Unit 5

Ethics in the Field of Career Counseling

There are few ethical guidelines for career counselling, just as there are for any other
profession. Here are some of the ethical guidelines that a career counsellor should follow while
offering career counselling services to clients.

They must respect their clientele

Career counsellors should conduct themselves professionally and with respect for their clients.
They should not engage in sexual harassment or any other immoral behaviour towards their
clients. Career counsellors must provide indiscriminate assistance to their customers while also
respecting their privacy.

Aside from that, appropriate services should be suggested to clients by career counsellors.

Obey the law:

Obeying the law is essential in every field, so how can career counsellors be left behind?

Career counsellors are responsible for informing customers, employees, and others about the
code of ethics and the law beforehand. Any improper conduct or violation of the law should be
criticized promptly by the career professional.

If a client or an inherent worker engages in unethical and immoral behaviour, the career
counsellor has the complete ability to take action against them. Nevertheless, the career
counsellor must also adhere to the laws.

Integrity and honesty:

Career counsellors should continue to provide their customers with accurate and real
information. This increases both parties' trust.

They provided the customer with all of the information that was valuable to them. Not only
that, but they also assist their customers in realising their full potential.

Confidentiality:

This is the most fundamental and crucial characteristic of a career counsellor. Maintain
customer confidentiality so that no information is disclosed to a third party.

Clients should be told about the confidentiality terms and conditions before any service so that
the remainder may be handled between them.
Conflict of Interest:

Career counsellors should maintain the connection professional and avoid involving interests
linked to the client's personal life.

Career experts resolve disagreements between all parties involved and prioritise the client's
improvement.

Career counsellors only provide additional services after receiving adequate consent from the
client; any work done without consent is not appreciated.

Before delivering services to customers, it is the responsibility of both the career counsellor and
the client to be clear about the services given, the time frame, and other specifics.

Personal and private information of the customer should not be shared; yet, there are specific,
sensitive occasions when it may be released. Among them are:

Clent is unmistakably dangerous to those around it.

Where the sharing of information is compelled by law in situations of child abuse, harassment,
and so forth, with

the client's consent. where

the client's life is in jeopardy.

When the circumstances permit and after specific debates, personal information may be given;
otherwise, the counsellor must die to keep it secure.

Career exploration techniques

Career exploration and planning is the process of clarifying career and employment options that
fit your interests and skills and reviewing the core elements of the job search process to help
you get where you want to go!

Career exploration focuses on learning about the occupations that seem to be a good fit based

on the results of your self-assessment and any other professions that interest you. Use online
and print resources to get a job description, learn about specific job duties, and gather labor
market information including median salaries and job outlooks.  

After completing this preliminary research, you can start eliminating professions that don't
appeal to you and get more details about those that do. This is an ideal time to
conduct informational interviews and start networking looking for potential internship
opportunities. During an informational interview, you will ask people who work in an
 occupation that interests you questions about their jobs. Job shadowing involves following
someone around at work in order to learn more about what they do.

This type of exploration is behavioral in nature and may include informational interviewing,
computer research, job shadowing, internships or attending network events or career fairs.

While these two types of exploration are independent, they are also not exclusive to cognitive
or behavioral action.

For many, the career exploration process is one simple step... find a new job. While this may
work for some, an effective career exploration process includes steps that will ensure you select
a career that will compliment your personal and professional career aspirations.

 Step 1 - Self Assessment

It's estimated that the average person will spend over 80,000 hours of their life working. The
career path you choose will have a big impact on almost every aspect of your life. So choose
your career wisely! But where do you begin? How do you choose a career when you don't
know what you're even interested in? The first step to the career exploration process is
developing a thorough understanding of your interests, aptitudes, skills, personality and
preferences. This is known as self assessment, or in the context of your career, a "career
assessment".

 Step 2 - Identify Careers

Once you've taken the time, and put forth the effort, to perform a thorough self assessment,
it's time to start developing a list of potentially satisfying career options. At this stage of the
game you should have a good idea of the types of careers you consider, and those you should
not. Make an exhaustive list of occupations that fit with your skills, interests, aptitudes,
personality, preferences, and personal and professional goals. Thoroughly investigate each
career, reviewing education requirements, job duties, earnings and employment outlook.
Now narrow your list down to just a few options for futher consideration.

 Step 3 - Develop a Strategy

Now it time to develop a strategy and put a plan into action that will help you realize your
professional and occupational goals–and find a job. You may not be entirely certain which
specific career your going to obtain, but you'll have narrowed your search down to a specific
discipline and career field to being your job search. You strategy should include obtaining any
training required to qualify for your desired position, networking, resume development,
developing a personal brand and how you're going to engage potential employers.

Career Exploration Tools and Resources

Whether you're a seasoned professional considering a career change, a student searching for
your first job, or a job-seeker pursuing a new job the career exploration websites and resources
listed below will help you make a successful and lasting transition.
  Career Assessment - discover tools, tests and resources that can help you understand how
your personal interests, skills, aptitudes, preference and personality influence your potential
for success and satisfaction in various careers and occupations.

 Career Research Checklist - review a comprehensive list of tips and strategies for research
potential careers and employment opportunities including job shadowing, temping, career
fairs, informational interviewing and professional networking, among others.

 Selecting the Right Career Path- how do you select the right career path? Explore suggestions
and strategies for making sure the career path you choose is the right one. Learn how to
evaluate your interests, conduct research, and find the best fit for you.

 Before Choosing a Career - review 7 vital steps every person should take before making a
final career decision. This article will help career searchers narrow down their list of potential
career options and prepare for employment opportunities.

 Planning for Career Success- real career success if most often achieved through successful
planning. Review 11 key elements of a successful career plan and get your career search off
on right foot.

 Career Fields and Occupations - explore and learn about thousands of careers and
occupations. Find information on employment outlook, salary, job descriptions, work
environment, employment statistics, and education and training requirements.
five of the top techniques used in career counseling.

1. Developing a therapeutic relationship

As with all forms of counseling, career counseling is most successful when the counselor forms
a meaningful connection with their client. While many career counselors use career aptitude
tests and personality tests, the top career counselors have completed a clinical mental health
master’s program and use their clinical training to go beyond simple vocational guidance. They
work to understand their client’s worries, interests, fears, and desires on a level that is much
deeper than what any test might reveal. By establishing a therapeutic relationship with their
clients, the top career counselors can provide fuller support and guidance.
2. Defining goals
The top career counselors set specific goals with their clients and redirect their clients toward
those goals if the conversation drifts too far toward other concerns. That said, career
counselors might ask clients to describe their perfect job, or consider where they would like to
be 5 years from now. Career counseling professionals might also focus their clients’ attention
on what is important to them in life and what they enjoy accomplishing at work. All of these
questions can help define a career-seeker’s goals.
3. Creating room for self-exploration
Top career counselors don’t just hand their clients the results of vocational tests. They get to
know their clients and, most importantly, they give their clients the space to talk through the
issues affecting their career and career choices. A good career counseling session can be a
 gateway to self-discovery, but only if the career counselor is skilled in helping his or her client
open avenues of self-reflection. For the top career counselors, data like vocational assessments
are only the beginning.
4. Understanding the job market
It does little good to be told you’re well suited for a career that is in steep decline. Likewise,
there’s not much utility in being told you’re well suited for a career you lack the skills for. The
top career counselors know this and work hard to stay abreast of the issues facing the job
market. They pay close attention to the ways automation, outsourcing, downsizing, and global
competition affect job opportunities and specific careers. Additionally, they understand the
skills and attitudes workers need to succeed in a modern employment environment. Often,
counselors work with their clients to make sure their clients are competent with technology,
accepting of diversity, prepared to handle modern job insecurities, and capable of maintaining
the level of occupational awareness needed to avoid falling behind or becoming redundant.
5. Helping turn life themes into career goals
The best career counselors don’t just recommend possible professions. They help their clients
uncover a previously unrealized passion for specific careers. To do this, career counselors take a
holistic approach, viewing each client as a whole person and then seeking out life themes that
have a natural connection to a career for which the client is qualified. There’s little long-term
benefit to entering a career that you’re good at but dislike. The best approach is to find a career
that’s in tune with your abilities and your life goals. The top career counselors can help you do
just that.

