chemistry

❖ As difference in Electronegativity increase → Polarity increase.

❖ As difference in Electronegativity increase → Ionic property increase → Melting
point increase → Boiling point increase → Elelctric conductivity increase.
❖ Any ionic compound has no materilastic existence or particular direction.
❖ VSEPR theory A Xn Em represent stereostructur of any covalent compound.
❖ BeCl2 and AlCl3 Consedered as Covalent compound ??!
❖ AX2 ( Linear / Linear/ 180̊ ) _ AX3 ( Planer triangle / Planer triangle / 120̊ )_ AX4 (
Tetrahedral / Tetrahedron / 109.5̊ ) _ AX2E ( Planer triangle / Angular / 118̊) _ AX3E
( Tetrahedral / 3 Base pyramid / 107̊) _ AX2E2 (Tetrahedral / Angular / 105̊).
❖ Valence Bond Theory (V.B.T) “ Atom to form covalent bond must have unpaired
electrons & number of covalent bond = number of unpaired electrons.
❖ Two concepts ( Overlapped orbitals / Hybirdized orbitals ).
❖ Hybirdized orbitals are different in shape and more active pure orbitals because the
more protrusive to outside than pure and more capable to overlapping.
❖ Molecular orbital theory : Sigma bond( σ ) and Pi bond ( π ).
❖ Sigma bond is stronger than pi bond? 𝜎 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 // π long bond.
❖ To identifying the type of hybridization = No. of σ bonds + No. of lone pairs
❖ No of hybridized orbitals = No Of pure orbitals joining in hybridization.
❖ C2H4 ethylene Sp2 hybirdization ----- C2H2 Acetylene Sp hybridization.
❖ Coordinate bond is formed between 2 atoms (1 with a lone pair of electrons called
donor atom and other with a vacant orbital.
❖ No H+ in the aqueous solution of strong acids? Becuaese they bonding with water
molecules by coordinate bonds forming hydronium ions (H3O)+ .
❖ Hydrogen bond formed when H atom located between 2 ( Fluorine F / Oxygen O /
Nitrogen N) more electronegative elements .. Covalent bond with one and formed H
bond with other.
❖ Covalent bond stronger than H-bond.
❖ High boiling point of water due to H-bond.
❖ Metallic bond formed between metal atoms --- as No of valence electron increase
the metallic bond increase and inversely proportional with atomic radius” Atomic
volume”.
❖ Na melt at 98 ͦ C, Mg melt at 650 ͦ C and Al melt at 660 ͦ C.

DR. Islam abd el Khaleq -1- DR. Islam abd el Khaleq

chemistry

❖ Abundance ( NaCl rock salt & Potassium chloride ‘ Carnalite deposits ‘ & sea
water).
❖ Fr → Radio acive element, half life time = 20 min.
❖ 1A= 1 electron in Valence shell → Oxidation No. +1 → Very strong reducing agent
→ low first Ionization Potential→ Very High 2nd I.P → form Ionic Cpd → Very
weak metallic bond = Softest and lowest melting, boiling points.
❖ Largest atomic radius → losing electron easy so more ative metals → higher
electropositive → very low Electronegativity → Low density→ Photoelectric
phenomenon ‘ Liberates electrons’.
❖ Dry test = falme test → Platinum wire → Li+ Crimson → Na+ Golden yellow → K+
Plae violet → Cs+ Bluish Violet.
❖ Effect of atmospheric air→ 6 Li + N2 →2 Li3N then add H2O → Form NH3(g) .
❖ With Water → Vigorous reaction → H2(g) Evoloved.
❖ Alkali metals are kept under the surface Hydrocarbons→ to prevent reation with
Humid air due to high chemical activity.
❖ (1A) with O2 → burning in pure oxygen → Gives 3 types of oxides→ Li2O Normal
→ Na2O2 Peroxide → KO2 Superoxide ( K / Rb / Cs).
𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2
❖ 4KO2(s) + 2CO2(g) → 2K2CO3(s) + 3O2(g) . Purifying the air in closed areas.
❖ 1A + H2(g) → Form Metal Hydride in H2O act as reducing agent becuease they react
with water and H2(g) evoloved.
❖ 1A + acids → vigorous reaction.
❖ 1A + Non-metals ( 5A / 6A / 7A ) → [1A + 7A → Vigorously reaction.]
❖ All salts of alkali metals are soluble in H2O.
❖ Alkali metals carbonate don’t decompose by heating (Melting) except Li2CO3
decompose.
❖ Alkali metals nitrates decompose partially and give metal nitrite and O2(g) evolved.
❖ KNO3(S) used in manufacture of gunpowder due to it decompose with expolsion.

DR. Islam abd el Khaleq -2- DR. Islam abd el Khaleq

chemistry
❖ Extrcation→ electrolysis of their molten halides in presence of flux substance? To decrease
the melting point of halides.

