1.

Introduction to Fermentation of Olives:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Although the origin of the art of preparing table olives by lactic acid
fermentation is lost in antiquity, the history of the table olive industry
in California has been documented. The first olive trees in the state
were grown from seed said to have been planted at the Mission San
Diego in 1769. The seeds were brought from San Bias, Mexico, by Don
Jose de Galvez during an expedition to rediscover the port of
Monterey. The seedlings, thus obtained by selection, are the source of
the present mission variety of Olea europaea.

Although olives were used for oil production in the California missions
as early as 1780, the first production of olive oil outside of the missions
did not occur until 1871. The olive was not planted extensively until
about 1860, but by 1870 was showing promise of becoming of some
importance to California agriculture. Between 1870 and 1900 many
olive varieties had been introduced from Europe and Africa and much
effort had been made in testing them, principally for oil production,
since oil was the major product of the industry.
Pickling of olives for table use, practiced as an art in the missions, on
the farms, and in the homes for many years, was of little commercial
value until about 1900. (Directions for pickling ripe and green olives
are to be found in the early agricultural literature of California.)
ADVERTISEMENTS:

For some reason, the art of pickling “ripe” olives was studied more
extensively than that of “green” olives. According to Cruess (1958), it
was independently discovered about 1900 by Professor Bioletti of the
University of California and Mrs. Freda Ehmann, a commercial
packer, that ripen olives, after a preliminary treatment with lye
(NaOH) to destroy the bitter principle, could be canned and preserved
by heat in much the same manner as other foods. This original
development, coupled with application of modern science and
technology have, somehow, combined to make the California canned
ripe olive the major product of the industry.
Formerly, early in this century, oil was still a major product of the
olive industry and, until about 1960, still accounted for an appreciable
quantity of fruit in each of the yearly product-disposition figures. In
years of high yields the olives destined for oil were in an approximately
1 to 1 ratio with olives canned.
However, because of increased harvest costs in California and other
competitive factors from abroad, oil production now has become
largely a salvage operation, and tons of olives used for oil approximate
those used for producing Spanish-type green olives, another salvage
product. (Data supporting these statements are available from the
Olive Administrative Committee, Fresno, California 93728.)
The disposition of olives for products in approximate order of
importance in California comprise black-ripe and green-ripe olives
(whole and pitted), Spanish-type, Sicilian-type, Greek-type including
brined and salt-cured fruits, and oil.
A portion of the black-ripe olives may be prepared as sliced (cross-
section rings), chopped, or segmented (longitudinal) into 4 or more
pieces per olive. Canned ripe olives are the major products of the
industry and account for 70% or more of all of the olives harvested. All
of the green-ripe canned olives are processed and canned at harvest
time (called direct or fresh cure by the industry). Fresh cured olives,
although not subjected to lactic acid fermentation.
The remainder of the harvested olives, of necessity, has to be stored in
salt brine prior to processing. They also undergo lactic acid
fermentation. Thus, there are 4 brine fermentations, including
“storage,” Sicilian-type, Spanish-type, and Greek-type brined olives.
The “storage” and Sicilian-type fermentations may be considered to be
identical for each variety of olive because the fruits are placed directly
in brine without lye treatment, whereas the Spanish-type olives are
treated with lye to destroy most of the bitterness, washed to remove
some of the alkali, and then brined.
The brine-cured Greek-type olives are placed in high salt brine which
may not undergo a lactic fermentation, but a fermentation caused by
salt tolerant yeasts. Salt-cured Greek-type olives are cured (desiccated)
with coarse salt, so they do not undergo fermentation in the strict
sense. Therefore, they will not be considered here.