John Holland’s Theory of Career Choice

According to Holland, people fall into either one of the six categories where they can fit best
with their environment to best use their abilities, values, attitudes and skills. He explained his
theory by using a hexagon model to help define these categories. A person would be more
inclined towards any three sections which can help when making career choices. Holland (1992,
1997) describes the concept of social, environmental and biological factors affecting people’s
preferences for particular activities. These preferred activities soon become interests which
develop into competencies. Holland himself has revised his theory and there have been many
psychometric assessment tools developed on the basis of Holland’s theory. One example of
such tools is the Self-Directed Search (SDS) which evaluates the six personality types defined by
Holland. These types in the hexagonal model are then matched with suitable professions
considering the possible relationships between and within the individual and the environment.
Types that are next to each other on the model have more in common than the ones that are
opposite. People whose profile suggests their types are opposite would find difficulty finding
jobs/professions that cover all aspects of their personality. The focal point of Holland’s findings
is that people who have similar personalities would avail similar employment opportunities.
 1. Realistic

 The Realistic Environment – The Realistic (R) environment makes physical demands on the
person. Such work settings have tools, machines, or animals that the individual manipulates. In
such a setting, individuals are required to have technical competencies that will allow them to
do such things as fix machines, repair electronic equipment, drive cars or trucks, herd animals,
or deal with other physical aspects of their environment. The ability to work with things is more
important than the ability to interact with other people. Construction sites, factories, and auto
garages are examples of environments that provide machinery or other things for Realistic
people to master. Some Realistic environments require a great deal of physical agility or
strength, such as roofing, outdoor painting, and pipe fitting. These environments may be
hazardous and may produce more physical illness or accidents than other work environments.
 The Realistic Personality Type – Realistic people are likely to enjoy using tools or machines in
their hobbies or work. They tend to seek to develop competencies in such areas as plumbing,
roofing, electrical and automotive repair, farming, and other technical disciplines. They are apt
to like courses that are very practical and teach the use of mechanical or physical skills. Realistic
people are likely to have little tolerance of abstract and theoretical description. Often, they
approach problems, whether mechanical or personal, in a practical or problem-solving manner.

2. Investigative

 The Investigative Environment –  The Investigative (I) environment is one in which people
search for solutions to problems through mathematical and scientific interests and
competencies. In such a situation, people are encouraged to use complex and abstract thinking
to solve problems creatively. Examples of occupations that offer the opportunity to use
analytical thinking skills are computer programmer, physician, mathematician, biologist, science
teacher, veterinarian, and research and development manager. In each of these environments,
cautious and critical thinking is valued. Individuals are likely to need to use logic and precise
methodical thinking in order to find solutions to problems in these fields. These jobs require
that people use their intellect to work independently to solve problems. They are not required
or encouraged to use human relations skills to solve problems, nor are they likely to need to
use machines. For example, a computer programmer uses logic to figure out solutions to
problems (an Investigative environment), whereas the computer technician works with
machinery and may assemble it or fix it (a Realistic environment).
 The Investigative Personality Type – The Investigative person is likely to enjoy puzzles and
challenges that require the use of intellect. Such a person is apt to enjoy learning and to feel
confident about his or her ability to solve mathematical and scientific problems. Such people
often enjoy reading about science and discussing scientific issues. They seek to work
independently to solve problems such as mathematical or scientific questions. They are likely to
enjoy courses in math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and other physical or biological
sciences. They are not likely to enjoy supervising other people or dealing directly with personal
problems, but they may enjoy analyzing or searching for solutions to psychological problems.
 3. Artistic

 The Artistic Environment – The Artistic (A) environment is one that is free and open,
encouraging creativity and personal expression. Such an environment offers much freedom in
developing products and answers. Examples of occupations in which people can use creative
and unconventional ways to express themselves are musician, fine artist, and freelance writer.
Such settings allow people to dress the way they wish, keep few appointments, and structure
their own time. These work environments encourage personal and emotional expression rather
than logical expression. If tools are used, they are used to express oneself (for example, a
clarinet or a paintbrush) rather than as a means to complete a task (for example, an electric
drill or a wrench).
 The Artistic Personality Type –  The Artistic person likes the opportunity to express himself or
herself in a free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or writing. Such people may use
instruments to do this, such as a violin, the voice, sculpting tools, or a word processor. They are
likely to want to improve their ability in language, art, music, or writing. Originality and
creativity are particularly important in expression. To use a painted by-numbers kit would be
deeply offensive to an Artistic type, who needs and desires the opportunity to express herself
or himself in a free and open manner. A pure Artistic type would dislike technical writing and
would prefer writing fiction or poetry.

4. Social

 The Social Environment – The Social (S) environment is one that encourages people to be
flexible and understanding of each other, where people can work with others through helping
with personal or career problems, affecting others spiritually, and being socially responsible.
The Social environment emphasizes human values such as being idealistic, kind, friendly, and
generous. These ideals most commonly exist in the education, social service, and mental health
professions. Examples of these occupations are elementary school teacher, special education
teacher, high school teacher, marriage counselor, counseling psychologist, speech therapist,
school superintendent, and psychiatrist.
 The Social Personality Type –  The Social person is interested in helping people through
teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal services. Social
people enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork rather than through
delegation. Preferring to talk and resolve complex problems that may be ethical or idealistic in
nature, they often choose to avoid working with machines. They seek out environments where
they can use verbal and social skills, such as in education, welfare, and mental health.

5. Enterprising

 The Enterprising Environment – The Enterprising (E) environment is one where people manage
and persuade others in order to attain organizational or personal goals. These are situations
where finance and economic issues are of prime importance and risks may be taken to achieve
rewards. In such an environment people tend to be self-confident, sociable, and assertive. It’s
an environment where promotion and power are important, and persuasion and selling take
 place. Examples of Enterprising environments are sales work, buying, business management,
restaurant management, politics, real estate, the stock market, insurance, and lobbying. All of
these environments provide the opportunity for power, status, and wealth.
 The Enterprising Personality Type –  The acquisition of wealth is particularly important for
Enterprising people. They enjoy being with others and like to use verbal skills in order to sell,
persuade, or lead. They tend to be assertive and popular, trying to take on leadership positions.
They enjoy working with people but prefer to persuade and manage rather than to help.

