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“(…) discourse is the process through which social reality comes into being“ (Escobar,
1995:39)

Gee (2005): „ways of combining and integrating language, actions, interactions, ways of
thinking believing, valuing, and using various symbols, tools, and objects to enact a
particular sort of socially recognisable identity“

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 Discourse = communication in all forms = social practice.

Discourse shapes society and society shapes discourse (Constitutive and Conditioned
nature of discourse)

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What are other examples of discourse?

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Metaphysics: “a division of philosophy that is concerned
with the fundamental nature of reality and being”
Epistemology: “the study or a theory of the nature and
grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its
limits and validity”
Axiology: “the study of the nature, types, and criteria of
values and of value judgments especially in ethics“
Source: Merriam Webster Dictionary

Source: http://www.utpteachingculture.com/teaching-philosophies/
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▪ Being critical means to try and deconstruct the dominant social reality. Is to try to make
the invisible relations between knowledge, ideologies and power visible. Is to try to go
deeper than the surface “and not take anything for granted” (Wodak, 2013).
▪ The being critical also requires an element of self-criticism and self-reflexion. Our own
interests as researchers should be analysed and taken into the spotlight, as they also
might influence our views on what is been analysed.

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According to Wodak (2013), CDA „can be seen as a problem-oriented, interdisciplinary
research programme (…). What unites them is a shared interest in the semiotic dimensions
of power, injustice and political-economic, social or cultural change in our globalised and
globalising world and societies“.
→Concentrates on social phenomena

It‘s more than a methodology, is way to approach and frame issues. It‘s a way of thinking, to
ask questions, not necessarily a way to look for answers.
→ Of course there are methods to CDA, but they are varied!

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According to Van Dijk (2008): „discourse is not only analysed as an autonomous verbal
object but also as situated interaction, as a social practice, or as a type of communication in
a social, cultural historical or political situation.“
Discourse is not only a linguistic unit → social phenomenon (Le, 2009)

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▪ Problem-oriented
▪ Interdisciplinary
▪ Interest: demystify ideologies and power
▪ Self-reflecting on the position and interests of the researcher and on the process of
research.
▪ Challenge hegemonic discourses

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 Ideology, Discourse,
Power

Source: O’Malley,T. (2012). Fasting from Suspicion, Ideology, and Demonization. 10

Ideologies:
▪ According to Van Dijk (1993) are „schematically organised complexes of representations
and attitudes with regard to certain aspects of the social world“
▪ According to Fairclough (1999) are „constructions of practices from particular
perspectives (…)which iron out the contradictions, dilemmas and antagonisms of practices
in ways which accord with the interests and projects of domination“
→ Systems of representation (Hall, 1986)

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Creation of narratives through the use of dichotomies and categories to create a social
identities.

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Four central characteristics (Wodak & Meyer, 2000)
1. Ideology is more important than cognition
2. It is capable of guiding individual‘s evaluations
3. It provides guidance through action
4. It must be logically coherent

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Examples of Ideologies?

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Two Perspectives:
1. Undestands power as an available resource
2. Understands power as the result of a social relation

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1. As a Resource:
“Thing” which can be possessed and is in the
hands of a person or a group of persons.
Important issue: how to get the power and
administrate it.
Under this view power is an exclusive and
scarce resource used as an instrument of
coercion to achieve desired results.
Example: King Tommen Baratheon, Kind of the Andals and the first men,
Lord of the Seven Kingdoms.

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2. As the effect of social relations:
It is a situation (context dependent), not
“something” to possess. It is not static, as
it flows through people and time. Who
wants to have it should be able to identify
the opportunities to obtain it and exploit it
in an strategic way. This time of power is
measured in the probability to make things
happen. (ability to impose and create Example. Petyr Baelish y Lord Varys

acceptance).

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Examples of Power as a social relation?

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Three forms of power:

1. Use of Force (coercion): Capability to stir or limit others by using violence or direct
force.
2. Influence: capacity to persuade others to do (or leave), to think and to act certain
way without using physical violence.
3. Authority: Reputation of an individual or group, which stir action through trust.

→ Political Reality is a mixture of the three forms.

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Weber understands as power "the probability of imposing one's will" and as domination "the
probability of imposing obedience to a mandate". Although power can be exercised in
different ways, it needs legitimacy (foundation) to be recognized and obeyed.
Three types of Domination / Authority (Herrschaft):
▪ Traditional (Domination / Authority)
▪ Legal (and / or Bureaucratic) (Domination Authority)
▪ Charismatic Domination (Authority)
What is power?
▪ Power is the ability to stir/move those around you into pre-conceived conducts and ways of
thinking.It does not always have to be coercive (use of force) to be effective. In the
democratic world, use of force is too evident, hence other ways to apply power had to be
found.
▪ The creation of narratives supporting a certain issue influence the population and creates
new way of thinking, of understanding, of knowledge. (Pre-approved knowledge)
Focus in CDA: Power as a relation.

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Hegemony (Gramsci):
Hegemony = domination

▪ “The basic premise of the theory of hegemony is one with which few would disagree: that
man is not ruled by force alone (…). The concept of hegemony is really a very simple one. It
means political leadership based on the consent of the led, a consent which is secured by
the diffusion and popularization of the world view of the ruling class“ (Bates, 1975:351-
352).

→ DA and CDA: How discourse normalises the ideology of dominant groups. The creation of
„social subjects“ (Althusser, 1971)

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▪ Power in Discourse: actors‘ struggles over different intepretations of meaning
(Holzschreiter, 2005)
▪ Power over Discourse: access to discourse in micro and macro contexts (Wodak, 2007)
▪ Power of Discourse: „the influence of historically grown macro-structures of meaning“
(Holzschreiter, 2005)

Discourse is the vehicle of ideologies

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 Discourse/
Knowledge

Perception Perception

Conduct

▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozWnquxkjIA 25
„Discourses involve patterns of belief and habitual action as well as patterns of language“
(Johnson, 2008)
→ Discourse has a regulatory nature → defines and produces the objects of our knowledge
(Le, 2009).

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Read: Foucault, M. (1980): Power/Knowledge. Pearson Education. Pp.79-108 (Chap.5: Two
Lectures).
Food for Thought:
▪ Provide two (current & past) examples of how discourse has shaped reality
▪ How do you know that you know hat you know?

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