ELECTROLYSIS

CONDUCTORS
Substances which allow electricity to pass through them either in the solid form or in the liquid form are called
as conductors.
Examples: All metals like silver, copper, iron, aluminum and their alloys.
Exception: Nonmetallic elements - Graphite.

NONCONDUCTORS OR INSULATORS
Substances which do not conduct electricity are called as nonconductors.
Example 1 : All non-metals like Sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen etc. except graphite.
Example 2 : All crystalline salts in solid state.
Example 3 : Compounds like polyethene, glass, wood, rubber etc.

Conductors

Non-mettalic Electrolytic
Mettalic Conductors conductors
Conductors
(Graphite) (Electrolytes)
METALLIC CONDUCTORS
These are substances which conduct electricity without undergoing any decomposition. Here the flow of
electrons takes place.
All metals and graphite are conductors.

ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTORS OR ELECTROLYTES

Substances which conduct electricity in aq. form or in molten state along with chemical decomposition are
called electrolytes.
Example 1: Solutions of acids, bases and salts.
Example 2: Fused or molten salts like sodium chloride (NaCl), Lead Bromide(PbBr2) etc..

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METALLIC CONDUCTORS AND ELECTROLYTES

Metallic Conductors Electrolytes
i. It can be an element or a compound i. It is an ionic compound
ii. Flow of electricity takes place without the ii. Flow of electricity takes place with chemical
decomposition of the substance decomposition.
iii. Flow of electrons takes place and no flow of iii. Movement of ions takes place and there is
matter flow of matter.
iv. Only a physical change takes place iv. A chemical change takes place
v. Electrical conduction decreases with the v. Electrical conduction increases with the
increase in temperature. increase in temperature

TYPES OF ELECTROLYTES
1. Non electrolytes (has molecules only)
Substances which do not allow current to pass through them in fused or aq. state.
Examples: Petrol, Kerosene, oil, sugar solution.
2. Strong electrolytes (has ions only)
Ionic compounds which conduct electricity to a large extent due to high ionization are called as strong
electrolytes.
Examples: 1. Strong acids like Hcl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.
 2. Strong bases like NaOH, KOH, etc..
3. Most of the inorganic salts like molten NaCl, PbBr2, CuSO4 etc..
3. Weak electrolytes(has ions and molecules)
Ionic compound which conducts less electricity due to the poor or low ionization
(or)
Substances which dissociate partially in aq. solutions or in molten state and conduct less electricity are
called weak electrolytes.
Examples: 1. Weak acids like acetic acid(CH3COOH), Carbonic acid(H2CO3), Phosphoric acid(H3PO4)
2. weak bases like ammonium hydroxide(NH4OH), Lead Hydroxide(Pb(OH)2), Aluminum hydroxide
(Al(OH)3)
3. Salts like Sodium Carbonate(Na2CO3), Potassium Bicarbonate(KHCO3)

ELECTROLYSIS
It is the process of decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of electricity through it, in molten or in aq.
state.
Example:
1. Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ⇌ 𝑁𝑎+ 𝐶𝑙 −
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

At Cathode
𝑁𝑎+ + 1𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙

At Anode
𝐶𝑙 − − 1𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝑙2 ↑𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠

So during the electrolysis of Nacl, we get sodium metal as the product at cathode and chlorine gas as the
product at anode.
At cathode reduction reaction takes place because electron is gained. At anode oxidation takes place because
there is electron loss.

2. Electrolysis of molten lead bromide.

𝑃𝑏𝐵𝑟2 ⇌ 𝑃𝑏2+ 2𝐵𝑟 −
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

At Cathode

𝑃𝑏2+ + 2𝑒 → 𝑃𝑏 (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙)

At Anode
2𝐵𝑟 − − 2𝑒 → 2𝐵𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟2 ↑
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠

3. Electrolysis of acidified water

𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 −
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

At Cathode
 𝐻 + + 1𝑒 → 𝐻
𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻2 ↑ (𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠)

At Anode
4𝑂𝐻− − 4𝑒 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 ↑
𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠

4. Electrolysis of dilute Sulphuric acid

Reaction at Cathode
𝐻 + + 1𝑒 → 𝐻
𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻2

Reaction at Anode
Sulphate ions and hydroxide ions move to the anode. but due to the high discharge ability of hydroxide
ions the following reaction takes place.
4𝑂𝐻− − 4𝑒 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2
So O2 gas and H2O are the products at anode. Sulphate ions remain unaffected.

Selective discharge series of anions. Selective Discharge Series of Cations

K+
𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑆𝑂42−
Na+
− 𝑁𝑂3− Ca+
Increasing Order

𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Mg2+ Increasing order
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝐶𝑙 − Al3+
Fe2+
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟 − Pb2+
𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝐼− H+
Cu2+
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑂𝐻 − Hg2+
Ag+
Pt+
Au+

5. Electrolysis of copper sulphate solution with copper electrodes

𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ⇌ 𝐶𝑢2+ 𝑆𝑂42−
At Cathode
𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 → 𝐶𝑢 (𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙)
At Anode
𝑆𝑂42− + 𝐶𝑢 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑒
We get Cu metal as the product at Cathode and CuSO4 as the product at anode.
Observations during this electrolysis.
1) Pinkish brown powdery Cu metal is deposited at the Cathode.
2) Size of the Cu anode decreases.
 3) The blue colour CuSO4 solution remains the same because Cu ions are replenished.
4) Quantity of the electrolyte remains the same.