2. Fermentation of Storage and Sicilian-Type Olives (With

Process):
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The “storage” and Sicilian-type fermentations are considered identical

for each variety of olive because the fruits are placed directly in brine
without lye treatment to destroy the bitterness of the olives. If there
are no cherry red colored olives in a tank, the disposition of the fruit
can be for Sicilian-type olives, or the fruit may be processed into
canned black-ripe olives, according to the economic demand.
The open fermentation tanks are filled and headed in much the same
manner as already described for cucumbers. The newer fiberglass
tanks are filled with olives, brined, and the cover locked in place
without the use of a false head to hold the olives submerged in the
brine.
The salt concentration of the brine will vary according to the variety of
olives and the final disposition to be made of the tank of olives.
Sevillano and Ascolano olives are subject to salt shrivel so it is
customary to use a lower concentration of salt (4 to 5% NaCl) if either
variety is to be sold as Sicilian-type olives.
Otherwise the brine strength will range between 5 and 8% salt
because, in the processing of black-ripe olives, salt shrivel is reduced
to a minimum by use of a needling machine to puncture the skin of the
fruits. This facilitates osmotic exchange between the needled olives
and the processing solution, generally water, or, at most, 10° to 12°
salometer salt brine. The shrivel is markedly reduced or eliminated by
this manipulation.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The olives, whatever their final disposition, undergo a lactic acid

fermentation. The amount of total acidity produced is quite variable
but will usually range between 0.2 and 0.7% (calculated as grams
lactic acid per 100 ml of brine). The development of acidity in
(holding) storage brines varies widely because of a number of factors.
The Sevillano variety does not fresh cure well, so the majority of
processors hold this variety in salt brine for a minimum of 30 days
before putting the fruit through the black-ripe, canned olive process.
This holding period, obviously, does not favor acidity in the upper
range, for olives ferment slowly at the ambient temperatures
prevailing in the brines, especially during the final weeks of the
harvest.
If held in open tanks, the acidity may be lost by oxidative yeasts, which
decompose the acid developed. This is quite an important factor when
open tanks of such olives are held in shaded or covered areas during
the colder months when the oxidative yeasts and molds are still more
active than the desirable lactic acid bacteria.
The tendency now is to use anaerobic methods to prevent this loss of
acidity, either by use of plastic film to cover the surface of the brine or
by the use of polyethylene or fiberglass containers designed to
minimize the access of air to the fermenting olives.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The changes in the microbiological populations observed in Sicilian-

type or holding solution fermentations are quite similar, and the olives
are subject to the same microbial spoilage problems. The lactic acid
bacteria found in these fermentations are of the same kinds already
described for the cabbage (sauerkraut) and cucumber (pickle)
fermentations.
Detailed studies made, but never published; indicate that there is a
sequence of microorganisms. The initial stage of fermentation is
dominated by organisms other than the lactic acid bacteria. In 4 or 5
days, if the brine strength is not more than 5% NaCl, a population of
lactic acid bacteria begins to appear.
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Pediococcus cerevisiae, and Lactobacillus
plantarum have been found, but L. mesenteroides never dominates the
fermentation, as it does with cabbage during the initial stage of
fermentation. P. cerevisiae and L. plantarum, or the latter alone, are
always found. The initial population of extraneous organisms, mainly
coliform bacteria and bacilli, disappear gradually and, if the
fermentation is normal, no longer can be found after 10 to 14 days of
fermentation.
Fermenting yeasts appear in the first 1 to 2 weeks and continue
throughout the fermentation. Some of these yeasts are acid-formers,
but their contribution to the increase in total acidity of the olive
fermentations may be offset by the decomposition of the acidity by
oxidative yeasts, which also may become established if conditions are
favorable for their growth.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The total acidity developed during the fermentation of holding

solution olives destined for future processing varies according to the
time the fruit is held in brine. The total acidity may be about 0.1%
(total acidity calculated as lactic, g/100 ml) when held for minimum of
30 days as is required for the Sevillano variety or, if the olives are held
longer, and the oxidative yeasts and molds are controlled, the total
acidity may be as high as 0.6% as lactic acid.

