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ACIDS AND BASES

1. Properties of Acids and Bases

ACIDS BASES
Acids have a sour taste (for example acetic acid Bases (Alkalis) are usually found to have a
is found in vinegar and citric acid is found in bitter taste and feel slippery (soap is a good
lemons). example).

Acids cause specific colour changes in Bases cause specific colour changes in
indicators and plant dyes. They change the indicators and plant dyes. They change the
colour of litmus from blue to red. colour of litmus from red to blue.

Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity. Aqueous alkaline solutions conduct electricity.

Acids can neutralise a base. Bases can neutralise acids.

A substance that has at least one hydrogen A substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-)
atom that can ionise to form a hydrogen ion (H+) in an aqueous solution is a base.
in an aqueous solution is an acid.

Acids present in animal and plant material are organic acids (example carboxylic acids). Inorganic
acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are examples of acids that are more
likely to be found in chemical laboratories and industry. Hydrochloric acid is also found in the
gastric juices in the stomach. Fizzy drinks contain carbonic acid, while tea and wine contain tannic
acid.

Common bases are sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), potassium hydroxide (caustic potash),
ammonium hydroxide and ammonia. Some of these are found in household cleaning products.

Acids and bases are also important commercial components in the fertiliser, plastics, and
petroleum refining industries. Some common acids and bases, and their chemical formulae, are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1―Common Acids and Bases and their Chemical Formulae

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2. Acid-Base Models

2.1 Arrhenius Model

An acid is a substance that ionises in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+) or hydronium ions
(H3O+)

A base is a substance that ionises in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH -).

2H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq) or H2O (l) → H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

An acid therefore increases the concentration of H3O+ ions in solution and a base increases the
concentration of OH- ions in solution.

Ionization of hydrochloric acid:

(i) HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Hydrochloric acid in water increases the concentration of H3O+ ions and is therefore an acid.

Dissociation of sodium hydroxide (a base)

𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Sodium hydroxide in water increases the concentration of OH- ions and is therefore a base.

However, this definition could only be used for acids and bases in water (aqueous solutions).
Since there are many reactions which do not occur in water, it was important to come up with a
much broader definition for acids and bases.

2.2 Brønsted-Lowry Model

A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a substance that gives away protons (hydrogen cations H+), and is
therefore called a proton donor.

A Brønsted-Lowry base is a substance that takes up protons (hydrogen cations H +), and is
therefore called a proton acceptor.

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

proton donor proton acceptor
(acid) (base)

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CH3COOH (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

proton donor proton acceptor
(acid) (base)

Acids and many bases dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions.

HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl-

proton(aq)
donor proton acceptor
(acid) (base)

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

proton acceptor proton donor
(base) (acid)

3. Acid-Base Pairs

We can pair the reactants and products into conjugate acid-base pairs. The acid in the conjugate
pair is always richer in protons. It forms a conjugate base when it donates its proton. For example
the conjugate base of HCl is the Cl- ion. Similarly, a base forms its conjugate acid after it has
accepted a proton. For example the conjugate acid of NH3 is NH4+.

conjugate acid-base pair

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Acid 1 Base 2 Acid 2 Base 1

conjugate acid-base pair

Notice that the conjugate base (Cl-) has one less proton than its acid (HCl) and the conjugate acid
(NH4+) has one more proton than its base (NH3). Therefore, a conjugate acid-base pair contains
two compounds that differ only by a hydrogen ion (H+) and a charge of +1.

Exercise 1—In each of the following reactions, label the conjugate acid-base pairs.

1.1 H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

1.2 NH4+ (aq) + F- (aq) → HF (aq) + NH3 (aq)

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1.3 H2O (l) + CH3COO- (aq) → CH3 COOH (aq) + OH- (aq)

1.4 H2SO4 (aq) + Cl- (aq) → HCl (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

Exercise 2—Given the following reaction:

H2O (l) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

2.1 Write down which reactant is the base and which is the acid.

2.2 Label the conjugate acid-base pairs.

2.3 In your own words explain what is meant by the term conjugate acid-base pair.

Exercise 3—Write the conjugate base for: (a) H2CO3 (b) H3O+ (c) H2PO4-

Exercise 4—Write the conjugate acid for: (a) OH- (b) CN- (c) CO32-

4. Ampholytes

An ampholyte is a substance which can act as an acid or a base (that is, they can donate or
accept protons).

HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ………Equation 1

proton donor proton acceptor
(acid) (base)

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)………Equation 2

proton acceptor proton donor
(base) (acid)

In equation 1 above we find that water acts as a base (it accepts a proton) and in equation 2 water
acts as an acid (it donates a proton). Water is therefore an example of an ampholyte.

For Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases we refer to an ampholyte as amphiprotic. An amphiprotic

substance is one that can react as either a proton donor (Brønsted-Lowry acid) or as a proton
acceptor (Brønsted-Lowry base). Examples of amphiprotic substances include water, hydrogen

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carbonate ion(𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ), hydrogen sulphate ion (𝐻𝑆𝑂4− ), dihydrogen phosphate ion(𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4− ), and
hydrogen phosphate ion(𝐻𝑃𝑂42− ).

Exercise 5—(a) Write a reaction equation to show HCO3- acting as an acid. (b) Write a reaction
equation to show HCO3- acting as a base. (c) Compounds such as HCO3- are called . . .

5. Reactions of Acids and Bases

When an acid and a base react, they form a salt. A salt is a product that is made up of the cation
from a base and the anion from an acid. If the base contains hydroxide (OH-) ions, then water will
also be formed.

The reaction between an acid and a base is known as a neutralisation reaction.

5.1 Acid reacting with metal hydroxide

Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride (a salt) and water. Sodium
chloride is made up of Na+ cations from the base (NaOH) and Cl- anions from the acid (HCl).

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

5.2 Acid reacting with ammonia

Hydrochloric acid reacts with ammonia to form ammonium chloride (a salt). Ammonium chloride is
made up of NH4+ cations from the base (NH3) and Cl- anions from the acid (HCl).

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4Cl (aq)

In this example, a salt is formed as the only product and no water is produced.

5.3 Acid reacting with metal oxide

When an acid reacts with a metal oxide a salt and water are also formed. Some examples are:

2HCl (aq) + Na2O (aq) → H2O (l) + 2NaCl (aq)

5.4 Acid reacting with metal carbonate

When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate a salt, carbon dioxide and water are formed. Nitric
acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium nitrate, carbon dioxide and water.

2HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

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5.5 Acid reacting with metal hydrogen carbonate

HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

5.6 Acid reacting with metal

When an acid reacts with some metals, hydrogen gas is liberated. This is also an example of a
redox reaction.

Zn (s) + HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

6. Polyprotic Acids

A polyprotic acid is an acid that has more than one proton to donate. For example sulphuric acid
can donate one proton to form the hydrogen sulphate ion:

H2SO4 (aq) + OH- (aq) → HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l)

Or it can donate two protons to form the sulphate ion:

H2SO4 (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → SO42- (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Sulphuric acid is therefore referred to as a diprotic acid (can donate 2 protons).

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a triproptic acid (can donate 3 protons).

Acids that can only donate one proton are referred to as a monoprotic acid (eg. HCl).

7. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

7.1 Strong Acids and Bases

A strong acid or base is one that will almost completely dissociate or ionise to form ions in
solution. That is, a large percentage of the moles of a strong acid or base will form ions when
added to water.

HCl is a strong acid. For example if 100 000 molecules of HCl are added to water, more than 99
000 molecules will ionise to form H+ and Cl- ions, then there is a large amount of ionisation. This is
what makes HCl a strong acid.

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The unequal double arrows in the reaction equation indicate that the equilibrium position favours
the formation of ions.

There are three strong acids that we commonly found: HCl (hydrochloric acid), HNO3 (nitric acid)
and H2SO4 (sulphuric acid). Two strong bases that are commonly found are: NaOH (sodium
hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide) and Ba(OH)2 (barium hydroxide).

Strong acids and bases form strong electrolytes and can conduct an electric current well. A strong
acid has a low pH (closer to 1) and a strong base has a high pH (closer to 14).

7.2 Weak Acids and Bases

A weak acid or base is one where only a small percentage of molecules will ionise or dissociate to
form ions in solution, ie, partial ionisation or dissociation.

HF is a weak acid. For example if 100 000 molecules of HF are added to water, only 100
molecules will ionise to form H+ and F- ions, then there is partial ionisation. This is what makes HF
a weak acid.