6. Conventional

 The Conventional Environment –  Organization and planning best describe the Conventional (C)
environment. Much of the Conventional environment is an office environment, where one
needs to keep records, file papers, copy materials, and organize reports. In addition to written
material, the Conventional environment includes mathematical materials, such as bookkeeping
and accounting records. Word processing, calculating, and copy machines are the type of
equipment that is found in a Conventional environment. Competencies that are ‘needed to
work well in a Conventional environment are clerical skills, an ability to organize, dependability,
and an ability to follow directions.
 The Conventional Personality Type – The Conventional person is one who values money, being
dependable, and the ability to follow rules and orders. These people prefer being in control of
situations and not dealing with ambiguous requests. They enjoy an office environment where
their values of earning money and following rules, regulations, and guidelines can be met. Their
strengths are their clerical and numerical ability, which they use to solve straightforward
problems in their environment; Their relationships they tend to be directed toward
accomplishing tasks and establish approach to problems.

Many inventories and career assessment tools use the typology to enable individuals to

categorize their interests and personal characteristics in terms of combinations of the six types:
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional(RIASEC). Holland’s
typological theory specifies a theoretical connection between personality and environment that
makes it possible to use the same RIASEC classification system for both persons and fields of
study or occupations.
According to RIASEC theory, if a person and an environment have the same or similar codes,
e.g., Investigative person in an Investigative environment, then the person will likely be satisfied
and persist in that environment. This satisfaction will result from individuals being able to
express their personality in an environment that is supportive and includes other persons who
have the same or similar personality traits. It should be noted that neither people nor
environments are exclusively one type but rather combinations of all six types. Their dominant
type is an approximation of an ideal, modal type. The profile of the six types can be described in
terms of the degree of differentiation (flat or uneven profile), consistency (level of similarity of
interests or characteristics on the RIASEC hexagon for the first two letters of a three-letter
Holland code), or identity (stability characteristics of the type). Each of these factors moderates
predictions about the behavior related to the congruence level between a person and an
environment. Persons and environments are typically described proportionally in terms of the
most highly weighted three of the six Holland types, e.g., Lawyer, ESI; Accounting, CEI.
Ginzberg’s Theory of Career Choice
Ginzberg’s model initially only referred to children to young adults. He later on came to the
conclusion that career planning is a lifelong process. His later views included change because
of any crises adults may have and changes because of life span development.
His theory is based on the following basis :

 Occupational choice is a process

 The process is irreversible
 Compromise is an essential aspect of every choice

Ginzberg described the process of career development in choice as 3 stages (Ginzberg, 1971,
p.75- 76):

1) Fantasy stage (age 0 – 10) – children largely engage in play, simulating different jobs and
careers. Ginsberg believed that children first engage in play (dressing up linked to jobs)
to later on during the fantasy stage play out different actual jobs.
Ginzberg's first milestone in career development takes place during childhood, from
birth to 11 years old. During this stage, children primarily engage in playful acts,
simulating occupations such as firefighter, police officer, race car driver, etc. Ginzberg
believed children transition from playful imitiation to work imitation near the end of
this stage, i.e. from simply wearing costumes to acting out the specific duties of a job.
2) Tentative stage (age 11 – 17) – older children and adolescents recognise more of the
intricacies of the different job roles. This stage is divided up in four different periods:
 the interest stage – children learn likes and dislikes
 the capacity stage – children learn how their capacities line up with the requirements of
different jobs and careers
 the values stage – adolescents start to recognise how different jobs can fulfil their
personal values
 the transition stage – adolescents start taking responsibility for their own actions. They
become more independent and exercise more freedom of choice
From 11 to 17 years of age, adolescent children are able to better focus on, and
recognize, work requirements. There are four stages in this period. The first stage is
"interest," where children learn likes and dislikes. The second stage is "capacity,"
where the child learns how much her abilities align with her interests. The third stage,
"values," sees the child at 15 become aware of how work may fulfill her values. The
final stage of this period is called "transition," and begins when the individual assumes
responsibility for her own actions, becomes independent and exercises her freedom of
choice.
 3) Realistic stage (age 17 – early 20s) – the young person plans for and establishes
alternative career paths or backups. Development of personal values and gradually
focus on their ideal career choice or option.
 Exploration stage – individual chooses their career path but remains open to other
possibilities
 Crystallisation – more focus on one particular career path; there is more commitment
 Specification – commitment to a specific area of their career choice
The realistic period begins at age 17 and goes into the early 20s. During this stage, the
person establishes alternative paths in her work life, or a "backup plan." Throughout
this three stage period, she will develop personal values and begin to zero in on her
optimal career choice. The first period of the realistic stage is "exploration." During
this stage, the individual choose her career path but remains open to other
opportunities. The next stage, "crystallization," is when she becomes more engrossed
in a particular career, committing to one direction more than she ever has. The third
period is "specification," in which she commits to or develops a preference for a
specific area of her occupation.

Super’s Career Development Theory

Donald E. Super’s career development theory is perhaps the most widely known life-span view
of career development. Developmental theories recognize the changes that people go through
as they mature, and they emphasize a life-span approach to career choice and adaptation.
These theories usually partition working life into stages, and they try to specify the typical
vocational behaviors at each stage.

In the 1950s, when Super began to formulate his theoretical conceptions, differential
psychology and the trait-and-factor theory permeated vocational counseling. The dominant
assumption was that differing abilities and interests were crucial in determining occupational
choice and success. For this reason, vocational counseling was seen primarily as a process of
helping individuals match their abilities and other traits with those required by accessible
occupations. By applying the matching model, practitioners of vocational guidance assisted
their clients in choosing the “right” vocation, that is, the one that is well matched or congruent
with an individual’s abilities, interests, and personality traits. Super recognized the valuable
contribution of the trait-and-factor theory and the matching model to vocational theory and
guidance practice. But he also believed that they were too static and insufficient in explaining
the complexities of vocational behavior. Super proclaimed that occupational choice should be
seen as an unfolding process, not a point-in-the-time decision. Therefore, he proceeded to
supplement the trait-and-factor approach by constructing a comprehensive career theory in
which (a) career development is seen as a lifelong process unfolding in a series of
developmental stages and (b) career selection is not a one-shot decision but the cumulative
outcome of a series decisions.
In his attempts to shape a comprehensive career theory in the 1950s through the mid-1990s,
Super complemented the traditional individual-difference approach to vocational guidance with
three additional perspectives: (1) developmental perspective focusing on the life course of
vocational behavior and stressing continuity in career development, (2) phenomenological
perspective emphasizing the role of self-concept in the development of an individual’s career,
and (3) contextual perspective bringing forward the importance of multiple social roles and
their interaction across the life span.