6. Electrolysis of CuSO4 solution with neutral electrodes like Pt or graphite.

𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ⇌ 𝐶𝑢2+ 𝑆𝑂42−
At Cathode
𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 → 𝐶𝑢 (𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙)
At Anode
4𝑂𝐻 − + 4𝑒 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 ↑
So, in this solution H+ and OH- ions are also present but at the anode, sulphate ions do not undergo reaction.
Instead hydroxide ions react and form water and O2 as the products.
Observations during this electrolysis
1. Brown powdery Cu metal is deposited at the cathode.
2. Water and colourless O2 gas are formed at the anode.
3. Blue colour of the CuSO4 solution fades and becomes colourless because the solution is losing Cu ions.
4. There is a decrease in the level of the electrolyte because of the liberation of O2 gas.
5. Size of the anode remains the same.
Applications of Electrolysis
1. Electroplating
It is the process of depositing a noble metal over a baser metal by electrolysis.

Electroplating is done :
i. to protect and preserve the metal from rusting or corrosion.
ii. for decoration as it improves the appearance.

Points to be remembered for electroplating

i. The article to be electroplated should be the cathode.
ii. The noble metal should be the anode.
iii. The electrolyte must contain the ions of the metal in the form of solution.
iv. The article should be dipped completely in the electrolyte.
Examples of electroplating
a) Silver plating of a spoon
Cathode - spoon
Anode - Silver metal
Electrolyte - Potassium silver Cyanide (or) Sodium Silver Cyanide
K[Ag(Cn)2] Na[Ag(Cn)2]
Reaction at Cathode
Ag+ +1e →Ag
Silver deposits on the spoon

Reaction at Anode
𝐶𝑛− + 𝐴𝑔 → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑛 + 1𝑒
(Anode)
This silver cyanide at anode becomes potassium silver cyanide which acts as the electrolyte.
Observations
 Spoon is electroplated with silver
 Silver anode decreases in size
 level of potassium silver cyanide remains the same.

b) Electroplating a nail with nickel

Cathode - Nail
Anode - Nickel
Electrolyte -Nickel Ammonium sulphate (or) Nickel Sulphate

Reaction at Cathode
𝑁𝑖 2+ + 2𝑒 → 𝑁𝑖
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙

Reaction at Anode
𝑆𝑂42− + 𝑁𝑖 → 𝑁𝑖 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑒

c) Electroplating a chain with gold

Cathode - Chain
Anode - Gold
Electrolyte - Gold Chloride (AuCl)
Steps to be taken for a smooth and uniform electroplating
1. Direct current should be passed
2. Low current should be passed for a long time.
3. The electrolyte should be of high concentration.
4. The surface of the article should be cleaned thoroughly.

2. Electro refining of the metal

Purification of impure metal by electrolysis is called as electro refining. We should take the impure metal as
anode, a pure sheet of the metal as the cathode and an ionic compound containing the metal should be the
electrolyte.

Example
Electro refining of impure copper
Anode - Impure copper
Cathode - Pure copper
Electrolyte - Copper sulphate solution

Reaction
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ⇌ 𝐶𝑢2+ 𝑆𝑂42−

At Cathode
𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 → 𝐶𝑢 (𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑠)

At Anode
𝑆𝑂42− + 𝐶𝑢 → 𝐶𝑢 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑒
(𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑢)
So copper deposits over the cathode while SO4 ions reacts with Cu from the impure copper rod and the impurities
fall below the anode. We call it as anode mud.
We observe that the anode decreases in size while cathode increases in size.
Important points:
I. Strong electrolytes have ions only.
Weak electrolytes have ions and molecules.
Non electrolytes have molecules only.
II. Electrolytes of acidulated water is considered to be an example of catalysis because H 2SO4 catalyzes water
to dissociate into Hydrogen ions and sulphate ions.
III. Potassium silver cyanide is preferred to silver nitrate as the electrolyte while electroplating with silver
because the deposition of silver will not be even if silver nitrate is used.
IV. During electrolysis of molten lead bromide, graphite anode is preferred to other electrodes because
graphite is unaffected by the bromine vapours formed during the electrolysis.
 METTALLURGY
Elements

Metals Metaloids Non -Metals

(Cu, Fe,Al, Zn) (As, SH, Ge, Bi) (P,S,C,H,O)

ELEMENTS
These are simple substances made up of only one type of atoms.
Eg: C,O,K, Na.. etc

METALS
These are electropositive elements which are hard, lustrous, ductile having high tensile strength and good conductors of
heat and electricity.
Eg:. Na,Mg, Au, Ag, etc

NON-METALS
These are electronegative elements which are generally soft, brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity
Eg: C, S. Cl. H, E.. etc

METTALOIDS
These are elements which show the properties of metals and nonmetals.
Eg: As, Sl, Ge, Bi, etc…

METTALLURGY
It is the process of extracting the metals in a pure form from its ore profitably.
(or)
It is the set of all the different process involved in the extraction of metals from their ores.

MINERALS
These are the naturally occurring form of metals along with the other impurities.
Eg: Iron pyrites, bauxite, limestone etc..

ORES
These are the minerals from which the metals can be extracted profitably and conveniently.
Eg: Zinc blend(ZnS), Zincite (ZnO), Bauxite (Al2 O3, 2H2O)

GANGUE OR MATRIX
Impurities present with the mineral or ores.