3. Fermentation of Spanish-Type Olives (With Process):

The first extensive commercial-scale experiments made to study this
fermentation were reported by Cruess (1930). From about 1935 until
1955 there was a gradual increase in the quantity of Spanish-type
olives fermented in California. All sizes of fruit of the Manzanilla,
Sevillano, and Barouni varieties were fermented as Spanish-type green
olives, the Barouni variety in particular.
However, rising production costs, and the adoption of the industry-
wide marketing agreement limiting the sizes of each variety that may
be canned in California made it unprofitable to continue making
Spanish-type olives from all sizes except for the Barouni olives; which
were exempt because of their unsuitability for canning. At present, the
production of Spanish-type olives is strictly a salvage operation, and
the non-canning sizes of all varieties are utilized.
Also, for economic reasons, the use of the traditional 190 liter (50 gal.)
barrels for fermentation has been discontinued. The development of
plastics fostered the replacement of the wood barrel with rigid plastic,
bottle-shaped containers of 1514 liter (400 gal.) capacity made of
polyethylene, with polyvinyl chloride fittings for draining. These
bottles have the advantage of holding the equivalent of 8 barrels of
olives, being mobile with the aid of lift trucks, even when filled with
olives and brine.
Another advantage is that use of the bottles permits lye treatment,
washing (leaching), and brining in the same container as was done
earlier by using large redwood tanks holding the equivalent of about
55 barrels of olives. Also there is a considerable economy realized
because the bottles require no maintenance upkeep when not in use.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The bottles are filled with olives of the appropriate size, transported to
the lye treatment and washing area, and the olives are covered with a
lye solution. The concentration of lye used for treating green olives to
hydrolyze the bitter glucoside, oleuropein, varies between 0.9 and
1.25% as used in California. Stronger lye solutions must be used very
carefully, for they frequently cause softening and blistering, as well as
undesirable skin sloughing with all varieties.
Fruit treated during the early part of the season (September 15 to
October 15) is prone to blistering when a gaseous fermentation starts
because the skin has separated from the flesh due to lye temperature
and, if the skin remains intact, gas formation causes a blister to form.
This form of blister formation, commonly known as “fish-eye”
spoilage.
Cooling of the lye solution and/or olives is indicated. The practice in
the San Joaquin Valley has been to use block ice or a heat-exchanger
to cool the lye solutions during the early part of the season when the
ambient temperatures still remain high during the day.
The lye is allowed to penetrate about 1/2 to 3/4 of the way to the pits
of all varieties treated with the exception of the Barouni. This variety
must be treated to the pit, for the flesh, unless so treated, will become
an undesirable reddish purple color in the area not exposed to lye and
the color will intensify as the acidity of the brine increases. This color
change is thought to be caused by a leuco-anthocyanin present in the
flesh of the fruit.
The time required for the desired lye penetration varies according to
the concentration and temperature of the lye solution and the variety,
size, maturity, and temperature of the fruit. However, an attempt is
made to maintain a schedule to complete the penetration in 12 to 14
hr.
Formerly, the removal of residual lye by washing and leaching with
water was carried out by changing the leaching water every 3 to 6 hr
during the day. The interval at night might reach 10 hr between
changes of water. The washing-leaching extended for 24 to 48 hr
before the olives were brined.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