Developmental Perspective: Understanding Careers In The Life Span

While traditional vocational guidance focused on occupational choice and the prediction of
occupational success at some later point in time, Super stressed the need to understand and
predict a career. He defined a career as a sequence of occupations, jobs, and positions held
during the course of a lifetime, including also prevocational and postvocational activities. Super
asserted that what was actually needed in vocational guidance was a career model, which takes
into account the sequence of positions that an individual occupies during her or his working life.
Interest in understanding careers led Super to look into peoples’ career patterns, which portray
one aspect of vocational development—the sequence of changes in occupational level and field
over a period of time. Although initially “set out” by the individual’s parental socioeconomic
level, patterns are also determined by individuals’ abilities, personality traits, and the
opportunities to which they are exposed. The analysis of career patterns supported the view
that the life cycle imposes different vocational tasks on people at various times of their lives.
Drawing on the work of developmental psychologists and sociologists who independently
studied stages of life and work, Super and his colleagues outlined five major stages of career
development, with each one characterized by three or four appropriate developmental tasks:

Growth (roughly age 4 to 13), the first life stage, the period when children develop their
capacities, attitudes, interests, socialize their needs, and form a general understanding of the
world of work. This stage includes four major career developmental tasks: becoming concerned
about the future, increasing personal control over one’s own life, convincing oneself to achieve
in school and at work, and acquiring competent work habits and attitudes.

Exploration (Ages 14-24) is the period when individuals attempt to understand themselves and
find their place in the world of work. Through classes, work experience, and hobbies, they try to
identify their interests and capabilities and figure out how they fit with various occupations.
They make tentative occupational choices and eventually obtain an occupation. This stage
involves three career development tasks. The first one, the crystallization of a career
preference, is to develop and plan a tentative vocational goal. The next task, the specification of
a career preference, is to convert generalized preferences into a specific choice, a firm
vocational goal. The third vocational task is implementation of a career preference by
completing appropriate training and securing a position in the chosen occupation.

Establishment stage (25-44 years) is the period when the individual, having gained an
appropriate position in the chosen field of work, strives to secure the initial position and pursue
chances for further advancement. This stage involves three developmental tasks. The first task
is stabilizing or securing one place in the organization by adapting to the organization’s
requirements and performing job duties satisfactorily. The next task is the consolidation of
one’s position by manifesting positive work attitudes and productive habits along with building
favorable coworker relations. The third task is to obtain advancement to new levels of
responsibility.

Maintenance (45-65) is the period of continual adjustment, which includes the career

development tasks of holding on, keeping up, and innovating. The individuals strive to maintain
what they have achieved, and for this reason they update their competencies and find
innovative ways of performing their job routines. They try also to find new challenges, but
usually little new ground is broken in this period.

Disengagement (over 65) is the final stage, the period of transition out of the workforce. In this
stage, individuals encounter the developmental tasks of deceleration, retirement planning, and
retirement living. With a declined energy and interest in an occupation, people gradually
disengage from their occupational activities and concentrate on retirement planning. In due
course, they make a transition to retirement living by facing the challenges of organizing new
life patterns.

Super’s model demarcates the stages both with age bounds and task markers. Originally, Super
viewed the stages as chronological, but later he also acknowledged an age-independent, task-
centered view of stages. For example, individuals embarking on a new career in their middle
adulthood might go through exploration and establishment stages. Thus the five stages
spreading across one’s entire life span, or the “maxicycle,” might also be experienced as
“minicycles” within each of the maxicycle stages. Individuals cycle and recycle throughout their
life span as they adapt to their own internal changes or to changed opportunities to which they
are exposed.

Super assumed that not everyone progresses through these stages at fixed ages or in the same
manner. This notion led him to develop and elaborate on the construct of career maturity
(initially called vocational maturity), which denotes the readiness of the individual to make
career decisions. Operationally, it is defined as the extent to which an individual has completed
stage-appropriate career developmental tasks in comparison with other people of the same
age. Super and his colleagues devoted much effort to define this construct and develop
appropriate measures. They identified five primary dimensions of vocational maturity:
“planfulness” or awareness of the need to plan ahead, readiness for exploration, informational
competence (comprising knowledge about work, occupations, and life career roles), decision-
making skills, and reality orientation. Super believed that a young person should be mature
enough to benefit from career assessment and counseling. In adults, where recycling through
career stages is less dependent on age, Super suggested that readiness for career decision
making should be referred to as career adaptability.
Unit 4
Exceptional Children

Meaning- "An exceptional child is he who deviates physically, intellectually, emotionally and
socially so markedly from what is considered to be normal growth and development".

CAUSES OF EXCEPTIONALITY

It should be stressed that exceptionalities may occur with no apparent organic or physical
cause visible. If causes are identifiable, they are varied and numerous. They can be congenital,
hereditary, acquired, or accidental. The onset can be: prenatal (before birth), perinatal (during
the
process of birth), or postnatal (sometime after birth). In other words exceptionalities can be
due
to;
1. Chromosomal causes
2. Genetic / inherited causes /Biological factors and
3. Environmental causes
CAUSES OF EXCEPTIONALITY

It should be stressed that exceptionalities may occur with no apparent organic or physical
cause visible. If causes are identifiable, they are varied and numerous. They can be congenital,
hereditary, acquired, or accidental. The onset can be: prenatal (before birth), perinatal (during
the
process of birth), or postnatal (sometime after birth). In other words exceptionalities can be
due
to;
1. Chromosomal causes
2. Genetic / inherited causes /Biological factors and
3. Environmental causes
CAUSES OF EXCEPTIONALITY

It should be stressed that exceptionalities may occur with no apparent organic or physical
cause visible. If causes are identifiable, they are varied and numerous. They can be congenital,
hereditary, acquired, or accidental. The onset can be: prenatal (before birth), perinatal (during
the
process of birth), or postnatal (sometime after birth). In other words exceptionalities can be
due
to;
1. Chromosomal causes
2. Genetic / inherited causes /Biological factors and
3. Environmental causes
CAUSES OF EXCEPTIONALITY

Causes may include but are not limited to: open or closed head injuries, cerebrovascular
accidents (e.g., stroke, aneurysm), infections, kidney or heart failure, electric shock, anoxia,
tumors, metabolic disorders, toxic substances, or medical or surgical treatments.

Types of Exceptional Children

Psychologists have classified exceptional children into many broad categories each of them
having one or more types. Some of the major types of exceptional children will be discussed
chapter wise with reference to their special educational needs. The types of Exceptional
Children are as follows-:

(i)     Intellectually Exceptional Children

There are three groups comprising the intellectually exceptional children. On one hand we have
the gifted child, the child with superior intellect. Gifted children exceed, in terms of intelligence
quotient, 25 or 130 and generally fall within the range between 1Q, 130 and 180 or above.

Such children constitute about 2 to 7 percent of the average population. These children are
more neglected in terms of special provisions, particularly in the elementary school, than are
children of any other area of exceptionality.

They present a unique challenge to teachers and administrators who must plan a realistic
programme geared to meet the special needs of the gifted pupil and as the same time insure
that society will benefit to the maximum from the unusual abilities and leadership qualities
which the children and youth with high mental ability possess.

It is not enough merely to set normal standards for them or to leave them to their own devices
on the assumption that they are well-qualified to care themselves. Such negligence and lack of
appropriate instruction encourages some gifted students to operate on a resort ‘get-by’ policy,
while others become so bored that they resort to a social if not antisocial behaviour.

(i)The slow-learners are those whose measured intelligence quotient is somewhere children
between 80 and 95. They have problems of adjustment and education which must be
understood by parents and teachers. They need remedial education

(ii) The mentally handicapped or the educable mentally retarded pupils possess I.Q., between
approximately 50 to 75. They can however, become literate and socially and economically self-
sufficient in childhood.
(iii) The mentally difficult or trainable. Mentally retarded children have been defined as
possessing I.Q., scores between 30 and 50. Because their mental ages approximate 4 to 8 years
by adulthood, they can expect to develop rudimentary skills in self-care, socialisation, and oral
communication, but not to become literate. This group will need some social support or
protection for all of their lives. Many of them are able to perform useful tasks at home or in a
sheltered environment.