GENERAL STEPS FOR EXTRACTION OF METALS

1. Concentration of the ore or Ore dressing.
2. Extraction of metal- Roasting and Calcination
3. Reduction or ore.
4. Refining of metal

CONCENTRATION OF THE ORE

I. Gravity separation
This is used when the ore is heavier than the gangue or vice versa
Eg: Iron ores

II. Electromagnetic separation

This is done when the ore is magnetic or the impurity is magnetic
 III. Froth Floatation
This method is used for sulphides ores. Powdered ore is put into a tank of water with a few drops of eucalyptus oil or pine
oil added to it. It is agitated by blowing air so the ore gets wet by the oil and floats on the surface of water in the form of
froth. Then the ore can be recovered from the froth. The impurities settle down at the bottom.
Eg: Zinc Blend, (ZnS), Galena(PbS)

IV. Chemical Method

Here the ore is treated with compound like NaOH or Na2CO3.
Eg: Bauxite (Al2O3, 2H2O)

EXTRACTION OF METAL
I. Roasting
Heating the ore in excess of air to remove the volatile impurities, moisture etc.. The sulphide ores get converted to oxide
form.
Eg: Roasting of Zinc blend
𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
2𝑍𝑛𝑆 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 2𝑆𝑂2 ↑

II. Calcination
Heating the ore in the absence of air below its melting point. It is done usually for carbonate ores so that CO 2 gas is
evolved and the ores change to oxide form.
Eg: Calamine ore of Zinc
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
It is also done for hydrated ores so that moisture is removed. It is done for oxide ores also. So that the volatile
impurities are removed during the process and the ore becomes porus.

Reduction of the Ore

The oxide form of the ore is normally reduced by heating with coke. If coke cannot reduce it, stronger reducing agents
like Al is used. Hydrogen and CO are also used as reducing agents.

𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐶 → 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐶𝑂 ↑
𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂 → 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐶 → 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐶𝑂 ↑
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 2𝐶𝑟

Ores can also be reduced by electrolysis

Refining of the metal

Impure metal which is extracted is purified by electro refining. Here impure metal is taken as anode,
Pure metal is taken as cathode and salt of that metal in molten form is taken as electrolyte.
 EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Important Ores
1. Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O)
2. Cryolite (Na3 Al F6)
3. Corrundum (Al2 O3)

Step 1
Extraction of Aluminum can be done by Halls process or Bayer’s process.

a) Halls process
Bauxite has the major impurities of iron oxide and silicon dioxide.

1. To purify bauxite, it is powdered and fused with sodium carbonate. Sodium meta aluminate is formed as a soluble
product. The impurities remain as insoluble particles. It is filtered and sodium meta aluminate is separated from
the impurities.
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3. 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
∆
Sod. meta aluminate

2. Now CO2 is passed through sodium meta aluminate solution at 50 - 600C. Gelatinous white precipitate of Al(OH)3
is formed. This ppt. is filtered and taken separately.

2NaAlO2+CO2 +3H2O →2Al(OH)3 ↓+Na2CO3

Aluminum Hydroxide

3. This ppt of Al(OH)3 is dried and ignited to get alumina

2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
∆
alumina

Extraction by Bayer’s process

In this process bauxite is powdered and heated with the strong solution of sodium hydroxide in large tanks called
digestors. Then we get sodium meta aluminate and the impurities remain insoluble. Impurities are filtered and removed
and sodium meta aluminate is cooled and sent into the tanks called precipitators. Few crystals of Al(OH)3 are added and
agitated for several days Now we get Al(OH)3 crystals. This is called seeding.

𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Sod. Meta Aluminate

𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓ +𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝐴𝑙 (𝑂𝐻)3
crystals aluminum hydroxide
crystals

Al(OH)3 is dried and ignited to get alumina.

2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
∆
alumina

STEP 2
Reduction of fused Alumina by electrolysis.
Alumina cannot be reduced by coke because of the great affinity of Al with oxygen. So reduction of alumina can be done
only by electrolysis. But alumina alone cannot be electrolyzed because:
1. Pure alumina is a bad conductor of electricity
2. Alumina has a very high melting point of about 2000o C
3. At such temperature Al metal will vapourise, so alumina is mixed with cryolite. (Na3 Al F6) and fluorspar(CaF2)
in the ratio of 20, 60, 20. Now it becomes a good conductor of electricity and it fuses at 900 0C which is much
below the boiling point of alumina. (Flourspar is added to reduce the melting point.)
STEP 3
Electrolysis of Alumina
Fused electrolyte is taken in an iron tank with gas carbon lining which acts as the cathode. The anode is made up of a
number of carbon rods suspended from the top in the fused electrolyte. The electrolyte is covered with coke powder to
prevent the loss of heat. During the passage of current alumina is reduced to Aluminum
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ⇌ 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 302−
At Cathode
𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 → 𝐴𝑙

This Al get collected at the bottom of the tank and can be removed through the top hole at the base.

At Anode
𝑂2− − 2𝑒 → 𝑂
𝑂 + 𝑂 → 𝑂2

This oxygen which is liberated at the anode reacts with the carbon anode and forms CO2

C+ O2 → CO2
So carbon anodes are used up and they should be replaced frequently from time to time.

STEP 4
Refining of Aluminum by electrolysis - Hoopes process.
This is done in an iron tank with a carbon lining which acts as the anode. This tank contains three layers of fused mass
having different densities.
1. The bottom layer contains impure Aluminum and acts as the anode.
2. The middle layer contains the electrolyte- a mixture of Fluorides of Na, Al and Ba.
3. The upper layer contains pure Aluminum in molten form and it has a set of Carbon rods suspended in them, acting
as the cathode.
4. During the passage of current Aluminium from the middle layer(AlF3) is discharged at the top layer.
5. An equivalent amount of Al from the bottom layer (impure Al) passes to the middle layer.
6. So there is a gradual transfer of Al from the bottom layer to the top layer. The impurities are left behind at the
bottom.
𝐴𝑙𝐹3 ⇌ 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 2𝐹 −
At Cathode
𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 → 𝐴𝑙

