

Uses of oxygen in industry and in natural processes

1) It is used for burning

2) It is used for welding

3) It is used in the manufacture of steel

4) In space by astronauts on space missions

5) It is used for respiration

6) In fuel cell to restore life to polluted lakes and rivers

IMPORTANCE OF OZONE LAYER AND DANGERS OF ITS DEPLETION

Ozone is formed when the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes oxygen molecules to break into atoms.
These then react with other oxygen molecules.
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡
O3 > 2O + O2 then 2O2 + 2O  2O3
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Some ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation and break down again to oxygen and this is how the ozone
layer protects us. The radiation that would harm us if it reaches the earth is absorbed instead by the ozone layer
and used to break bonds. The energy given out when new bonds form is given out as heat. So the ozone layer is
warmer than the air below it.
CFC’s deplete the ozone layer as the chlorine in CFC’s react with the ozone by catalyzing the conversion of
ozone to oxygen
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
ClO + O  Cl + O2
If the ozone is depleted by CFC’s it causes skin cancer, respiratory diseases.

WATER
Much of the water is obtained from rivers, ground water and rocks called acquifers. River water is not clean
even if it looks clean as it contains microbes such as bacteria and other tiny organisms that can make us ill(
diarrhea, cholera and typhoid) caused by drinking infected water. Accessing safe and clean water is very
important hence tap water is purified in treatment plants before distribution to homes.

Illustration of a modern treatment plant

The diagram below illustrates a modern treatment plant that involves the removal of tiniest particles. Chlorine is
added to kill all microbes. But water may still contain harmful dissolved substances such as nitrates from
fertilizers that can make babies ill. It is possible to remove these dissolved substances by the use of special
membranes that are expensive and not usually done in treatment plants. The best solution is to find the cleanest
source of water for your water supply. Water can also be boiled or allowed to sit in the sun in a plastic container
for several hours after decantation to kill microbes. Before the water is safe to drink, the bacteria and solid
substances must be removed. This is done at the water works. The water works - Purification of water at the
water works. The diagram below shows what happens at the water works

The water is pumped through the screen which gets rid of large bits of rubbish. Then the water gets
Through following stages:

1. Course sand filter: The course sand filter tank traps the larger particles of solid
2. Sedimentation tank: Here chemicals are added to water, to make the smaller particles stick together. These
particles then settle to the bottom of the tank.
3. Fine sand filter: The fine sand filter traps any remaining particles.
4. Chlorination tank: In this tank, a little chlorine gas is added. Chlorine gas dissolves, and kills any remaining
bacteria. This is called disinfecting or sterilising the water. In some places, a flouride compound is also added to
the water, to help prevent tooth decay. Water is now fit to drink.
5. Storage tank: Water is now pumped into high storage tanks and from there piped to homes and factories.
The water that flows from the taps is clean but not quite pure. It still contains dissolved substances which were
not removed at the water works. Pure water can be made by distillation of tap or rain water

Two main stages in the purification of water

(a) Filtration: Solid particles are removed from the water
(b) Chlorination: Chlorine is added to water to kill the bacteria

Chemical test for water.

1. Using white anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate which turns blue
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)  CuSO4.5H2O(s)
(Anhydrous copper sulphate- white) (water) (Hydrated copper sulphate- blue)
Also blue anhydrous cobalt chloride turns pink when there is addition of water to it
CoCl2(blue) +6H2O --> CoCl2.6H2O(pink)
Note
i. pH of water is 7.0 which is neither acidic nor alkaline but neutral.
ii. Water is after electrolysis, hydrogen and oxygen are evolved, which are easily tested for with the
splint test.
Importance of water
1) In homes-For laundry, drinking, cooking.
2) In industries- For cleaning, as a solvent, as a coolant, as a chemical reactant, Power stations to
generate hydroelectric power.
3) Agriculture- farms need water as a drink for animals and watering of crops.

NITROGEN
Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule, it is an unreactive gas.