By 1943, the trend was to shorten the washing- leaching period in

order to minimize the graying of the color of the fruit. Now, because
the number of changes of leaching water has been reduced to 3 or 4
changes in 24 hr, the olives are quite alkaline when brined.
Formerly, the industry used 2 different concentrations of salt when
brining olives for the Spanish-type fermentation. The Sevillano variety
is susceptible to salt shrivel in brine having more than 5% NaCl.
Therefore, the processors started this variety in a low concentration of
salt (4.0 to 5%), and then increased the salt in the brine slowly to 7-8%
over an indefinite interval.
At present, the majority of all varieties used in the industry are brined
with about 10% salt solution which is acidified with enough lactic acid
to neutralize the residual lye remaining after the washing-leaching
period. Most processors add sufficient acid to the brine to lower the
pH of the stabilized olives and brine to a value of between 4.5 and 5.0.
Sometimes glucose (crystalline corn sugar) is added at the time of
brining. If this is done, the sugar is added at the rate of 0.45 kg (1 lb)
(approximately) per 189.3 liters (50 gal.) of olives and brine. However,
the limitation of loss of fermentable materials by use of a much
shorter, less rigorous washing and leaching before brining has largely
eliminated the need for addition of sugar during the fermentation,
especially when the plastic bottle is used.
In normal fermentation of green olives of the Spanish-type, the initial
stage of the pickling process is the most important phase. During this
stage, lasting up to 14 days, if the brines are not acidified, the original
contaminating population of Gram-negative and Gram-positive
bacteria is eliminated as the result of acid production, both by
themselves and by the developing population of lactic acid bacteria.
Formerly, Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Streptococcus faecalis were
always found in low salt fermentations of the Sevillano variety. L.
mesenteroides, which dominated the latter phase of the primary stage,
as well as the early part of the secondary stage of fermentation,
disappeared from the population within 3 or 4 weeks.
Lactobacillus plantarum, a non-gas- forming species, dominated the
latter part of the intermediate stage as well as the final stage of
fermentation. This species is known to persist in olive brines for more
than a year. L. brevis, a gas-forming type, is found in the latter phases
of the intermediate stage and is present in appreciable numbers
during the final stage of fermentation.
This latter species never approaches the population levels produced by
L. plantarum. Furthermore, as shown by Vaughn et al. (1943), L.
brevis was never found in the high salt fermentations conducted with
the Manzanilla variety. Table 6.5 summarizes the predominating
bacterial population trends described, and also shows the
accompanying changes in the acidity and pH values.
Pediococci were not found in any of the fermentations described by
Vaughn et al. (1943). However, in later studies it was found that
Pediococcus cerevisiae may be isolated from olive brines during the
last phases of the initial stage of fermentation and the first part of the
intermediate stage of fermentation, and then it declines rapidly.
Not all brines of Spanish-type olives contain P. cerevisiae. Also, since
all varieties of olives are started in 10% salt brines now, the gas-
forming species L. brevis also may not be found in the fermentations.
Now, the only lactic acid bacterium sure to be found in all
fermentations is L. plantarum.