At Anode
3𝐹 − + 𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙𝐹3 + 3𝑒

Physical properties of Aluminium

1. It is a bluish white metal but appears dull white due to the formation of a protective layer of Al2O3, which
is formed by its exposure to air, so it is called as self-protective metal. This is the reason for Al not
undergoing more corrosion than iron though Aluminium is more reactive than iron.
2. It’s a light metal, malleable, ductile and a very good conductor of heat and electricity.
3. Al can be moulded but cannot be soldered.
Chemical properties
1. Al does not react with dry air but in moist air it forms a thin coating of Aluminium oxide.
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2 O3
2. If Al is heated strongly in air it burns with brilliant light but without a flame and the product is Al2O3.
This property of burning without flame but with a bright light makes Al powder useful in flash light
photography.
3. Al has no reaction with cold water but it decomposes with steam and forms H2 gas.
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 6𝐻2 ↑
steam

4. Dilute or conc. HCl reacts with Al forming Aluminium chloride and H2 gas.
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐻2 ↑
5. Dilute H2SO4 reacts with Al and forms Aluminium sulphate and H2 gas
2𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 3𝐻2 ↑
6. Conc. H2SO4 reacts with Al and forming SO2 gas along with Al2(SO4)3 and H2O.
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 3𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +6𝐻2 𝑂
conc

7. Conc. HNO3 makes Al passive.

8. Al reacts with dry chlorine and forms Aluminium chloride.
2𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3
9. Aluminium is a powerful reducing agent. It reduces some of the metallic oxides to metals.
𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 2𝐹𝑒 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
Reduction

10. Al reacts with caustic soda and caustic potash (NaOH and KOH) and forms salt and H2 gas.
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 2𝑁𝑎3 𝐴𝑙𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 ↑
𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 2𝐾3 𝐴𝑙𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 ↑

𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
Zn also reacts with caustic soda and caustic potash forming zincates and H2 gas.
𝑍𝑛 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑍𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐻2 ↑
sodium zincate

𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 𝐾2 𝑍𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐻2 ↑
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒
 IMPORTANT ORES AND USES

IRON
Ores
1. Haematite (Fe2O3. 2H2O)
2. Siderite (FeCO3)
3. Magnetite (Fe3O4)
4. Iron Pyrites (FeS2)
Uses
1. Cast Iron or pig iron is used as rails, Lamp post etc..
2. Iron is Used for manufacturing various types of steel
3. Iron is used in the construction of buildings

ZINC
Ores
1. Zinc blende (ZnS)
2. Calamine (ZnCO3)
3. Zincite (ZnO)
Uses
1. In galvanization of iron
2. It is used in dry cells and cosmetic industries
3. It is used in the preparation of different alloys like bronze, brass, German silver

ALUMINIUM
Ores
1. Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O)
2. Cryolite (Na3 Al F6)
3. Corrundum (Al2 O3)
Uses
1. Aluminum foils are used as food wrappers
2. Used in flash light photography
3. Used as reflectors
4. Used in thermite welding (Here Al is used as a reducing agent to reduce iron oxide)
5. It is used in the formation of important alloys like duratumin, magnalium.
 SULPHURIC ACID - H2SO4
OIL OF VITRIOL
𝑂
↑
𝐻− 𝑂−𝑆−𝑂−𝐻
↓
𝑂
Manufacture of Sulphuric acid
Contact process
 Step 1
Sulphur is burnt in air or oxygen to form SO2

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2 ↑
(or)
Iron Pyrites can also be burnt in air or oxygen to form SO2
4𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 11𝑂2 → 2Fe2O3 +8SO2

 Step 2
SO3 is mixed with pure and dry oxygen and passed over the catalyst Vanadium Pentaoxide at 450℃ - 500℃.
1-2 atm of pressure to form Sulphur trioxide
𝑉2 𝑂5
2𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 2𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
450℃ − 500℃

Previously Pt or platinized asbestos was used as the catalyst but 𝑉2 𝑂5 is preferred because:
1. Pt is costly
2. Platinized asbestos gets poisoned due to arsenic impurities present in SO2

This is an exothermic reaction and low temp should give more SO3. But the optimum temp is 450℃ − 500℃. High pressure
should give more SO3 but contact tower cannot withstand high pressure so 1-2 atm pressure is maintained.

 Step 3
SO3 is now dissolved in Conc. H2SO4 and we get Oleum or Pyro Sulphuric acid.
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7
Conc. Oleum

SO3 is not directly dissolved in H2O to get H2SO4 because this reaction is highly exothermic and vigorous and causes
danger.
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

 Step 4
Finally, Oleum is mixed with equal quantity of H2O and we get conc. H2SO4
𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
Oleum Conc.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) It is a colourless, odourless and oily liquid.
b) It is a nonvolatile acid
c) It is highly hygroscopic in nature.
d) It mixes with water in all proportions.
To dilute H2SO4, water should not be added to the acid directly because the reaction is highly exothermic. Instead
acid is added to water with constant stirring to distribute the heat.
e) It is highly corrosive in nature and causes severe blisters on the skin.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
I. Sulphuric acid acts as a drying agent and also as a dehydrating agent.
1. Drying agent
In the lab preparation of gases like HCl , Cl2 and SO2, Conc. H2SO4 is used as a drying agent because it absorbs
moisture from the gas.
 2. Dehydrating agent
Conc. H2SO4 removes not only moisture but also the elements of water from few compounds. This property is called
dehydration

Example 1
Sugar gets charred when Conc. H2SO4 is added to it.
𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 12𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 . 11𝐻2 𝑂
Sugar Conc. Black mass(charred)

Example 2
Blue crystals of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) changes into white powder when Conc. H2SO4 is added to it. This is because
H2SO4 removes the water of crystallization
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 5𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 . 5𝐻2 𝑂
Blue crystals conc. Anhydrous copper sulphate
(white powder)

Example 3
Conc. H2SO4 dehydrates formic acid and forms CO
𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 . 𝐻2 𝑂
Formic acid conc.