Physical properties of nitrogen

1. It is colorless
2. It is odorless
3. It does not burn and does not support burning except magnesium which burns with it.
4. It is insoluble

Chemically, nitrogen gas is very unreactive due to the strong bonds between the nitrogen atoms in the molecule
However, under forced conditions;
1. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia in the presence of the iron catalyst
2. It also combines with oxygen at high temperature to form nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). The reactions occur naturally in the air during lightening and also in hot car engines and power
station furnaces. The nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) formed in hot car engines and hot furnaces when
 nitrogen and oxygen in air react they form acidic oxides and cause air pollution that lead respiratory
problems. To tackle this problem, modern cars exhausts contain catalytic converter, in this, the harmful
gases are absorbed onto catalysts and react to produce harmless gases. The converter usually has
catalysts of transition metals like platinum, palladium and rhodium. They are coated onto a ceramic
support to give a large surface area for adsorbing of the gases. The harmless product gases flow out the
exhaust pipe.

Examples of chemical reactions in the catalytic convertor

i. If the harmful compounds are reduced;
2NO (g)  N2 (g) + O2 (g)
ii. If the harmful compounds are oxidized using oxygen from air
2CO (g) + O2 (g)  2CO2 (g)

The industrial manufacture of nitrogen

By fractional distillation of liquid air. The air is distilled into fractions of varying temperatures within the tower.
The tower is coolest at the top. The air separates into fractions as nitrogen separates, first at -1900C followed by
argon at -1860C then oxygen at -1630C

Uses of nitrogen
1. It is a non-reactive insoluble gas hence used as refrigerant,
2. food packaging
3. manufacture of ammonia
4. It is used to provide an inert atmosphere during the arc welding of aircraft parts and in electric bulbs.
The need for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds in plant life
Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins while phosphorus is mainly needed for enzyme activity.
Potassium is important in the controlling of rates of photosynthesis and respiration.

AMMONIA

Physical properties of ammonia

1. It is a colorless gas with a pungent choking smell
2. It is less dense than air
3. It is very soluble in water
4. It is easily liquefied, either by cooling to -33oC or by compressing. This makes it easy to transport in tanks
and cylinders.

Chemical properties of ammonia

1. It turns damp red litmus paper blue
2. It burns in pure oxygen with a yellow - brown flame
4NH3 + 5O2  4NO + 6H2O
3. It dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
Note
NH3(g) + H2O(l)⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
4. It is a reducing agent because it reduces oxides to metals low in the reactivity series of metals.
Example
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
5. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke.
The white smoke is made of tiny particles of solid ammonium chloride:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

Chemical test for ammonia gas: Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper blue. It is alkaline in nature when it
dissolves in water it forms hydroxide ions.

Laboratory preparation of ammonia

In the laboratory, ammonia gas can be prepared by the action of heating a base with an ammonium compound.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

The test tube must be tilted downwards to prevent the water formed from running back into the reaction mixture
which may boil and cause an explosion.
Method of collection: Ammonia gas is collected by down ward displacement of air (upward delivery method)
because it is less dense than air.
Drying agent used: Calcium oxide. Drying agents like calcium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid should
not be used because they easily react with ammonia.

Industrial preparation of ammonia

The industrial preparation of ammonia is called Haber process. Ammonia gas produced industrially from
nitrogen and hydrogen
Importance of Haber process
Haber process is important because it produces ammonia on a large scale

Raw materials for Haber process

 Nitrogen
 Hydrogen
Essential conditions needed for the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process
1. Catalyst: Iron
2. Temperature: 350oC to 540oC
3. Pressure: 350 atmospheres
Hydrogen and nitrogen gas are purified to remove impurities such as carbon (iv) oxide, oxygen, Sulphur (iv)
oxide etc. that would poison catalyst, hydrogen and nitrogen are mixed in a ratio of 1:3 and compressed to about
350 atm pressure and heated to about 5400C. The hot compressed gases are passed over finely divided iron
catalyst mixed with aluminium (iii) oxide promoter. The equation for the reversible reaction is:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses. At the end of the reaction, about 10% of ammonia is
produced. The unreacted gases of nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back to the convertor (iron catalyst) for
another chance to react.
Thermal dissociation of ammonium salts: When ammonium salts decompose they liberate ammonia gas