4. Control of Spanish-type Fermentations:

The olive fermentation is very slow in comparison to either the
sauerkraut or pickle fermentation. Data in the literature indicate that
either the sauerkraut or pickle fermentation will have produced
maximum total acidity before the olive fermentation has passed
through the initial stage of fermentation.
Olives brined for Spanish-type fermentations in late September and
early October produce more acid because of more favorable ambient
temperatures. The olives brined from the middle of October until the
end of the harvest ferment more slowly and may become dormant
soon after the start of fermentation because of the approach of winter
and the resultant drop in temperature. Therefore, it is obvious that
temperature control is necessary to prevent dormancy of the
fermentations.
The fermentations of all varieties of Spanish-type olives brined in Cali-
fornia may be accelerated by proper incubation. Commercial scale
experiments made by Cruess (1930) indicated that an average
temperature range of 21° to 24°C (70° to 75°F) was satisfactory for
acceleration of acid production without impairing the quality of the
fermented olives. Additional studies by Vaughn et al. (1943) showed
that the optimum temperature for maximum acid production of pure
cultures of Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Lactobacillus plantarum
was 30°C (86°F), and for L. brevis was 34°C (93.2°F).
Temperatures much above 32.2°C (90°F) have been observed to be
undesirable for pickling. Therefore, the temperature recommended by
Cruess can be followed with assurance. A temperature range of 23.9°
to 30°C (75° to 86°F) is commonly used for incubation at present, but
only to the extent that fermented Spanish-type olives are required for
early delivery.
Fermenting olives should not be incubated until the potential spoilage
bacteria, which probably are always present at the beginning of the
fermentation, have been eliminated. With normal uncontrolled
fermentations, the time required for disappearance of the undesirable
bacteria varies from 1 to as much as 3 weeks, depending upon the
activity of the lactic acid bacteria and the availability of fermentable
material. Those processors who acidify the initial brine may, if
desirable, initiate incubation at the start of the fermentation.
Fermentation of Spanish-type olives may also be accelerated by use of
starter cultures and addition of fermentable sugar. Cruess (1930)
recommended the use of starters of normal brine. Later (1937), Cruess
suggested the use of pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria for ensuring
start of fermentation. Pure culture starter inoculations were used
extensively in California from 1937 until about 1955, particularly with
the Manzanilla variety.
Lactobacillus plantarum was the species of choice to use for starters.
Details of preparation and use of the starters in the industry have been
described by Vaughn et al. (1943). Now, although sophisticated pure
culture starters are available for commercial culture laboratories, for
economic reasons, when inoculation is indicated, normal brine is used
to reseed the suspect fermentation.
Cruess (1930) was the first to recognize the need for addition of
supplementary fermentable sugar to obtain satisfactory acid formation
in Manzanilla olives and in Sevillano brines which did not otherwise
develop enough acidity. Supplementary glucose (from corn) is used
extensively, especially with the Barouni, Manzanilla, and Mission
varieties.
The sugar is commonly added at the rate of 0.45 to 0.9 kg (1 to 2 lb)
for each 189.3 liters (50 gal.) of olives and brine. Unless acidification
of the initial brine is practiced, the processor waits from 1 to 3 weeks
before adding the sugar. For the best olives and avoidance of
malodorous spoilage, the fermentations are controlled to a pH of at
least 4.0 and, preferably, 3.8.
Acidification of the brine was first suggested by Cruess (1930) as
means of preventing potential loss of fruit caused by abnormal
fermentation. It already had been reported by Fornachon et al. (1940)
that Lactobacillus brevis and other gas-forming lactobacilli had an
optimum pH in the range of 5.0 to 6.0 for growth and decomposition
of different carbon compounds.