Example 4
Oxalic acid gets dehydrated and forms CO2 and CO
𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑂 ↑ +𝐶𝑂2 ↑. + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 . 𝐻2 𝑂
conc
|
𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
oxalic acid

Example 5
When ethanol reacts with conc. H2SO4 it is dehydrated to ethane.
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 . 𝐻2 𝑂
Ethanol conc. Ethene

II. H2SO4 is a nonvolatile acid (less volatile) . So it is used for the preparation of highly volatile acids like HCl and
HNO3
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
conc.

𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3

III. H2SO4 is dibasic acid. It has two replaceable H atoms in it. So it forms a normal salt and an acid salt
a) 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Sod. Sulphate
(normal salt)

b) 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Sod. bisulphate
(acid salt)

IV. H2SO4 is an oxidizing agent

a) Conc.H2SO4 oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide.
𝐶 + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. oxidation

b) Conc. H2SO4 oxidizes Sulphur to Sulphur dioxide

𝑆 + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 3𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. oxidation

V. H2SO4 acts as a typical acid.

a. It turns moist blue litmus red.
b. It reacts with bases and basic oxides to form salt and water. (Neutralization)
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
dilute
 𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 →MgS𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
dilute

c. Dil. H2SO4 reacts with metals and H2 is liberated.

𝑍𝑛 + +𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 →ZnS𝑂4 + 𝐻2 ↑
dilute

Note: Cu does not react with dil. H2SO4 because Cu is less reactive than H2 in the activity series.

d. Cu reacts with Conc. H2SO4 and forms CuSO4 along with water molecules and SO2 gas. Similar reaction happens with
Al and Zn also.
𝐶𝑢 + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂
𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 3𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +6𝐻2 𝑂
e. H2SO4 reacts with metallic carbonate and bicarbonates forming salt, water and CO2
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂
Mag. Carbonate

𝐾𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂

Pot. Carbonate

f. H2SO4 reacts with sulphites and bi sulphites and liberate SO2 gas along with salt and water.
𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂
Calcium Sulphite Calcium Sulphate

𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂

Sodium bi Sulphite Sodium bi Sulphate

g. H2SO4 reacts with metallic sulphides and liberates rotten egg smelling Hydrogen Sulphide gas.
𝐹𝑒𝑆 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↑

Tests for H2SO4

1. When barium chloride is added to H2SO4 we get a white ppt of barium sulphate.
𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 ↓ +2𝐻𝐶𝑙
White ppt.

2. When lead nitrate soln. is added to H2SO4 a white ppt. of lead sulphate is formed.
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑜3 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 ↓ +2𝐻𝑂3
White ppt.

3. When copper turnings are added to conc. H2SO4 and heated a colourless SO2 gas is given out with suffocating odour.
This SO2 gas decolorizes the purple colour of KMnO4 (Potassium permanganate) It also changed the orange colour of
K2Cr2O7 (potassium dichromate) into green.

Uses
1. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers like urea and ammonium sulphate.
2. In the manufacture of important sulphate and sulphites.
3. In refining petroleum
4. In the production of dyes, drugs and disinfectants.
5. In lead storage batteries
6. Used as a drying agent.
7. In the manufacture of plastic, paints, and photographic film.
8. In the manufacture of explosives like TNT, nitroglycerine and picric acid.

Note:
Another process of manufacturing H2SO4 is lead chamber process. It is not used as we get only 60%- 70% conc. acid. So,
contact process is preferred.
 HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AND HYDROCLORIC ACID (HCL → MURIATIC ACID)

LAB PREPARATION
Chemicals Taken
1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
2. Conc. Sulphuric acid (Conc. H2SO4)

Temp Required
150℃ − 200℃

Equation
>200℃
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ∆ 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ↑
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒

If it is heated above 200℃ the following reaction takes place.

>200℃
2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ∆
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 ↑
1) Instead of sodium sulphate, we get sodium sulphate which is a hard sticky solid and it makes it difficult to
clean.
2) Above 200℃, the glass apparatus might break.
3) Wastage of fuel
Hydrogen chloride gas is dried by passing through the drying agent conc. H2SO4. The other drying agent like
quick lime(CaO) and Phosphorus Pentaoxide(P2O5) cannot be used because these compounds react with HCl.
𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑙. 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒

2𝑃2 𝑂5 + 3𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑃𝑂𝐶𝑙3 + 2𝐻𝑃𝑂3

𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒

Other methods of preparing 𝑯𝑪𝒍 ↑

1) By the reaction of H2 gas and Cl2 gas in diffused sunlight.
𝐻2 ↑ +𝐶𝑙2 ↑ → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2) 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ↑ can also be prepared by burning H2 gas in Cl2 gas
𝐻2 ↑ +𝐶𝑙2 ↑ → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
Physical properties of 𝑯𝑪𝒍 ↑
1) It is a colourless gas with an irritating odour
2) It fumes in air very strongly due to the traces of NH3, water vapor and CO2
3) It is 1.2 times heavier than air.
4) It neither burns nor supports burning.
5) HCl gas can be liquefied and also solidified.
6) It is very highly soluble in water and the solubility ratio is 1:450

Fountain Experiment
The high solubility of HCl in water is demonstrated by fountain experiment.
A flask filled with HCl gas is kept inverted in such a way that the other end of the jet tube is dipped in a trough of
water with blue litmus solution.
The Flask is closed with a two holed rubber cork and the jet tube passes through one hole and a dropper with
water is passed through the other hole.
Few drops of water are introduced into the flask using the dropper. HCl gas dissolves in water immediately
causing partial vacuum in the flask. This makes the blue litmus solution rush though the jet tube and fall as a
fountain.
The blue litmus solution changes into a red colour because of its acidic nature.
This experiment proves the high solubility of HCl in water.