The unequal double arrows in the reaction equation indicate that the equilibrium position does not
favour the formation of ions. Another common weak acid is ethanoic acid, commonly referred to as
acetic acid (CH3COOH). Examples of weak base are NH3 solution and Mg(OH)2.

Weak acids and bases form weak electrolytes and does not conduct an electric current that well. A
weak acid has a pH between 4 and 6 and a weak base has a pH between 8 and 10.

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8. Dilute and Concentrated Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A solution consists of a solute

and a solvent. The solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent. For example, in a saline
solution, salt is the solute dissolved in water as the solvent.

A concentrated solution is one where a large amount of a substance (solute) has been added to a
solvent. Both strong and weak acids and bases can be used to prepare concentrated solutions.

A dilute solution is one where a small amount of a substance has been added to a solvent. Both
strong and weak acids and bases can be used to prepare dilute solutions.

Table 2―A summary of the properties of strong, weak, concentrated and dilute acids and
bases

The electrical conductivity of a solution depends on the concentration of mobile ions (moving ions)
in the solution. This means that a concentrated solution (high amount of ions) of a strong acid or
base will have a high electrical conductivity, while a dilute solution (low amount of ions) of a weak
acid or base will have a low electrical conductivity.

9. Standard Solutions of Acids and Bases

A solution of which the exact concentration is known is called a standard solution.

The molar concentration of a standard solution (C) is the number of moles of solute per cubic
decimetre of solvent (mol·dm-3). C = 0.5 mol·dm-3 = 0.5 mol·L-1. To calculate concentration we
use:

𝒏 𝒎 𝒎
𝑪= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏= ∴ 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝑪=
𝑽 𝑴 𝑽×𝑴

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Where 𝐶 is the molar concentration in mol∙dm-3, 𝑛 is the number of moles in mol, 𝑉 is the volume
of the solution in dm3, 𝑚 is mass of solute in g and 𝑀 is the molar mass of solute in g∙mol-1.

10. pH of a Solution

The concentration of H+ and OH- ions in solution determines whether the solution is acidic or
basic. Acids and bases can be described as substances that either increase or decrease the
concentration of hydrogen (H+) or hydronium (H3O+) ions in a solution. An acid increases the
hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, while a base decreases the hydrogen ion concentration.

pH is used to measure the concentration of H+ ions ([H+]) and, therefore, tells us whether a
substance is acidic or basic (alkaline), ie, it is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Solutions with a pH of less than seven are acidic, while those with a pH greater than seven are
basic (alkaline). The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 and a pH of 7 is considered neutral. Litmus
paper can be used as a pH indicator. It is sold in strips. Purple litmus paper will become red in
acidic solutions and blue in basic solutions. Blue litmus paper is used to detect acidic conditions,
while red litmus paper is used to detect basic conditions.

The pH of solutions of some household acids and bases are listed in the table below.

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The pH of a solution can be calculated using the following equation:

𝐩𝐇 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝐇 + ] 𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐇 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝐇𝟑 𝐎+ ] … @ 𝟐𝟓℃

The H+ concentration can be calculated from a given pH value using the equation:

[𝐇 + ] = 𝟏𝟎−𝐩𝐇

Note that the square brackets in the above equations are used to show concentration in mol∙dm-3.
The graphs below shows that as [H+] increases pH decreases and as [OH-] increases pH
increases.

pH pH

[H+] [OH-]

Exercise 6—0.365 g of hydrogen chloride is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water at 25 oC. Calculate:

6.1 The concentration of the HCl. [0.02 mol∙dm-3]

6.2 The concentration of the hydronium ions. [0.02 mol∙dm-3]

6.3 The pH of the solution. [1.7]

Exercise 7—Calculate the pH of a 0.025 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution. [1.30]

Exercise 8—Calculate the concentration of phosphoric acid with a pH = 2.5. [0.0011 mol∙dm-3]

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11. Ionisation of Water and Kw

Water undergoes self-ionisation or auto-ionisation when a water molecule loses a H+ ion to form a
OH- ion. The reaction shows the amphiprotic nature of water:

The equilibrium lies far to the left, and therefore a very small amount of water molecules ionise.
The equilibrium constant for this reaction is:

𝐾𝑐 = [𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 𝐾𝑤 [H+]

As [H+] decreases [OH-]
o +] [OH − ] −7
At 25 C [H3 O = = 1 × 10 increases

∴ K w = (1 × 10−7 )(1 × 10−7 )

∴ K w = 1 × 10−14

K w = [H3 O+ ][OH − ] [OH-]

log K w = log([H3 O+ ][OH − ])

log(1 × 10−14 ) = log[H3 O+ ] + log[OH − ]

−14 = log[H3 O+ ] + log[OH − ]

14 = −log[H3 O+ ] − log[OH − ]

∴ 14 = pH + pOH

Exercise 9—0.4 g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 250 cm3 of water. Calculate.