·      The Gifted Children

·      The Slow Learner

·      Backward Children

·      Mentally retarded children

(ii)     Socially Exceptionally Children

·      Delinquent Children

·      Problem Child

·      Autism

(iii)    Physically Exceptional Children

·      Visually impaired Children

·      Hearing Impaired Children

·      Speech Impaired Children

·      Orthopedic Impairment Children

·      Cerebral palsy Children

(iv)     Children with Learning Disabled

 Dyslexia

Learning Disabilities

Children with learning disabilities represent 46 per cent of students receiving special
educational assistance. Learning disability is characterized by difficulty learning despite
intelligence at or above normal levels, and is manifested in the classroom by a discrepancy
between measured intelligence and documented achievement. Language, reading and writing,
mathematical learning or information processing may be individually affected or involved in
combinations, and the causes are multiple and both familial and environmental; inherited
learning deficiency, prematurity and birth injury and toxic exposure are the chief causes

Communication Disorders

The diagnosis and treatment of disorders of communication grew from the discipline of speech
and language pathology, which in turn arose from elocution and “speech correction” in the
19th century. Alexander Melville Bell and his son, the better-known Alexander Graham Bell,
were practitioners of speech correction and teachers of elocution who developed in the 1870s
a symbolic code that indicated the position of the tongue, throat and lips in the production of
speech sounds. This “visible speech” became the basis for a technique of teaching speech to
those who had difficulty forming the proper sound . The younger Bell’s interest in a means of
transmitting speech for diagnostic and teaching purposes led him to invent the telephone. Two
organizations developed to study and treat speech disorders: one consisted of speech
correctionists who were or had been schoolteachers, and became the National Society for the
Study and Correction of Speech Disorders in 1918, while another group more closely affiliated
with the medical profession started in 1925 and became the American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association. Samuel Orton was active in this field as well, and suggested in the 1920s,
along with Lee Edward Travis, that speech disorders generally and stuttering in particular were
analogous to dyslexia, and resulted from failure to establish cerebral hemispheric dominance.
This theory was extended but never conclusively proven by Wendell Johnson and Charles van
Riper in the 1930s, and the latter suggested in 1939 that the social implications of
communication were as important as the linguistic ones, which led in turn to the development
of psycholinguistics by George Miller and others, which was one of the foundations of cognitive
psychology (Prutting, 1982).

Communication disorders account for about 18 per cent of the educational services received by
children. These can involve expressive language, language comprehension, the physical
production of speech or social communication, the interpretation of and appropriate response
to verbal and nonverbal language in social contexts.
COMMUNICATION DISORDER
A communication disorder means that a person has difficulty with speech, communication,
language, or some combination of those. This can manifest in word articulation, written
language, or understanding and participating in verbal and nonverbal communication.

Communication disorders affect a wide variety of people for a wide variety of reasons. For
children, diagnosis may come after a parent or teacher notices that a child's speech
development is noticeably delayed in comparison to their peers.

Like many disorders, symptoms can range from mild to very severe. It can be as limited as a
slight stutter or as severe as the inability to use speech or language to communicate.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
LANGUAGE DISORDER
People with a language disorder will often have difficulty understanding or using correct words
in context. They may also have difficulty getting others to understand what they mean.

A language disorder may cause a person to have a reduced vocabulary and limited sentence
structure. They often struggle to form complete meaningful sentences and have trouble
grasping the rules of grammar, both in written and speaking form.

Often language disabilities are diagnosed at a young age when children's language abilities are
substantially lower than their age expectations. The symptoms for language disorder begin in
early development.

According to DSM-5, Language Disorder is not related to hearing loss, motor dysfunction,
intellectual disability, global developmental delay, or other medical or neurological conditions.

SPEECH SOUND DISORDER

Those who are affected by Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) have a difficulty making certain
sounds. The sounds may be omitted, changed, or distorted. For those affected by SSD, it is
common to substitute sounds for other sounds.

As with Language Disorders, SSD is often identified when parents or teachers notice a slowness
in the development of a child's speech. Onset usually occurs in the early development period of
a child, and is not an acquired or congenital condition. SSD can affect a person or child's ability
to learn, write, read, and spell.

Speech Sound Disorder can be divided into two categories: Articulation and Phonological.

ARTICULATION
Those who struggle with articulation have a difficult time making specific speech sounds. This is
at a phonetic level, and it is sometimes related to a deficiency in their articulators (vocal
organs). In other words, children who struggle with articulation may do so because of a motor
issue, or because two articulators (for instance the way the tongue meets the palate) don't
meet correctly to produce the proper sound. However, not all children or adults who struggle
with Articulation do so because of motor issues.

There are four major symptoms associated with Articulation Disorders.

 Distortion of sound – Distortion sounds are often associated with individuals who have
a lisp. For instance, saying a "th" sound instead of an "s" sound.
 Substitution – An example of this would be using the letter "w" instead of the letter "r".
 Omission – Omission refers to the times that people leave out part of a word. For
example, instead of saying, "That's mine!", they may say, "‘at's ‘ine."
  Additional sounds – Additional sounds may be added to words as in "doguh" instead of
"dog."

PHONOLOGICAL
Phonological has to do with language at the mind's level. While Articulation is at a phonetic
level, Phonological is at a phonemic level. Phonological Disorder is described as a pattern of
sound errors. Children with phonological issues struggle to acquire a phonological system, or in
other words, they struggle to organize the pattern of sounds in the brain.

Children or adults who have Phonological issues will sometimes create sounds in the wrong
part of their mouth. For example, they may use "back sounds" (sounds that would ordinarily be
produced in the back of the mouth), in the front of the mouth. Letters like "k" and "g" may be
replaced with front sound letters "t" and "d."

CHILDHOOD-ONSET FLUENCY DISORDER

Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (COND) refers to a disruption in the natural flow of language,
more often known as a stutter. COND will manifest itself in repetition or prolongation of
speech. Those who suffer from this disorder may also hesitate before they speak or use
monosyllabic repetitive words. For example, they may say something like, "He-he-he-he went
that way."

Those who suffer from COND often experience anxiety about speaking either in conversation or
in front of crowds. Symptoms are not constant and may not be present in all situations. For
instance, a person may be able to read out loud or sing without symptoms being present.
Unfortunately, the symptoms can flare up if the speaker feels anxious, stressed, or self-
conscious.

SOCIAL COMMUNICATION DISORDER

Unlike some of the other disorders, Social Communication Disorder (SCD) doesn't focus on
articulation of words, phonics, or order of words, but rather how an individual communicates
socially. While a person who has SCD may be able to articulate extremely well, and may have no
issues understanding grammar and sentence flow, they may be strongly lacking in proper social
communication.

SCD is the most recent diagnostic code added to the communication disorders listed in DSM-5.
It has strong similarities to Autism Spectrum Disorder, but a person can be diagnosed with SCD
without also being diagnosed with ASD.