Chemical properties
1) HCl gas reacts with the following indicators
a. It turns moist blue litmus red.
b. Methyl orange solution turns pink.
c. Phenolphthalein solution remains colourless.
2) HCl gas forms dense white fumes when it directly reacts with Ammonia gas or NH4OH solution.
𝑁𝐻3 ↑ +𝐻𝐶𝑙 ↑→ 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙
𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎 𝐴𝑚𝑚. 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠)

𝑁𝐻4 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂

𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠
3) HCl dissolved in water forms HCl acid and it shows all the properties of a typical acid.
1. Metals like Na, K, Mg, Zn,Fe etc. forms salts and H2 gas
Ex I : 2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 ↑
Ex II : 𝑀𝑔 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 ↑
Ex III: 𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 ↑
Ex IV: 𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 ↑
2. Metallic oxide or basic oxide forms the corresponding chlorides and H2O
Ex. 1 : 𝐾2 𝑂 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Ex 2 : 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
3. With Metallic hydroxide or bases forms salt and H2O
Ex 1 : 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Ex 2 : 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
4. With Metallic carbonates and bicarbonates forms, salt, H2O and CO2 gas.
Ex 1 : 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
Ex 2 : 𝐾𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
Ex 3 : 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
5. With Metallic sulphites and bisulphites forms salt, H2O and SO2 gas.
𝐷𝑖𝑙. 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + Ex 1: 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑
𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
Ex 2: 𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑
Ex 3: 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝑆𝑂)3 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑
6. With Metallic sulphides forms salt and H2S gas
Ex 1 :𝑍𝑛𝑆 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↑
Ex 2 :𝐹𝑒𝑆 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↑
7. Oxidation of conc. HCl using oxidizing agents.
Oxidizing agents like MnO2, PbO2, KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7, oxidizes conc. HCl to Cl2 gas.
a) 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 4𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐶𝑙2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑔. 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒

Oxidation
b) 𝑃𝑏𝑂2 + 4𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐶𝑙2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒

Oxidation
c) 2𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 16𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 2𝑀𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 5𝐶𝑙2 + 8𝐻2 𝑂
 Conc.
d) 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 14𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐶𝑟𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐶𝑙2 + 7𝐻2 𝑂
8. 𝐇𝐂𝐥 ↑ and 𝐇𝐂𝐥 acid reacts with silver nitrate solution forming curdy white
precipitate of silver chloride.
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 ↓ +𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
9. HCl reacts with lead nitrate solution and forms a white precipitate of lead chloride.
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 ↓ +2𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
(𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑡. )

Aqua Regia
Three parts of Conc. HCl and one part of Conc. HNO3 forms a mixture called as aqua regia. This mixture
dissolves noble metals like Au and Pt.
This is because it forms nascent chlorine(Cl) which reacts with gold and platinum.

3𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑦𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒

Pickling
Metals are heated with Conc. HCl so as to remove grease, oxides, carbonates etc. from its surface before coating it
with another metal. This is called pickling.

Uses of HCl
1) To form aqua regia
2) In textile industries
3) In the manufacture of dyes
4) In the preparation of different chlorides
5) In tanning of leather

Test for HCl

1. HCl gas fumes in air
2. It forms dense white fumes with a glass rod dipped in NH4OH solution.
3. It turns moist blue litmus red.
4. It forms a curdy white precipitate with AgNO3 solution.
5. It forms a white precipitate with lead nitrate solution
6. 22.2% conc. HCl in water forms constant boiling mixture.

Test for Different Gases

1. Carbon dioxide
⎯ It is a colourless gas
⎯ Does not support combustion and it is not combustible.
⎯ It turns lime water (Ca(OH)2) milky.
2. Sulphur dioxide
⎯ Colourless gas with irritating smell of burning Sulphur.
⎯ It decolorizes purple solution of KMnO4
⎯ Orange solution of K2Cr2O7 turns green forming Chromium Sulphate
3. Hydrogen Sulphide
⎯ Colourless gas with a smell of rotten egg.
⎯ It turns lead acetate paper shiny black.
 NITRIC ACID - HNO3 - Aqua Fortis
Lab preparation
A mixture of potassium Nitrate (Nitre) and conc. Sulphuric acid are heated in a glass retort gently between 180o - 200oC
Vapours of HNO3 rises up and passes through the long neck of the retort These vapours are collected in the water cooled
180℃−200℃
receiver. 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑝𝑜𝑡. ℎ𝑦𝑑. 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒

Temperature should not rise above 𝟐𝟎𝟎℃ for the following reasons.
1. Above 200℃ we get potassium sulphate which is a hard sticky solid and it is difficult to remove from the retort.
Also potassium sulphate is a poor conductor of heat.
𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 200℃
2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐾2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. ∆ 𝑝𝑜𝑡. 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒
(Hard sticky solid)
2. Above 200℃ HNO3 decomposes and gives out NO2 gas
3. HNO3 starts attacking even the glass apparatus.
4. Fuel is wasted.
All the apparatus including the stopper should be made up of glass only because HNO3 attacks all other materials.
HNO3 which is prepared should be colourless but we see the yellow colour generally, this is due to dissolved
Nitrogen dioxide gas but pure acid should be colourless.
HNO3 decomposes slowly at room temperature and liberate NO2 gas(reddish brown gas). This dissolves in the
acid giving the yellow colour.
4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 ⇌ 4𝑁𝑂2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 ↑
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑔𝑎𝑠
To obtain pure and colourless acid, we can pass CO2 or air through warm acid.