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2Cl- (l) → Cl2(g) + 2 e- at Anode(+).

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 Na+ (l) → 2Na (S) at Cathode (-).
❖ NaOH & Na2CO3 .
❖ NaOH Hygroscopic substance ? Ability to absorb water vapor from atmospheric air.
❖ Uses of NaOH. (Paper – Soap – Synthetic silk) / Purify Petroleum acidic impurites/ Detection of
Basic radical ( Cations) Cu+2 & Al+3. [ Cu(OH)2(s) blue ppt. / Al(OH)3(s) white gelatinuos ppt. ]
❖ Na2CO3 ( White powder dissolve easily / Thermally stable / react with acid → Salt of acid and H2O
and CO2(g) evoloved.
❖ Used in ( Galss manufacture / paper / textile industry) / removing hardness of H2O [ Ca+2 & Mg+2 ]
❖ Washing soda Na2CO3. 10H2O or Hydrated sodium carbonate.
❖ Preparation of Na2CO3 [ In Laboratory ( NaOH hot + CO2(g) ) / in Industry (Solvay’s process)
2Gases with salt and H2O (NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) → NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 +
H2O.
❖ Gp. 5A N2 represent about 80% of atmospheric air.
❖ Phosphorous [ Ca3(PO4)2 And Apatite CaF2. Ca3(PO4)2 ]
❖ {As & Sb & Bi} → in form Sulphide ( X2S3 ).
❖ Metallic property Increase increasing Atomic number in Group. Which mean Acidic property
decease in Gp.
❖ Bi has waek ability to conduct electricity.
❖ Moleclues of 5A ( N2 / Bi2 but all P4 & As4 & Sb4 form X4 in Vapor state) = Tetratomic.
❖ Oxidation Numbers several from ( -3 : +5 ) → Share till 3 or lose till 5 electrons.
❖ Ammonia / Hydrazine / Hydroxyl amine / Nitrogen / Notrous oxide / Notric oxide /
Nitrogen trioxide / Nitrogen dioxide / Nitrogen pentoxide.
❖ Allotropic forms → Non-metals solid only→ but ( N2(g) & Bi(S) ) have no allotropy.
❖ P→ White – red – violet. As→ Black – grey – yellow Sb→ Yellow – black.
❖ Oxides of 5A → All have formula X2O3 But ( N2 & Bi ) have formula ( X2O5 )
❖ Acidic → Ampoteric oxide ( Sb2O3 ) → Basic Oxide ( Bi2O5 ).
❖ Hydrides of Gp. 5A [NH3 / PH3 / AsH3 ] → Central atoms have lone pair → soi t can
form coordinate bond.
❖ NH3 More basic than Phosphine. Their thermal stability is weak → as atomic No. In
gp increase → polarity decrease and solubility deasease.
❖ N2 (g) preparation from atmospheric air & from chemical compound. [ NH4Cl +
NaNO2]
❖ N2 →Colorless – tasteless – oudorless – lighter than air – Denisty 1.25 g/l – boiling
point (-159.79 ֠C ) -neutral effect on litmus paper – sparingly soluble in water.
❖ N2 reaction occur in presence [electric spark 550֠C or Electric arc 3000֠𝐶 ).
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑐 3000𝐶
❖ CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 Calcium cyanamide + C(S) used as fertilizer.
❖ Most famous Compound of N2 [ Ammonia gas ].

DR. Islam abd el Khaleq -3- DR. Islam abd el Khaleq

chemistry
∆
❖ 2NH4Cl + slaked lime [Ca(OH)2 ] → CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(v) + 2NH3(g) → CaO ‘Quick
lime used as drying agent.

𝐹𝑒−𝑀𝑜
❖ Haber-Boch’s method : N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3 (g)
200 𝑎𝑡𝑚−500 𝐶

❖ NH3 Punget smell – lighter tha air – doesm’t burn or support combustion – shutdown
glowing splint when approached to it – Highly soluble in water – fountain
experiment : NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH (aq) base anhydride.

❖ Detection form ammonia gas with HCl forming NH4Cl white fumes.

- Higher first ionization potential Group Zero.

- Lower second ionization potential Group 1A. Higher second ionization potential
Group 1A
- Higher third Ionization potential Group 2A.

- Higher Fourth Ionization Potential Group 3A.

Amphoteric Oxides
ZnO Zinc Oxide
SnO Tin Oxide
Al2O3 Aluminum Oxide
Sb2O3 Antimony Oxide

Oxidation – reduction reaction.

- Oxidation Reduction
Losing electrons Gaining electrons
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
Oxidation number increase Oxidation number
deacrease.

DR. Islam abd el Khaleq -4- DR. Islam abd el Khaleq