In short, Social Communication Disorder revolves around pragmatics and social understanding.
Pragmatics refers to using language in the right context. For example, language is used
differently when a person is speaking to their best friend versus a stranger, or their boss. Not
recognizing the need to change the way they speak to different people in different contexts
may be a sign that someone has this disorder.
Another sign of SCD is having difficulty in following rules of conversation or not understanding
things that haven't been said explicitly. People with SCD may struggle to notice subtle parts of
conversation or to pick up on non-verbal communications. They may also have a difficult time
keeping conversations flowing, or responding to the thoughts and ideas of others.

CAUSES COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Communication Disorders begin for many different reasons. Many people are born with them,
and they begin during their early childhood development. Still, there are a variety of reasons a
person may have or develop a Communication Disorder. Here is a list of some possible causes.

 Hearing loss
 Brain Injury
 Drug Abuse
 Autism Spectrum Disorder
 Cleft Lip or Palate
 Neurological Disorder
 Emotional Disorder
 Cerebral Palsy
 Developmental Disorder or Disabilities
 Vocal Cord Injury
 Learning Disorders
 Intellectual Disabilities
 Stroke

Gifted and Talented

Special education defines this group as those with an IQ in the top 2 percentiles of the
population, usually 130 or more. Such students have one or more intellectual strengths and are
generally capable of divergent as well as convergent thinking, sometimes more so. The federal
government does not mandate special education programs for gifted and talented students,
but most states fund them. Although an excess of talent or intellect is not considered
pathological, this group may overlap with other exceptional children in the form of savantism or
twice-exceptional students.

Causes of Giftedness

Giftedness is biologically determined although some psychologists’ emphasise on the child’s

Socio Economic Status to be associated with his/her IQ, Heredity sets the intellectual potential
of an individual and the environment determines how much of it is realised. Special educational
programmes like enrichment (extra opportunities) acceleration and pullout approach
(withdrawal for school classes for special training) are needed to realise his potential for
personal fulfillment and social contribution.
About gifted children
Gifted children are born with natural abilities well above the average for their age. If your child
is gifted, you might notice these natural abilities in the way they’re learning and developing.

Children can be gifted in any area of ability, and they can also be gifted in more than one
area. For example, a child might be gifted creatively and intellectually. Or they might have
above-average physical coordination and memory, or more social and emotional maturity than
other children their age.

Children can be gifted at different levels too. That is, some gifted children have more advanced
abilities than others. And some gifted children also have disabilities. For example, a child who is
intellectually gifted might also have autism or hearing loss.

1. Ability to see things from a variety of perspectives – Gifted students often find unique
ways to view a situation or problem. They use their creativity and abstract thinking skills
to find unique perspectives and solutions to problems, even when there is an easier way
to go about solving. Stories of gifted students developing their own mathematical
techniques, languages, and games are not uncommon.

2. Advanced language skills – Gifted students often enjoy talking to adults over their
same-aged peers due to their advanced language skills. They may have a more advanced
vocabulary and ability to use more precise language to represent their thoughts.
Additionally, they may speak very quickly because they have so many thoughts in their
head that they just have to get out and share. Allowing gifted students opportunities to
regularly connect with their intellectual peers and adults will help to hone their
language skills.

3. Critical of self and others – Gifted students are often labeled as critical of others or even
themselves. Because of their advanced abilities to understand a variety of topics at a
rapid pace, they can often be less tolerant of others who are not able to do the same. In
a typical classroom, the teacher is trying to meet the needs of most of the students,
which often leaves the advanced students to move forward on their own, or worse, to
be told to sit and wait until the class catches up with them. Gifted students have an
insatiable desire to learn so their constant questions or pleas to increase the pace of
learning can be seen as trying to dominate the classroom or may even manifest as a lack
of understanding and tolerance for others who have different learning needs.

4. Early and rapid learning - One of the most common characteristics of gifted students is
their ability to learn things early and rapidly. Many gifted students have excellent
memorization skills, which aids in their ability to connect previous knowledge with new
information, thus accelerating their acquisition of new concepts. They can assimilate
new information, even on complex topics, at a dizzying pace. This often makes them
appear to be off-task or uninterested in traditional classroom learning, which may go at
a pace that is too slow to keep them intellectually stimulated.
5. Intellectual curiosity – Gifted students are not satisfied with simply hearing that
something is a known truth, they have an insatiable desire to understand why
something is true. High quality gifted education nurtures intellectual curiosity by
offering authentic opportunities for discovery and experiential learning thus allowing
gifted students to uncover truths for themselves. Intellectual curiosity can be
misconstrued as challenging authority as students constantly question teachers and
mentors. It’s essential that educators continue to foster intellectual curiosity because
once it is squashed it can be extinguished forever.

6. Overexcitability – First identified by Dabroski (1972), overexcitabilities are a heightened

response to a variety of stimuli. Overexcitabilities can be psychomotor (physical
movement), sensual (related to the five senses), intellectual, imaginational, or
emotional. There are many merits to profoundly gifted overexcitabilities and these
should be emphasized so students learn to appreciate and harness their unique abilities.

7. Perfectionism – Gifted students often hold themselves to a very high standard. In some
cases they believe that they should excel in everything they do. This can lead to
frustration when they don’t earn a perfect grade or excel in extra-curricular activities.
Providing meaningful opportunities to challenge gifted students without high
consequences for not achieving perfection will help them learn to value authentic
learning and growing over being perfect. This is one of the most common exceptionally
gifted characteristics.

8. Persistence – Gifted students are often persistent in their pursuit of knowledge or in

their beliefs. They can become quickly absorbed in topics and go down proverbial rabbit
holes in an attempt to satisfy their insatiable curiosity. Any parent who has tried to get a
gifted student to “let it go” knows that this can be difficult.

9. Quirky and/or keen sense of humor – Gifted students often have an advanced sense of
humor and can appear frustrated with peers who may find base or bodily humor
entertaining. Gifted students are more likely to enjoy punny humor or sarcasm, types of
humor that are more adult-like. Students at the Davidson Academy’s Online
campus have a chat conversation dedicated to puns that has been actively running for
three years.

10. Strong empathy and sense of justice – Gifted students often have a difficult time
processing real or perceived injustices and they feel deeply for those around them. They
understand equity and fairness on a personal level and often struggle with others who
don’t. This may make them seem asocial at times as they struggle to work in
heterogeneous groups where the academic load may be unfairly placed on their
shoulders or there are social issues related to lack of inclusion or bullying. They are
often trying to support others who they believe are being left out and this can also
manifest as a deep, caring relationship for a pet or animals in general. Occasionally, this
can also manifest itself as high or even unreasonable expectations for themselves.
Intellectually challenged

Intellectual disability (ID), once called mental retardation, is characterized by below-average

intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living. People with
intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly. There are
varying degrees of intellectual disability, from mild to profound. The term "mental retardation"
is no longer used, as it's offensive and has a negative tone.

What is intellectual disability?

Someone with intellectual disability has limitations in two areas. These areas are:

 Intellectual functioning. Also known as IQ, this refers to a person’s ability to learn,

reason, make decisions, and solve problems.
 Adaptive behaviors. These are skills necessary for day-to-day life, such as being able to
communicate effectively, interact with others, and take care of oneself.