Manufacture of HNO3
Ostwalds process:
1. Dry NH3 and O2 are taken in the ratio of 1:10 and passed through the catalyst Pt at 800℃ (Catalytic oxidation of
NH3) NH3 gets oxidized to colourless Nitric oxide gas and H2O.
𝑃𝑡
4𝑁𝐻3 + 5𝑂2 → 4𝑁𝑂 ↑ +6𝐻2 𝑂
∆ 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
200℃
2. Colourless NO gas is cooled to 50℃ and more O2 is added to it. Reddish brown NO2 gas is formed
2𝑁𝑂 ↑ + 𝑂2 ↑ → 2𝑁𝑂2 ↑
Nitrogen dioxide
(reddish brown)

3. NO2 gas is dissolved in water in presence of O2 and HNO3 is formed.

4𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3

Physical properties of HNO3

1. Pure HNO3 is a colourless liquid but normally it appears yellow because of the dissolved NO2 gas.
2. It is hygroscopic in nature and has an irritating choking smell.
3. 68% conc. HNO3 forms constant boiling mixture because this mixture at this concentration boils at 120℃ and
acid and water evaporate together . So to get 98% conc. acid, distillation is done with conc. H 2SO4.
4. It is highly corrosive in nature. It stains the skin yellow because it forms Xantho Proteic acid. Conc. HNO 3 causes
blisters on the skin.
Chemical properties
1. Action of heat
When HNO3 is heated strongly, it decomposes into NO2, H2O and O2
4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 ⇌ 4𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 ↑
2. Action of HNO3 as an acid
a. Acid + Base → salt and water
 (alkali)
𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

b. Acid + carbonate/bicarbonate → salt and water + carbon dioxide

2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑
𝑃𝑜𝑙. 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑

𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑖 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

c. Acid + Sulphite/bisulphite → Salt + Water +Sulphur dioxide

4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑂2 ↑
𝐶𝑎𝑙. 𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒

𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↑

𝑠𝑜𝑑. 𝑏𝑖. 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒

d. Acid + Sulphide → Salt + Hydrogen Sulphide

2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐹𝑒𝑆 → 𝐹𝑒(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↑
3. Action HNO3 on metals
a. Mg and Mn are the only two metals which liberates H2 gas when it reacts with dil. HNO3
𝑀𝑔 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐻2 ↑

𝑀𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐻2 ↑
b. Cu reacts with dil HNO3 and forms Cu(NO3)2, H2O and NO gas.
3𝐶𝑢 + 8𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 3𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂
𝑑𝑖𝑙. 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
c. Cu reacts with conc. HNO3 and liberates reddish brown NO2 gas along with Cu(NO3)2 and H2O
𝐶𝑢 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑔𝑎𝑠
Zn reacts with Conc. HNO3 in the same way
𝑍𝑛 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 ↑ +2𝐻2 𝑂

d. When very dilute nitric acid (5-6%) reacts with Zn we get Zn(NO3)2, NH4NO3 and H2O
4𝑍𝑛 + 10𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 4𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
(5 − 6%) 𝐴𝑚𝑚. 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
e. When 20% dilute HNO3 reacts with Zn we get nitrous oxide (laughing gas) along with Zn(NO3)2 and H2O
4𝑍𝑛 + 10𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 4𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁2 𝑂 ↑ +5𝐻2 𝑂
(20%) 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
4. HNO3 acts as oxidizing agent
a. It oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide
𝐶 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 ↑ +4𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. Oxidation

b. Conc. HNO3 oxidizes phosphorous to phosphoric acid.

𝑃 + 5𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 + 5𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. Oxidation

c. Sulphur is oxidized to Sulphuric acid

𝑆 + 6𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 6𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. Oxidation

d. Conc. HNO3 oxidizes potassium Iodide forming Iodine, Potassium Nitrate, Nitrogen dioxide and water.
2𝐾𝐼 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐼2 + 2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
 Conc. Oxidation

e. H2S is oxidized to Sulphur

𝐻2 𝑆 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑆 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conc. Oxidation

5. Metal Iron(Fe) becomes passive when dipped in Conc. HNO3

6. With organic compounds like saw dust, turpentine (C10H16), Conc. HNO3 liberates CO2 along with black smoke
7. When dilute or Conc. HNO3 reacts with acidified ferrous sulphate solution, it oxidizes it to ferric sulphate.
A thin brown ring of Nitroso ferrous sulphate can be seen before the solution changes into dark brown ferric
sulphate.
6𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 + 3𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 3𝐹𝑒2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 2𝑁𝑂 + 4𝐻2 𝑂
𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛
Tests for HNO3
1. When conc. HNO3 is heated strongly, it liberates reddish brown fumes of NO2 gas.
2. When Copper turnings are added to conc. HNO3 and heated strongly, thick brown fumes are liberated and the
solution turns blue in colour.
3. To a small quantity of HNO3 equal quantity of freshly prepared FeSO4 solution is added. Drops of Conc. H2SO4
are added carefully along the sides of the test-tube. A brown ring is formed due to the formation of Nitroso
ferrous sulphate(FeSO4.NO)

Uses of HNO3
1. In purification of gold
2. As a constituent of rocket fuels
3. In the preparation of fertilizers
4. In the preparation of nitrates
5. In the preparation of aqua regia.
 AMMONIA
Lab Preparation

Chemicals Required
1. Ammonium chloride(Sal Ammoniac) NH4Cl
2. Calcium hydroxide (Slaked lime) Ca(OH)2

Procedure:
A mixture of NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2 is taken in the ratio of 2:3 by weight. These chemicals should be thoroughly
mixed because NH4Cl sublimes.
The hard glass test tube with the reactants is attached to the drying tower packed with CaO which acts as the
drying agent. The following reaction takes place.