9.1 The concentration of the sodium hydroxide. [0.04 mol∙dm-3]

9.2 The concentration of the hydroxide ions. [0.04 mol∙dm-3]

9.3 The concentration of the hydrogen ions. [2.5 x 10-13 mol∙dm-3]

9.4 The pH of the solution. [12.6]

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Exercise 10—Calculate the concentration of the OH- ions in a sulphuric acid solution with a
pH = 4.5 at 298 K. [3.16 x 10-11 mol•dm-3]

Exercise 11—A volume of 0.60 dm3 of a 0.2 mol∙dm-3 NaOH solution is added to a beaker
containing 0.40 dm3 of a H2SO4 solution. It was found that the pH of the final solution is 12.5 at a
temperature of 25 oC.

11.1 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place.

11.2 Calculate the hydroxide ion concentration on completion of the reaction. [0.0316 mol∙dm-3]

11.3 Calculate the concentration of the initial H2SO4 solution. [0.11 mol∙dm-3]

Exercise 12—When 0.05 moles of HBr (l) is added to 0.005 moles of KOH (aq) in a beaker, the
total volume of the solution is 75 cm3. Calculate the pH of the final solution. [0.22]

Exercise 13—A solution is prepared by adding 25.0 cm 3 of a 0.20 mol∙dm-3 NaOH to 40 cm3 of
0.15 mol∙dm-3 HCl.

13.1 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place.

13.2 Calculate the number of moles of NaOH and HCl used up in the reaction, and hence the
molar quantity of the reagent in excess. [0.001 mol]

13.3 Calculate the pH of the resulting solution. [1.81]

Exercise 14—Water dissociates as follows: 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇄ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) ∆𝐻 > 0

The Kw for water at 25 oC is 1 x 10-14. Explain using Le Chatelier’s Principle, why the pH of pure
water falls below 7 when the temperature is raised above 25 oC.

14.1 What is the most likely [OH-] of pure water after heating? 10-6 or 10-7 or 10-8 mol∙dm-3.

14.2 What is the most likely [H+] of pure water after heating? 10-6 or 10-7 or 10-8 mol∙dm-3.

14.3 What is the most likely Kw of pure water after heating? 10-12 or 10-14 or 10-16.

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12. Salt Hydrolysis

Not all neutralisation reactions give a pH of 7 at the completion of a reaction. At the equivalence
point of an acid-base neutralisation reaction there is salt and water. The ions of water interact with
the salt present and form a small quantity of excess hydronium ions (H 3O+) or hydroxide ions
(OH-). This leads to pH value of the resulting solution to increase above 7 or to decrease below 7.

A simple rule for determining the likely pH of a solution is as follows:

13. Acid-Base Titrations

Titration is a method used to determine the concentration of an unknown substance using a

standard solution. Another name for a titration is volumetric analysis (since volumes of solutions
are measured in the procedure).

If an acidic standard solution of measured volume (VA) and known concentration (CA) is added to a
basic (alkaline) solution of known volume (VB) and unknown concentration (CB) until the solution is
exactly neutralised (i.e. there is only salt and water), it is possible to calculate the exact
concentration of the unknown solution (CB) because at the exact point where the solution is
neutralised, (known as the end-point), stoichiometrically equivalent mole amounts of acid and
base have reacted with each other.

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By using the equation stoichiometry, the concentration of B can then be calculated using the
following equation:

𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑛𝐴
=
𝐶𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑛𝐵

Where 𝑛𝐴 and 𝑛𝐵 are the stoichiometric coefficients of acid A and base B, 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐶𝐵 are the
concentrations of acid A and base B and 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 are the volumes of acid A and base B
respectively.