Uses of ammonia
1. It is used in the refrigerating plants as a refrigerant
2. It is used in the manufacture of explosives
3. It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue
4. It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid
5. It is used as a cleaning agent
6. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and ammonium
phosphate.
Examples
(a) 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
(b) NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
(c) 3NH3(g) + H3PO4(aq) → (NH4)3PO4(aq)

i. Ammonium sulphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and Sulphur needed by plants
ii. Ammonium nitrate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen needed by plants
iii. Ammonium phosphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and phosphorous needed by plants.

Problems with chemical fertilizers

The three essential elements present in many fertilizers are nitrogen for growth, phosphorous for root
development and potassium for flowering and fruit development (N.P.K)
a. Chemical fertilizers tend to make the soil acidic if they are used for long periods of time
b. Chemical fertilizers are easily leached away e.g. nitrates (NO3-), sulphate (SO42-) and chlorides (Cl−). They
are leached because they easily dissolve in water and move with it. This is wasteful. Besides, when the
 rainwater drains into rivers, the nitrates cause pollution. storms encouraging growth of algae and other
marine plants that deprive water of oxygen leading to death of marine animals.(eutrophication)
c. They form acid rain
d. Some nitrogen (IV) oxide in air absorbs solar energy and dissociates into nitrogen atoms combines with
oxygen in air forming ozone which combines with hydrocarbons producing poisonous compounds.

MANUFACTURE OF NITRIC ACID (THE OSTWALD PROCESS)

This method is based upon the catalytic oxidation of ammonia by atmospheric oxygen. Commercially, the gases
(ammonia and oxygen) are passed over a platinum-rhodium alloy catalyst at 9000c at a pressures of about 8
atmospheres.
Step 1: catalytic oxidation of ammonia at 9000C
𝑝𝑡−𝑅ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
4NH3 (g) + 5O2(g) 4NO + 6H2O (l)
−→
This reaction is exothermic and sustains itself once started.

Step 2: Nitrogen (ii) oxide is cooled and reacted with excess air to form nitrogen (IV) oxide
2NO (g) + O2 (g)  2NO2 (g)
Step 3: absorption of nitrogen (IV) oxide in water to form nitric acid
3NO2 (g) + H2O (g)  2HNO3 (aq) + NO(g) .

Percentage of nitric acid can be concentrated from 60% to 68% by distillation because it forms a constant-
boiling mixture with water. If more concentration acid is needed, the dilute acid mixed with concentrated
Sulphuric acid and redistilled. Sulphuric acid has a strong affinity for water and so only the volatile nitric acid is
distilled.

CARBON AND CARBONATES

Allotropes
When an element exists in several physical forms of the same physical state, it is said to exhibit allotropy. Each
form of this element is an allotrope. Lots of elements exhibit allotropy. Carbon has two very popular allotropes,
diamond and graphite. Diamond and graphite are both made of carbon only. However, they look very different
and have different physical properties. They are both giant molecular structures.

Physical properties of the allotropes of carbon

(i) GRAPHITE

Graphite is a soft, black, crystalline form of carbon that is a fair conductor of electricity. It is made up of flat
sheets of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded to three others while the fourth electron is delocalised.
Since each carbon atom forms covalent bonds to three other, this gives rings of six atoms that join to make flat
sheets. The sheet of atoms lie on top of each other, held together by weak forces.
Physical properties of graphite

1. It is a dark grey shiny solid

2. It has a high melting point. This is because the strong bonds between the carbon atoms within a layer make
graphite difficult to pull apart in the direction of the layer.