2NH4Cl +Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2NH3↑ +2H2O

∆

Dried Ammonia is collected in an inverted jar by upward delivery (downward displacement of air) because NH 3
is lighter than air.
Other drying agents like Conc. H2SO4, P2O5, anhydrous CaCl2, cannot be used to dry NH3 because these
compounds react with it.

2NH3 + H2SO4→ (NH4)2 SO4

Conc. Amm. Sulphate

6NH3 +P2O5 +3H2O→ 2 (NH4)3 PO4

Amm. Phosphate

8NH3 +CaCl 2→CaCl2. 8NH3

anhydrous Ammoniate
cal. chloride

Other methods of preparing NH3

1. Magnesium Nitride reacts with warm water and forms Mg(OH) 2 and NH3 gas.
Mg3N2 +6H2O → 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3↑
Mag. Hydroxide

2. Aluminum Nitride reacts with warm water and forms Al(OH) 3 and NH3 gas.
AlN +3H2O → Al(OH)3 +NH3↑
Aluminum
hydroxide

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA - HABER’S PROCESS

STEP 1
Nitrogen and Hydrogen gas in the ratio of 1:3 are taken in a pure and dry form and compressed to a pressure of
200 atm.
N2 for this purpose is obtained from liquid air and H2 is obtained by Bosch process from water gas.

STEP 2
The compressed mixture of N2 and H2 is sent into the catalyst chamber where powdered iron and molybdenum
are kept as catalyst and promoter. The catalyst chamber is electrically heated to 450 - 500 ℃ and NH3 is formed
here.

200 atm
N2 +3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 +22400 calories
Fe+Mo
450-500℃

STEP 3
This NH3 is circulated through cooling pipes or passed through refrigerators so that NH3 is cooled and changed
to liquid NH3

STEP 4
The uncombined N2 and H2 are sent back to the compressor and recycled into catalyst chamber

1) The reaction of N2 and H2 is exothermic and reversible. So low temperatures should accelerate the
forward reaction. But the optimum temperature of this reaction is 450℃. So this temperature is
maintained.
However we should ensure the temperature does not rise above 500℃.
2) The volume of the reactant is 4 (1+3) and the volume of the product is 2. So high pressure will form
more ammonia. Hence 200 atm pressure is maintained.

3) Ammonia which is formed should be removed immediately so that the reverse reaction does not takes
place. This is done by cooling NH3 under pressure to form liquid NH3 or by passing through a
refrigerator.

Physical properties of NH3

1. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell and it brings tears to the eyes.
2. It is the only alkaline gas. So
a. It turns moist red litmus blue
b. Phenolphthalein turns pink
c. Methyl orange turns yellow.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. It is extremely soluble in water. (1:800)
So to dissolve NH3 in water an inverted funnel is attached to the delivery tube in such a way that the rim of the
funnel just touches the water level. This prevents back suction of water due to its high solubility.
So the fountain experiment can also be done with NH3 and we notice that the red litmus solution changes to
blue.
5. NH3 can be liquefied and solidified by cooling.
6. NH3 is a non-poisonous gas but being a basic gas it can damage the respiratory system.

Chemical properties
1. NH3 readily reacts with water and forms NH4OH
NH3 +H2O → NH4OH

2. When NH3 is heated strongly it decomposes and forms N2 and H2

2NH3→ N2 +3H2
 3. NH3 burns with a yellow flame and it combines with oxygen forming N2 and water Vapour.
4NH3 +3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O

4. But when NH3 and O2 are burnt in presence of Pt as a catalyst at 800℃. We get nitric oxide gas and
Water Vapour. This is called as catalytic oxidation of NH3
Pt
4NH3 +5O2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
800℃ 4NO +6H2O.

5. Being a basic gas, NH3 reacts with acids and forms salts
a. NH3 +HCl → NH4Cl
b. 2NH3 +H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
c. NH3 +HNO3 → NH4NO3

6. Reaction of NH3 with chlorine

a. NH3 reacts with Cl2 and forms N2 and HCL gas
2NH3 + 3Cl2 → N2 +6HCl
R.A Reduction

Here NH3 reduces Cl2 to HCl

b. When excess of NH3 reacts with Cl2 we get N2 gas and NH4Cl
8NH3 + 3Cl2 → N2 +6NH4Cl
Excess

c. When excess of Cl2 reacts with NH3 we get nitrogen trichloride and HCl.
NH3 + 3Cl2 → NCl3 + 3HCl
Excess
7. NH3 is a good reducing agent, so it reduces red hot metallic oxides like CuO, PbO and Fe 2O3 to
corresponding metals.
a. 3CuO +2NH3 → 3Cu +N2 +3H2O
R.A

b. 3PbO + 2NH3 →3Pb + N2 + 3H2O

c. Fe2O3 + 2NH3 → 2Fe + N2 + 3H2O

8. NH3 reacts with CO2 and forms urea.

2NH3 +CO2 → NH2-CO-NH2 +H2O

TEST for NH3

1. It turns moist red litmus blue.
2. It turns Nessler’s reagent brown.
3. It turns turmeric paper brown.
4. It forms dense white fumes with a glass rod dipped in conc. HCl.
5. when NH3 is passed through CuSO4 solution a pale blue ppt. of Cu(OH)2 is formed first and then it
becomes deep blue solution of tetra amin copper sulphate
Uses of NH3
1. Used as a reducing agent
2. Liquid NH3 is a cleaning agent
3. Used in the manufacture of nitric acid.
4. Used in the manufacture of fertilizers like Urea, NH3NO3 etc...
5. Liquid NH3 is used as a refrigerant.