An indicator is used to show exactly when the reaction has reached completion, ie, its end-point.
Indicators are chemical compounds that change colour depending on whether they are in an acidic
or a basic solution. A titration requires an indicator that will respond to the change in pH with a
sensitive and quick colour change.

pipette

Analytical balance

Volumetric flask

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Typical indicators used in titrations are given in the table below.

Indicators change colour according to where the H+ is:

When an acid is added to aqueous bromothymol blue there will be extra H+ ions. The equilibrium
will shift (remember le Chatelier’s principle) to decrease the number of H+ ions. That is, to the left.
If sufficient acid is added, the entire solution will become acidic. This means there will be more
HBromothymol blue than Bromothymolblue- and the solution will become yellow.

Exercise 15—In a titration, 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was pipetted into a conical flask
and titrated with 0.2 mol∙dm-3 hydrochloric acid. Using a suitable indicator, it was found that 15 cm 3
of acid was needed to neutralise the base. Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide.
[0.12 mol∙dm-3]

Exercise 16—10 g of solid sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 500 cm3 water. Using titration, it was
found that 20 cm3 of this solution was able to completely neutralise 10 cm 3 of a sulphuric acid
solution. Calculate the concentration of the sulphuric acid. [0.5 mol∙dm-3]

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Exercise 17—A learner is provided with 50 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid with a concentration of 0.2
mol dm-3. Assume complete ionization of the acid.
17.1 What is meant by dilute acid solution?
17.2 The learner uses X grams of potassium hydroxide to prepare a 100 cm 3 potassium
hydroxide solution in a conical flask. She then adds all the sulphuric acid solution to the
conical flask containing potassium hydroxide at 25 oC. The pH of the resulting solution is
12.8.
17.2.1 Which of the ions, OH- or H+, is in excess in the resulting solution?
17.2.2 Calculate the number of moles of ions in excess in the resulting solution. [9.45 x 10-3 mol]
17.2.3 Determine the mass of X of the potassium hydroxide used. [1.65 g]

Exercise 18—A few crystals of ammonium nitrate are added to distilled water in a test tube and a
solution is formed.
18.1 Is the solution ACIDIC, BASIC or NEUTRAL?
18.2 Write an appropriate ionic equation to explain your choice in 18.1.

Exercise 19—A standard solution of oxalic acid ((COOH)2) was prepared by dissolving 2.8 g of
the acid in 250 cm3 of deionised water. The acid was titrated against an impure solution of sodium
hydroxide. The impure solution of sodium hydroxide was prepared by dissolving 2.0 g in 250 cm 3
of deionized water (assume that the impurities do not react). In a titration 25.0 cm 3 of the impure
sodium hydroxide was neutralised by 20.0 cm3 of the acid solution.

(COOH)2 + 2NaOH → (COONa)2 + 2H2 O

19.1 Is an aqueous solution of (COONa)2 ACIDIC or BASIC. Give a full explanation for your
answer with equations.

19.2 Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid solution. [0.1217 mol‧dm-3]

19.3 Calculate the mass of the impurity in the sodium hydroxide. [1.95 g]

Exercise 20—12 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 0.1 mol∙dm-3 and 48 cm3 of
barium hydroxide solution of unknown concentration are mixed in a beaker. This solution is
completely neutralized by exactly 54 cm 3 of a 0.05 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution. Calculate the
concentration of the barium hydroxide solution. [0.04375 mol∙dm-3]

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Exercise 21—Below is a table of pH values for different solutions.

Solution Hydrochloric Acid Grape Juice Sodium Hydroxide

pH 1 3.1 13
21.1 Which solution contains the highest concentration of hydrogen ions? [Hydrochloric Acid]

21.2 How will the pH of the grape juice change when …(write down increase, decrease or stays
the same).

21.2.1 distilled water is added to it? [Increase]

21.2.2 some of the NaOH solution is added to it? [Increase]

21.2.3 some of the HCl solution is added to it? [Decrease]

14. Applications of Acid-Base Reactions

14.1 Domestic uses

Calcium oxide (CaO) is a base (all metal oxides are bases) that is put on soil that is too acidic.
Powdered limestone (CaCO3) can also be used but its action is much slower and less effective.
These substances can also be used on a larger scale in farming and in rivers. Limestone (white
stone or calcium carbonate) is used in pit latrines (or long drops). The limestone is a base that
helps to neutralise the acidic waste.

