Chapter II

NATURE, TYPES AND SCOPE OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Disaster can be defined as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave

occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, or by
accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human
suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or
degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be
beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area. Disaster
occurs when the dimension of an emergency situation grows to such an extent
that the impact of the hazard is beyond the coping capability of the local
community and/or the concerned local authority. India‘s geographical
condition is such that it is vulnerable to a number of natural disasters. 55 per
cent of the country’s total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and is vulnerable to
earthquakes, 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought, 4 crore
hectare mass is vulnerable to floods, sub-Himalayan/Western Ghat is
vulnerable to landslides and the coastal States are vulnerable to cyclones. Even
other than natural disasters, the country is also prone to man- made disasters.
The high susceptibility of the country makes it imperative to have thorough
disaster management plan in place. ―Disaster Management‖ is not expressly
mentioned in any of the entries in Schedule VII of the Constitution (List I).
However, the State Governments are provided financial assistance for meeting
expenditure on identified natural calamities on the basis of the
recommendations of the Finance Commission. The two entries in the State List
that are remotely related to the subject of disaster management are entry 14,
which deals with agriculture, including protection against pests and plant
diseases, and entry 17 which deals with water, including water supply, drainage
and embankments. The High Power Committee appointed by the Government
13
of India, strongly felt that this is grossly inadequate, and that Disaster
Management needs to be included in the 7th schedule of the Constitution under
which ever list is felt most appropriate. However, the legislation on disaster
management has been related to entry 23 (social security and social insurance)
in the Concurrent list of the Constitution and the States would also be able to
make their own legislation on the subject.

Fig. No:1 Research Scholar visiting to the Cyclone Center during her
Research Work in Visakhapatnam

14
Types of Disasters
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters compiled the
following definitions of various types of disasters at a workshop organized by
the United Nations Disaster Relief Organisation-Department of Humanitarian
Affairs in Prague in 1991. Other organizations, which participated in the
detailed discussion included, World Health Organisation, the World
Meteorological Organisation, technical staff of UNDRO and the Scientific
Technical Committee of the International Decade for Natural disaster
Reduction, who made significant contribution to the formulation of these
terms.1

Broadly disasters could be classified into two categories: Natural and

Man-made. Their natural of occurrences further diversify the disasters into the
following sub-classifications: Sudden and Long term.

Sudden-Natural Disasters
Earthquake

An earthquake is defined as an oscillatory movement of the earth’s

surface, or its crust, as a result of the release of energy within or immediately
below the crust. This happens as a sudden event dislocating segments of the
crust. Sometimes breaking of the surface, results in the vibration of the ground,
when strong enough will cause the collapse of the buildings and destruction of
life and property. In many areas it is accompanied by volcanic eruption, while
in others it strikes all by itself. Deep-seated forces, whose exact nature of
strength is not yet fully known, disturb the crust and tend to bulge it upwards.
When this force exceeds the resistance of the rocks near the surface, the rocks
are disrupted and energy is released7. An imbalance is thereby created in the
sub-surface which sometimes last only for a short while. This disruption is
called “earthquake”. The impact of the earthquake is measured by the Richter
Scale. There is, however, another scale known as ‘Mercalli Scale’ but Richter
scale is in vogue.

1
World Disasters Report,1993

15
 Fig.No.2: Revised earthquake hazard zone map of India
SOURCE: India Disaster Knowledge Network (IDKN) 2

India is having a high risk towards Earthquakes. More than 58 per cent
of India’s land area is under threat of moderate to severe seismic hazard.
During the last 20 years, India has experienced 10 major earthquakes that have
resulted in more than 35,000 deaths. The most vulnerable areas, according to
the present seismic zone map of India include the Himalayan and sub-
Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Depending
on varying degrees of seismicity, the entire country can be divided into the
following seismic regions: Of the earthquake-prone areas, 12% is prone to very
severe earthquakes, 18% to severe earthquakes and 25% to damageable
earthquakes.

2
Jagbir Singh,Disaster Management future challenges and opportunities, I.K. International
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Ne Delhi,2015, P.71 ISRN 978-81-89866-44-4

16
Top 10 Earthquake Prone-Areas in India3

The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. An

earthquake of 7.2 magnitude struck Tajikistan and the tremors were felt in
India and Pakistan. The epicenter of the earthquake was Tajikistan, measuring
7.2 on the Richter scale and was recorded at 25 km.