IQ (intelligence quotient) is measured by an IQ test. The average IQ is 100, with the majority of
people scoring between 85 and 115. A person is considered intellectually disabled if they have
an IQ of less than 70 to 75.

To measure a child’s adaptive behaviors, a specialist will observe the child’s skills and compare
them to other children of the same age. Things that may be observed include how well the child
can feed or dress themselves; how well the child is able to communicate with and understand
others; and how the child interacts with family, friends, and other children of the same age.

Intellectual disability is thought to affect about 1% of the population. Of those affected, 85%
have mild intellectual disability. This means they are just a little slower than average to learn
new information or skills. With the right support, most will be able to live independently as
adults.

What are the signs of intellectual disability in children?

There are many different signs of intellectual disability in children. Signs may appear during
infancy, or they may not be noticeable until a child reaches school age. It often depends on the
severity of the disability. Some of the most common signs of intellectual disability are:

 Rolling over, sitting up, crawling, or walking late

 Talking late or having trouble with talking
 Slow to master things like potty training, dressing, and feeding themselves
 Difficulty remembering things
 Inability to connect actions with consequences
  Behavior problems such as explosive tantrums
 Difficulty with problem-solving or logical thinking

In children with severe or profound intellectual disability, there may be other health problems
as well. These problems may include seizures, mood disorders (anxiety, autism, etc.), motor
skills impairment, vision problems, or hearing problems.

What causes intellectual disability?

Anytime something interferes with normal brain development, intellectual disability can result.

However, a specific cause for intellectual disability can only be pinpointed about a third of the
time.

The most common causes of intellectual disability are:

 Genetic conditions. These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome.
 Problems during pregnancy. Things that can interfere with fetal brain development
include alcohol or drug use, malnutrition, certain infections, or preeclampsia.
 Problems during childbirth. Intellectual disability may result if a baby is deprived of oxygen
during childbirth or born extremely premature.
 Illness or injury. Infections like meningitis, whooping cough, or the measles can lead to
intellectual disability. Severe head injury, near-drowning, extreme malnutrition, infections
in the brain, exposure to toxic substances such as lead, and severe neglect or abuse can
also cause it.
 None of the above. In two-thirds of all children who have intellectual disability, the cause
is unknown.

Can intellectual disability be prevented?

Certain causes of intellectual disability are preventable. The most common of these is fetal alcohol
syndrome. Pregnant women shouldn’t drink alcohol. Getting proper prenatal care, taking a
prenatal vitamin, and getting vaccinated against certain infectious diseases can also lower the risk
that your child will be born with intellectual disabilities.

In families with a history of genetic disorders, genetic testing may be recommended

before conception.

Certain tests, such as ultrasound and amniocentesis, can also be performed during pregnancy

to look for problems associated with intellectual disability. Although these tests may identify
problems before birth, they cannot correct them.
How is intellectual disability diagnosed?

Intellectual disability may be suspected for many different reasons. If a baby has physical
abnormalities that suggest a genetic or metabolic disorder, a variety of tests may be done to
confirm the diagnosis. These include blood tests, urine tests, imaging tests to look for structural
problems in the brain, or electroencephalogram (EEG) to look for evidence of seizures.

In children with developmental delays, the doctor will perform tests to rule out other problems,
including hearing problems and certain neurological disorders. If no other cause can be found
for the delays, the child will be referred for formal testing.

Sensory and Physical Difficulties 

sensory needs, which can be hearing loss and/or visual impairment or sensory processing
difficulties and physical difficulties, can occur for a variety of reasons, e.g. congenital conditions
(some progressive), injury or disease.

Hearing Loss

Hearing loss can be sensorineural, conductive or mixed

The levels of hearing loss are mild, moderate, severe or profound. For medical definitions see EHC
Criteria below.

A child can acquire a hearing loss for a variety of reasons, ranging from disease early in
childhood, to difficulties during childbirth, to reactions to toxic drugs. In the classroom,
however, the cause of the loss is virtually irrelevant because it makes little difference in how to
accommodate a student’s educational needs. More important than the cause of the loss is its
extent. Students with only mild or moderate loss of hearing are sometimes called hearing
impaired or hard of hearing; only those with nearly complete loss are called deaf. As with other
sorts of disabilities, the milder the hearing loss, the more likely you are to encounter the
student in a regular classroom, at least for part of the day.

Vision Loss

Visual impairment is an eye condition that cannot be fully corrected by glasses or contact lenses

The levels of vision are mild, moderate, severe or profound. For medical definitions see EHC
Criteria below.

tudents with visual impairments have difficulty seeing even with corrective lenses. Most
commonly the difficulty has to do with refraction (the ability to focus), but some students may
also experience a limited field of view (called tunnel vision) or be overly sensitive to light in
general. As with hearing loss, labels for visual impairment depend somewhat on the extent and
nature of the problem. Legal blindness means that the person has significant tunnel vision or
else visual acuity (sharpness of vision) of 20/200 or less, which means that he or she must be 20
feet away from an object that a person with normal eyesight can see at 200 feet. Low
vision means that a person has some vision usable for reading, but often needs a special optical
device such as a magnifying lens for doing so. As with hearing loss, the milder the impairment,
the more likely that a student with a vision problem will spend some or even all the time in a
regular class.

Signs of visual impairment

Students with visual impairments often show some of the same signs as students with simple,
common nearsightedness. The students may rub their eyes a lot, for example, blink more than
usual, or hold books very close to read them. They may complain of itchiness in their eyes, or of
headaches, dizziness, or even nausea after doing a lot of close eye work. The difference
between the students with visual impairment and those with “ordinary” nearsightedness is
primarily a matter of degree: the ones with impairment show the signs more often and more
obviously. If the impairment is serious enough or has roots in certain physical conditions or
disease, they may also have additional symptoms, such as crossed eyes or swollen eyelids. As
with hearing loss, the milder forms ironically can be the most subtle to observe and therefore
the most prone to being overlooked at first. For classroom teachers, the best strategy may be
to keep track of a student whose physical signs happen in combination with learning difficulties,
and for whom the combination persists for many weeks.

Multisensory Impairment

Multisensory impairment occurs when there is a hearing loss and visual impairment, which are
both educationally significant although they may be at different levels.

Sensory Processing Difficulty

Our bodies and the environment send our brain information through our senses. We process and
organise this information so that we feel comfortable and secure. When a child has difficulty
coping with these demands, they may have sensory processing difficulties.

A child may be under-sensitive or over-sensitive in the 5 areas:

Proprioception

Vestibular

Auditory

Oral Sensory
Tactile

Physical Difficulty

Physical/medical injures can be for a variety of reasons, eg congenital conditions (some

progressive), injury or disease.

A child with a physical difficulty may have a diagnosed medical condition which affects them
physically. There may be an undiagnosed condition where the child presents with delayed
development or impairment with their physical ability and/or presentation.

Unit 3
Projective techniques. Projective techniques assess personality by presenting ambiguous
stimuli and requiring a subject to respond, projecting his or her personality into the responses.

 The ambiguous inkblots in the well‐known Rorschach inkblot test, developed by

Hermann Rorschach, are perceived differently by different people, and those
perceptions are believed to be related to the subjects' problems.

 The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray, consists of a series

of ambiguous pictures, which the subject is requested to describe and tell a story about.
The test is used to identify a person's emotions, motives, and problems.