This latter study was considered to be good evidence for the possible
need to acidify all olive brines. Therefore, additional studies, for the
most part under commercial conditions, were made by Vaughn et al.
(1943). They found that when acidification of the brine, with either
acetic or lactic acid, was accompanied by use of a starter culture of L.
plantarum and addition of supplementary glucose, satisfactory
fermentations were obtained. Acidification apparently functions to
spark the activity of the lactic acid bacteria as well as to eliminate
undesirable spoilage organisms.
Perhaps the most important control of all for protecting olives in
fermentation storage, Sicilian- or Spanish-type, is the maintenance of
anaerobic or nearly anaerobic conditions. Control of oxidative molds
and yeasts is mandatory but only recently became recognized as such
by the industry as a whole.
The advent of plastic film and molded plastic containers during the
1960s was responsible for important changes in the fermentation of
green olives in California The use of pliable plastic film to cover the
brines in the open bulk fermentation tanks (redwood) for the first time
permitted an airtight closure that, once in place, needed little
maintenance. This was a major advance because it virtually eliminated
oxidative molds and yeasts as sources of potential spoilage. (Plastic
films are also used on the open redwood tanks used for storage and
Sicilian-type fermentation for the same reason.)
When the industry was using 189.3 liter (50 gal.) barrels exclusively,
the first attempt to restrict brine surface exposure to the air was by use
of cellar bungs commonly used in the wine industry in the early 1940s.
However, these did not prevent spillage caused by diurnal expansion
and contraction of the brine, so during warm weather it was necessary
to add fresh brine to the barrels daily if the film yeasts were to be held
to a minimum.
Expansion bungs were devised to minimize spillage. The first such
bungs were improvised by cutting the bottoms out of 0.95 liter (1 qt)
size carbonated beverage or whiskey bottles and inserting the necks m
rubber stoppers of a size suitable to fit the side opening of the barrels.
This device controlled expansion and contraction of the brine without
spillage. However, breakage was a problem. Finally, a plastic bung was
developed. This more durable bung 15.2 cm (6 inches) in diameter,
provided a constant air surface to total volume ratio of 182.5 cm2 (28.3
inches2) to 189.3 liters (50 gal.) of olives and brine
The opening in the removable top of the plastic bottle used for
fermentation of Spanish-type green olives has the same diameter as
that of the plastic expansion bung just described. The advantage of the
plastic bottle is quite obvious—182.5 cm2 (28.3 inches2) exposed air
surface to 1514 liters (400gal.) of olives and brine.
The amount of brine exposed to the air can be reduced further by
floating a circular disk of slightly less diameter on the surface of the
brine in the top opening. Exposure to air can be entirely eliminated by
floating a 2.5 cm (1 inch) layer of paraffin, microcrystalline wax, or
“vaspar,” a 1 to 1 mixture of paraffin and vaseline.
Results reported by Vaughn and Martin (1971) have shown a
significant increase in acid production of olives fermented in the
plastic bottles as compared with those olives fermented in 189,3 liter
(50 gal.) barrels or in 757 liter (200 gal.) plastic liners held in wooden
shells which also have been used in the industry.
By a combination of control measures, it is possible and also practical
to complete the Spanish-type green olive fermentation in 3 to 4 weeks
under ideal commercial conditions (see Fig. 6.4). To accomplish this it
is necessary to use control measures which require maintenance of a
brine temperature of 24% to 30°C (75° to 86°F); abstinent of the salt
concentration of the acidified brine to 5% to 7% (W/V); to ensure the
presence of desirable lactic acid bacteria in the brine (use of a starter,
if indicated); and the addition of supplementary sugar to the brine to
ensure that an acidity of at least 0.8% (total acid calculated as grams
lactic acid per 100 ml brine) is produced. Maintenance of nearly
anaerobic conditions is mandatory.