India is very prone to earthquakes as well. The major reason for the high
frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving
into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. As per the Geographical
statistics, almost 54% of the land in India is vulnerable to earthquakes.
According to the estimates shown by a World Bank and United Nations report,
around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and
earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of the seismic zoning map of India
assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors, which means
India is divided into 4 seismic zones: Zone 2, Zone 3, Zone 4 and Zone 5 to
Zone 10.

Zone 5 is highly prone to the earthquake with the highest level of

seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. So,
the Zones - marked two to five -indicate areas most likely to experience
tremors with five being the most vulnerable. Indian cities, ranging from the
metros to the smaller cities - all at least once have been shaken up due to
earthquakes which usually range from medium to high intensity on the Richter
scale. With some research we present you the top 10 Indian cities which are
observed as high earthquake prone zones: 8

1. Guwahati - Assam

Guwahati falls in zone five of the seismic zones in India which is highly
prone to earthquakes. The place has seen some of the deadliest earthquakes and
even today small tremors are a common situation. Guwahati receives

3
Published on December 14, 2015 BookandGo .Follow DATE,

17
earthquake predictions on a daily basis, resulting which many adjoining areas
in the North-East get affected.

2. Srinagar - Jammu and Kashmir

This capital city of Jammu and Kashmir also comes under Seismic Zone 5.

Most parts of the Kashmir Valley, which is around 11% of the area of
the state covering the Districts of Srinagar, Ganderbal, Baramulla, Kupwara,
Bandipora, Budgam, Anantnag, Pulwama, Doda, Ramban, Kishtwar, come
under Seismic Zone 5, where around 50% of the population of the state lives.
The rest of the state, including the whole of the Ladakh region and Jammu
Division (90% of the total area of the state), are under the Seismic Zone 4.

Being very close to the Himalayas, Srinagar faces heavy risk of

earthquakes, high as well as moderate. The friction between the Indian and the
Eurasian plane causes earthquakes to occur on the areas close to the Himalayas.

3. Delhi

Delhi is categorised under Seismic Zone 4.

Delhi has been hit by five devastating earthquakes measuring higher

than magnitude of 5 since 1720. The most prone to earthquake neighbourhoods
in Delhi lie about two miles on either side of the Yamuna river, the
southwestern outskirts of the city known as the Chhattarpur basin, as well as an
area popularly known as The Ridge in Delhi

4. Mumbai - Maharashtra

Mumbai falls in the Zone 4 of the seismic zone divisions which makes it
quite vulnerable to damage.

We all know Mumbai is located on the coastal line, which increases the
risk of facing tsunami-like disasters. Mild to strong earthquakes are very
common in parts of Mumbai. Mild earthquakes are often faced by people living

18
there and parts of the adjoining regions of Gujarat. It should be noted that for
the last 20 years, almost all of the buildings in Mumbai have been designed and
built keeping in mind that the city falls in seismic zone 4.

5. Chennai - Tamil Nadu

The city, formerly in the comfort Zone 2, has now shifted to Zone 3 -
indicating higher seismic activity. According to the seismic mapping, districts
in the western part along the border with Kerala are also in Zone 3, along with
districts along the border of Andhra Pradesh and a section of the border with
Karnataka. The status of Chennai along with major towns on the eastern coast
in terms of vulnerability has increased especially after Chennai experienced
tremors in September 2001 following a quake measuring 5.6 on the Richter
scale off the Pondicherry coast.

Tamil Nadu, had faced the wrath of the deadly 2004 tsunami when the
Marina beach was affected. Recently, in the year 2012, Chennai shook terribly
due to a rather high intensity earthquake (having its epicenter in the Indian
Ocean).

The other 5 cities in right order of chronology are:

6. Pune - Maharashtra

7. Kochi - Kerala

8. Kolkata - West Bengal

9. Thiruvananthapuram - Kerala

10. Patna – Bihar

19
List of earthquakes in India4

The Indian subcontinent has a history of earthquakes. The reason for the
intensity and high frequency of earthquakes is the Indian plate driving
into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year9 . The following is a list
of major earthquakes which have occurred in India.