Scoring and interpreting projective tests requires special training, but the tests can be very
helpful in identifying personality problems.

Projective techniques may be seen as a combination of behavioral assessment (what a person

does), self-report (what a person says), and the judgment of an observer. This article mentions
only sentence completion forms, a type of projective test that appears particularly important in
personality assessment. Sentence completion forms are semistructured measures in which
respondents are asked to complete stems such as “My mother…” The best validated of these is
Loevinger’s Washington University Sentence Completion Test, a measure of social and cognitive
maturity that has been widely used in studies of personality development, particularly in the
college years. A second sentence completion measure is the Rotter Incomplete Sentences
Blank, which assesses emotional adjustment

Personality Projective Tests

Another method for assessment of personality is projective testing. This kind of test relies on
one of the defense mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess
unconscious processes. During this type of testing, a series of ambiguous cards is shown to the
person being tested, who then is encouraged to project his feelings, impulses, and desires onto
the cards—by telling a story, interpreting an image, or completing a sentence. Many projective
tests have undergone standardization procedures (for example, Exner, 2002) and can be used
to access whether someone has unusual thoughts or a high level of anxiety, or is likely to
become volatile. Some examples of projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test, the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the
TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story), and the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB).
The Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann
Rorschach (pronounced “ROAR-shock”). It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are
presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks
the client, “What might this be?” What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and
struggles (Piotrowski, 1987; Weiner, 2003). The Rorschach has been standardized using the
Exner system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.
A second projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), created in the 1930s by
Henry Murray, an American psychologist, and a psychoanalyst named Christiana Morgan. A
person taking the TAT is shown 8–12 ambiguous pictures and is asked to tell a story about each
picture. The stories give insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and
goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a person’s resistance divulging unconscious
personal details (Cramer, 2004). The TAT has been used in clinical settings to evaluate
psychological disorders; more recently, it has been used in counseling settings to help clients
gain a better understanding of themselves and achieve personal growth. Standardization of test
administration is virtually nonexistent among clinicians, and the test tends to be modest to low
on validity and reliability (Aronow, Weiss, & Rezinkoff, 2001; Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000).
Despite these shortcomings, the TAT has been one of the most widely used projective tests.
A third projective test is the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) developed by Julian
Rotter in 1950 (recall his theory of locus of control, covered earlier in this chapter). There are
three forms of this test for use with different age groups: the school form, the college form, and
the adult form. The tests include 40 incomplete sentences that people are asked to complete as
quickly as possible (Figure 3). The average time for completing the test is approximately 20
minutes, as responses are only 1–2 words in length. This test is similar to a word association
test, and like other types of projective tests, it is presumed that responses will reveal desires,
fears, and struggles. The RISB is used in screening college students for adjustment problems
and in career counseling (Holaday, Smith, & Sherry, 2010; Rotter & Rafferty 1950).
Personality Assessment Questionnaire
Personality questionnaires assess personal behavioural preferences, that is, how you like to
work. They are not concerned with your abilities, but how you see yourself in the way you
relate to others, your approach to problems, and how you deal with feelings and emotions.
With this type of assessment, there are no right or wrong answers.

The question that follows is an example of the type of question you may come across  in a
personality assessment. These questions are presented in the form of forced-choice triplets.
More specifically, you are presented with three behavioral statements at the same time and
instructed to select the statement that is most like you. Next, the selected statement
disappears, and you are instructed to select the one statement of the two remaining that is
most like you.

What is a personality questionnaire?

A personality questionnaire is used for recruitment to highlight personality traits and

competencies which are valued in the workplace. Personality questionnaires are in multiple
choice format, and will not have a time limit, allowing candidates to decide on their
responses in their own time. An example personality/competency question would be "I like to
identify new business opportunities" or "I am likely to made decisions based on facts and
figures alone", requiring the candidate to rate on a given scale (often 1-7) how much they agree
or disagree with the statement.

Once the candidate’s results are collected, they are compared to a norm group, and
subsequently informs the organisation how, for example, analytical, influential and adaptive
you may be in the workplace. Similarly the test may assess values, which can be useful in
identifying if the candidate fits well with the organisation and its culture. Depending on the
test, over a hundred individual traits and competencies may be assessed by the questionnaire.
There are no right or wrong answers when it comes to personality tests, however there are
good and bad reports, and recruiters will be looking for specific competencies and traits in
candidates.

1. Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ): The OPQ is a personality questionnaire

designed and published by SHL, and is the most commonly used personality questionnaire for
recruitment and development purposes. This test may be scored either normatively or
ipsatively and will always be multiple choice format. The report for this test will evaluate a
candidate’s competencies, personality preferences and work place behaviours.

2. Saville Wave©: This online personality questionnaire platform will combine both normative
and ipsative style questions in the same questionnaire, with all questions being multiple choice
format. This test can only be performed online and candidates will not sit a pencil and paper
version. Typically candidates will be asked to undertake the professional styles version (40
minutes long) or the focus styles version (14 minutes long).

3. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): The MBTI assesses a candidate’s personality

preferences, and evaluates how the candidate makes decisions. The MBTI asks questions
regarding how you function as a person (i.e. How do you prefer to make decisions?) and asks
you to select one of the personality preferences (extraversion- introversion, sensing-intuition,
thinking-feeling, judgement-perception).

4. Talent Q Dimensions: This test typically takes 25 minutes to complete, and is primarily used
to identify the “fit” between the candidate and the organisation/job role. However the test can
also be used for development and team building.
5. Personality and preference inventory (PAPI): The PAPI is available in both normative and
ipsative versions and assesses numerous work place relevant traits and competencies. This test
may take round 15 minutes to complete and has been used extensively for over 40 years.

6.Extraversion
Extroverts and introverts represent the opposite ends of a key personality trait that affects
whether people prefer to work in groups or by themselves. This trait relates to assertiveness,
enjoyment of human interactions or social settings and risk-taking. It includes characteristics
such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness. Those that score high on this scale (extroverts) tend to be very social and direct
their energy outwards to the external world of people and activities. Those that score low
(introverts) prefer to work on their projects alone and are more self-contained. This does not
necessarily mean that they are shy. Rather, it means that they gain energy by working alone
while working together drains energy. This is reversed with extroverts.

7.Agreeableness
Agreeableness is about the role you typically assume when interacting with others. This trait
tends to be indicative of cooperation, kindness, and consideration of other people. High scorers
are generally polite and easy to get along with. Low scorers tend to ‘tell it like it is.' This
personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, affection, and other pro-social
behaviors.

8.Conscientiousness
This trait applies to attention to detail, vigilance, organization and a desire to complete a task to
the utmost ability. Typical features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with
good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. How reliable or easy going a person is, tends
to affect motivation at work as well as personal organization and self-discipline. Those high in
conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

9.Neuroticism
Neuroticism relays the level of anxiety, the ability to deal with stress and how well one it able to
maintain calmness under pressure. In other words, this personality trait relates to being
emotional. Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety,
moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

10.Openness to new experience

Openness to new experience is the personality trait of seeking new experience and intellectual
pursuits. This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insights, and those high in
this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. It refers to how readily an individual will
take on new experiences or acceptance of non-conventional ideas, one’s level of creativity and
attentiveness to inner thoughts and feelings.