14.2 Biological uses

Acids in the stomach (e.g. hydrochloric acid) play an important role in helping to digest food.
However, when a person has a stomach ulcer, or when there is too much acid in the stomach,
these acids can cause a lot of pain. Antacids are taken to neutralise the acids so that they don’t
burn as much. Antacids are bases which neutralise the acid. Examples of antacids are aluminium
hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide (“milk of magnesia”) and sodium bicarbonate (“bicarbonate of
soda”). Antacids can also be used to relieve heartburn.

14.3 Industrial uses

Basic calcium hydroxide (limewater) can be used to absorb harmful acidic SO 2 gas that is
released from power stations and from the burning of fossil fuels.

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14.3.1 The production of chlorine

The chlorine-alkali (Chlor-alkali) process is an important part of the chemical industry for the
production of chlorine gas (Cl2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The most common method
involves the electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl), which is
known as brine.

The chemical reactions that take place in this process are:

2Cl-(aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e- 2H2O (l) + 2e- → H2(g) + 2OH- (aq)

There are also Na+ ions from the NaCl in the solution. If the products are kept separate (to prevent
a reaction between the chlorine and hydroxide) the Na + will react with the hydroxide ions making
the overall reaction as follows:

2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq)

The uses of chlorine include: the purification of water, as a disinfectant, in the production of
hypochlorous acid (used to kill bacteria in drinking water), chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, paper,
food, antiseptics, insecticides, medicines, textiles, paints, petroleum products, solvents, plastics
(such as polyvinyl chloride).

The uses of sodium hydroxide include: making soap and other cleaning agents, purification of
bauxite (the ore of aluminium), making paper, making rayon (artificial silk).

If the chlorine and hydroxide ions are not kept separate (i.e. are allowed to react), and the
temperature is kept below 60 oC, then the following reaction occurs:

Cl2 (g) + 2OH- (aq) → Cl- (aq) + ClO- (aq) + H2O (l)

The balanced chemical equation with the inclusion of the Na + ions is:

Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + NaClO (aq) + H2O (l)

If the temperature is above 60 oC and mixing occurs, then:

3Cl2 (g) + 6OH- (aq) → 5Cl-(aq) + ClO3- (aq) + 3H2O (l)

And the balanced chemical equation including Na+ ions is:

3Cl2 (g) + 6NaOH (aq) → 5NaCl (aq) + NaClO3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)

Dr AN Gounden
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The uses of NaClO (sodium hypochlorite) include: use in bleaches, disinfectants, and water
treatments, use during root canal surgery and to neutralise nerve agents.

Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is used to make pool cleaner (HTH).

The uses of NaClO3 (sodium chlorate) include: making chlorine dioxide, use as an herbicide, and
generating oxygen in chemical oxygen generators.

Exercise 22—0.01 mol∙dm-3 solutions of the following weak acids are given to you as well as their
corresponding Ka values:

Acid H2SO3 HOCl NH4+ H2S

Ka 1.6 x 10-2 3.0 x 10-8 5.0 x 10-10 1.0 x 10-7
Note: The bigger the Ka value the stronger the acid and therefore will have the most ions in
solution.

22.1 Give the equation of the hydrolysis reaction for each of the acids.

22.2 Give the Ka expression for each of the acids.

22.3 Arrange solutions of the acids with equal concentration according to descending pH.
Explain your answer. [NH4+ ; HOCl ; H2S ; H2SO3]

22.4 Which acid solution, H2SO3, HOCl or H2S, will have the lowest conductivity? Explain your
answer. [HOCl].

22.5 Which acid solution, H2SO3, HOCl or H2S, will have the highest conductivity? Explain your
answer. [H2SO3].

Exercise 23*—A 0.608 g sample of fertilizer contained nitrogen as ammonium sulphate,

(NH4)2SO4. It was analysed for nitrogen by heating with sodium hydroxide.

(NH4)2SO4 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)

The ammonia was collected in 46.3 cm3 of 0.213 mol∙dm-3 HCl (hydrochloric acid), with which it
reacted.

NH3 (g) + HCl (aq) → NH4Cl (aq)

This solution was titrated for excess hydrochloric acid with 44.3 cm3 of 0.128 mol∙dm-3 NaOH.

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the fertilizer? [Ans. = 9.66 %]

Dr AN Gounden