3. It conducts electricity because of free moving electrons in between the layers of carbon atoms.

4. It is a soft material with a slippery feel. This is because the sheets of atoms can slide over each other easily.

5. It has a density of 2.25g/cm3

Uses of graphite

1. It is used as a lubricant because the layer of carbon atoms slide over each other easily

2. It is used as an electrode in electrolysis

3. It is used in making the “lead” for pencils. This is because it leaves a grey streak when it is drawn across a
sheet of paper

DIAMOND

Diamond is a colorless, crystalline solid with an extremely high density it is a giant structure of carbon atoms.
Each carbon atom shares electrons with each of its four nearest neighbors, thus forming four covalent bonds In
addition, each carbon atom is imagined to be at the center of the tetrahedron surrounded by four other carbon
atoms whose centers are at the corners of the tetrahedron

Physical properties of graphite

1. It is a colorless transparent crystal which sparkles in light

2. It does not conduct electricity because there are no ions or free electrons in it to carry charge

3. It is a very hard substance the hardest substance known.

4. It has a very high melting point of about 37000 C because each atom is held in place by four strong bonds.

5. It has a density of 3.51g/cm3

Uses of diamond
1. It is used for cutting tools and drilling devices
2. It is used for cutting glass
3. It is used for making jewelry.

Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon such as coal and charcoal is porous and easily absorbs pigments from solutions
E.g. in the refining of white spoon sugar. Charcoal is used to absorb the brown colour from brown sugar which
is then turned white.

FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON MONOXIDE

1. by incomplete combustion of carbon and carbon compounds.
2. Reduction of carbon dioxide by carbon.

Properties of carbon monoxide

1. It is colorless, odourless,
2. It is insoluble in water,
3. It is very poisonous
4. It is less dense than air.
5. It acts as a reducing agent.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Physical properties of carbon dioxide
1. It is a colorless, odourless, tasteless gas
2. It is much heavier than air
3. It is slightly soluble in water, its solubility increases with pressure
4. If carbon dioxide is cooled and pressurized, it turns straight into a solid, which is called dry ice.
Chemical properties of carbon dioxide
1. Carbon reacts with carbon dioxide and reduces it to carbon monoxide.
2. Burning magnesium decomposes carbon dioxide to produce magnesium oxide and carbon.
3. It dissolves a little in water and the dissolved gas reacts slightly with the water producing a dilute solution of
carbonic acid.
4. Being an acidic gas it reacts and gets absorbed by a solution of an alkali
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(aq)
Laboratory preparation, collection and the test for carbon dioxide

By reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with carbonate or bi-carbonate.

(a) CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(b) NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Collection of carbon dioxide: by downward delivery method/above water.

Chemical test for carbon dioxide: When it is bubbled through lime water the lime water turns milky due to
formation of a white precipitate.

Uses of carbon dioxide

1. Used in fire extinguishers

2. Dry ice is used as a refrigerant

3. For making carbonated drinks

4. for photosynthesis

5. used in baking

MANUFACTURE OF LIME (CAO) FROM LIMESTONE (CACO3)

By thermal dissociation of limestone (CaCO3)

CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Uses of lime CaO (quick lime) and slaked lime/ lime water (Ca(OH)2)
1. In neutralizing acidic soil,

2. Lime is used as a drying agent for ammonia

3. Lime is used in the neutralization of acidic industrial waste products before discharging them into rivers and
lakes

4. Calcium hydroxide is used as plaster of Paris for broken arms and legs

5. Calcium oxide is used as lining in the blast furnace.

6. Calcium oxide is used to remove silica impurities in the extraction of iron.

Uses of limestone (CaCO3), marble.

1. Manufacturing of lime,
2. Manufacture of cement
3. Manufacture of glass
4. Manufacture of iron i.e. it is used to remove impurities like silica as slag in the blast furnace

Greenhouse effect
In the day, heat from the sun (in the form of infrared) passes through the atmosphere heating up the earth. At
night, the earth radiates heat, to the outer space. Some atmospheric gases trap heat from the sun, thus preventing
the loss of heat. This is called greenhouse effect (which is essential or else the earth will be too cold for life).
Global warming is due to increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.