5. Spoilage Problems of Fermented Olives:

Bacteria, yeasts, and molds may cause spoilage of olives at any time
after the harvest and the final packaging of the olives. All olives,
processed black- and green-ripe olives, as well as the brined olives that
undergo the lactic acid fermentation, are subject to microbial attack.
The commonest and, consequently, best-known spoilage types caused
by microorganisms are gassy deterioration, malodorous fermentation
and tissue softening. Of these, gassy fermentation and softening occur
most frequently and under the widest variety of conditions; in all
stages of the lactic fermentation as well as in olives undergoing “direct
cure” for canning.
Gassy, “Floater,” or “Fish-Eye” Spoilage:
This abnormality is characterized by the development of blisters
resulting from the accumulation of gases which cause separation of the
skin from the flesh of the olives and by the formation of fissures or gas
pockets which may extend to the pits of the fruit (Gas pockets are
never found when blisters caused by too concentrated or too warm lye
treatment solutions are observed so this chemical deterioration should
not be confused with the biological one under consideration).
Through the extensive studies of Cruess and Guthier (1923) Alvarez
(1926) Tracy (1934), and Vaughn and his students, it is well
established that the Worm bacteria are chiefly responsible for blister
and gas pocket formation. All of the species of coliform bacteria have
been implicated in gassy spoilage except Escherichia coli.
Cultures of Bacillus polymyxa and B. macerans also cause gassy
deterioration of olives. These species also may cause softening of
olives. The gas-forming pseudomonad Aero-monas liquefaciens also
may form gas pockets in olives but like the bacilli is equally important
as a softening organism.
Saccharolytic species of the anaerobes of the genus Clostridium also
cause a violent gassy fermentation in olives as shown by Gililland and
Vaughn (1943) These anaerobes may also be involved in softening of
olives but are more important for the malodorous spoilage they cause
(butyric fermentation and zapatera)
It was formerly the contention of the author that only those bacteria
which produce hydrogen were dangerous. There always are
exceptions. Recently, Vaughn et al. (1972) associated yeasts of the
genera Saccharomyces and Hansenula with gassy fermentation and
softening in olives.
These yeasts produced typical gas blisters but did not causes fissure
formation- Two of the species Saccharomyces kluyveri and S.
oleaginosus, also caused severe softening of olives. The cultures of
Hansenula were not pectolytic.
Control measures, for the most part, include sanitation, regulated
control of the fermentation by reducing the PH by acidification,
ensuring a population of desirable lactic acid bacteria, and, in the case
of processed olives for canning, use of pasteurization. Control
measures are discussed in more detail by Vaughn (1954).
Malodorous Fermentations:
There are 3 extremely malodorous fermentations, caused by bacteria,
which develop in olives. They are the butyric acid fermentation,
hydrogen sulfide fermentation, and zapatera spoilage. The butyric acid
fermentation has been associated with olives since Hayne and Colby
(1895) first recorded olive spoilage by the “butyric ferment.”
This abnormal fermentation is characterized by its butyric acid or
rancid butter odor during the initial stages of the development of this
malodorous abnormality. However, as the spoilage progresses, the
odor intensifies and finally results in a very malodorous stench.
Gililland and Vaughn (1943) first isolated pure cultures of anaerobic,
spore-forming butyric acid bacteria from samples of butyric spoiled
olives. All of the cultures were found to be of the saccharolytic but not
proteolytic types of the genus Clostridium. Most of the cultures were
closely related to or identical with the species Clostridium butyricum.
Sevillano olives formerly were prone to develop butyric fermentations
because the salt concentration was kept lower in order to avoid salt
shrivel. However, if the salt concentration is kept in the range now
used by the industry (7 to 8% NaCl W/V) the butyric fermentation
cannot develop.
It always occurred during the initial stage of fermentation in storage,
Sicilian- and Spanish-type olives and generally affecting Sevillano
olives, but the other varieties as well, if the salt was in the range of 5%
and the pH value was at 4.5 or above. At present, olives affected by the
butyric fermentation are rarely found.
Hydrogen sulfide fermentation of olives is characterized by the
identifying odor of H2S gas. At first the odor may be slight, but as the
fermentation progresses the odor intensifies and is reminiscent of the
smell of rotten eggs. Black brines may occur in this fermentation if
sufficient contaminating ferrous iron is present to cause the formation
of the black iron sulfide.
Black brines have been observed by the author in both storage and
Sicilian-type olive brines. Chalky white brines have also been observed
to occur in Spanish-type olives when contaminating zinc from
galvanized pipelines, buckets, and barrel hoops got into the brine and
formed the whitish zinc sulfide. The majority of hydrogen sulfide
fermentation brines shows either kind of sulfide formation but is clear
or has a microbial turbidity.
Early published reports on the occurrence of hydrogen sulfide
fermentation in brined olives is lacking, so there is no authenticated
record of the first hydrogen sulfide fermentation occurring in
California olive brines. The author first observed such fermentations
and recognized them as hydrogen sulfide fermentations during the
1937 harvest season in the upper Sacramento Valley. In all probability,
this fermentation has occurred for as long as olives have been brined
in California or elsewhere.
From 1937 on, periodic attempts were made to isolate sulfate reducing
bacteria from sulfureted brines. “Mineral” autotrophic enrichments
could be carried through several transfers but eventually failed. It was
not until the study made by Levin and Vaughn (1966) that it was
recognized that the “mineral” media used in the earlier studies lacked
essential nutrients now recognized as necessary for perpetuating the
growth of most, if not all, strains of sulfate-reducing vibrios.
Levin and Vaughn associated the halophilic Desulfovibrio aestuarii
with the hydrogen sulfide fermentation of fermenting storage and
Sicilian-type olives involving the Sevillano variety. Control of the
sulfate-reducing D. aestuarii is accomplished by acidification to a pH
value below 5.5 either by direct addition of acid or control of the
fermentation. Salt concentration is of no control value because some
of the bacteria grow in the presence of 12 to 14% NaCl (W/V).
Avoidance of hydrogen sulfide fermentation is effective if open tanks
of fermenting olives are pumped over to recirculate the brine after
each heavy rain to ensure an inhibitory pH in the upper layers of the
tank. Sulfureted olives may be salvaged by replacing the brine and
then aerating violently to oxidize the remaining hydrogen sulfide.
More than one change of brine and aeration may be necessary. Once
the odor is depleted then the brine must have the pH value adjusted to
a safe level below 5.5.
“Zapatera,” another malodorous fermentation of olives, apparently
was first described by Cruess (1924), who had observed the
abnormality in Spanish green olives while on a visit to Spain. This
spoilage occurs in all types of brined olives and, to the author’s
knowledge, is found in all olive growing areas of the world where
olives are brined.