Total
Date Location Mag. I Deaths Injuries damage
/ notes
2017-01-03 India, Bangladesh 5.7 Mw V 3 8
India, Myanmar,
2016-01-04 6.7 Mw VII 11 200
Bangladesh
2015-10-26 Afghanistan, India, Pakistan 7.7 Mw VII 399 2,536
2015-05-12 Nepal, India 7.3 Mw VIII 218 3,500+
2015-04-25 Nepal, India 7.8 Mw IX 8,964 21,952 $10 billion
$19.5
2013-05-01 Kashmir 5.7 Mw 3 90
million
2011-09-18 Gangtok, Sikkim 6.9 Mw VII >111
Tsunami
2009-08-10 Andaman Islands 7.5 Mw VIII warning
issued
Buildings
2008-02-06 West Bengal 4.3 Mb 1 50
damaged
Buildings
2007-11-06 Gujarat 5.1 Mw V 1 5
damaged
Buildings
2006-03-07 Gujarat 5.5 Mw VI 7
damaged
2006-02-14 Sikkim 5.3 Mw V 2 2 Landslide
Building
2005-12-14 Uttarakhand 5.1 Mw VI 1 3
destroyed
86,000– 69,000– 2.8 million
2005-10-08 Kashmir 7.6 Mw VIII
87,351 75,266 displaced
Buildings
2005-03-15 Maharashtra 4.9 Mw VII 45
damaged
9.1– 230,000– Destructive
2004-12-26 off northern Sumatra IX
9.3 Mw 280,000 tsunami
Destructive
2002-09-13 Andaman Islands 6.5 Mw 2
tsunami
13,805–
2001-01-26 Gujarat 7.7 Mw X ~166,800
20,023

4
Bendick R., Bilham, R., Blume, F., Kier G.; Molnar P., Sheehan A., Wallace K. (2002),
Earthquake Hazards and the Collision between India and Asia, NOAA Science Review, 2002,
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, from Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search

20
 Total
Date Location Mag. I Deaths Injuries damage
/ notes
Chamoli district-
1999-03-29 6.8 Mw VIII ~103
Uttarakhand
1997-11-21 Bangladesh, India 6.1 Mw 23 200
1,000– $37–143
1997-05-22 Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 5.8 Mw VIII 38–56
1,500 million
1993-09-30 Latur, Maharashtra 6.2 Mw VIII 9,748 30,000
768– 1,383–
1991-10-20 Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand 6.8 Mw IX
2,000 1,800
709–
1988-08-21 Udayapur, Nepal 6.9 Mw VIII
1,450
1988-08-06 Myanmar, India 7.3 Mw VII 3 12
1988-02-06 Bangladesh, India 5.9 Mw 2 100
Severe
1986-04-26 India, Pakistan 5.3 Ms 6 30
damage
Severe
1984-12-30 Cachar district 5.6 Mb 20 100
damage
Moderate
1982-01-20 Little Nicobar 6.3 Ms Some
damage
Limited
1980-08-23 Kashmir 4.8 Ms Few damage /
doublet
Moderate
1980-08-23 Kashmir 4.9 Ms 15 40 damage
/ doublet
$245
1980-07-29 Nepal, Pithoragarh district 6.5 Ms 200 Many
million
1975-01-19 Himachal Pradesh 6.8 Ms IX 47
Moderate
1970-03-23 Bharuch district 5.4 Mb 26 200
damage
1967-12-11 Maharashtra 6.6 Mw VIII 177–180 2,272 $400,000
Limited
1966-08-15 North India 5.6 15
damage
1966-06-27 Nepal, India 5.3 Ms VIII 80 100 $1 million
Moderate
1963-09-02 Kashmir 5.3 80
damage
Moderate
1960-08-27 North India
damage
1956-07-21 Gujarat 6.1 Ms IX 115 254
Moderate
1954-03-21 India, Myanmar 7.4 Ms
damage
1,500–
1950-08-15 Assam, Tibet 8.6 Mw XI
3,300
1947-07-29 India, China 7.3 Mw
1941-06-26 Andaman Islands 7.7– 8,000 Destructive

21
 Total
Date Location Mag. I Deaths Injuries damage
/ notes
8.1 Mw tsunami
30,000–
1935-05-31 Quetta, Baluchistan 7.7 Mw X
60,000
6,000–
1934-01-15 Nepal 8.0 Mw XI
10,700
Moderate
1932-08-14 Assam, Myanmar 7.0 Ms
damage
1905-04-04 Kangra 7.8 Ms IX >20,000
1897-06-12 Shillong, India 8.0 Mw X 1,542
Severe
1885-06-06 Kashmir
damage
Extreme
1885-05-30 Srinagar 3,000
damage
Significant
1881-12-31 Andaman Islands 7.9 Mw VII in
seismology
Severe
1869-01-10 Assam, Cachar 7.4 Mw VII 2
damage
Limited
1845-06-19 Rann of Kutch 6.3 Ms VIII Few damage /
tsunami
Moderate
1843-04-01 Deccan Plateau
damage
Severe
1833-08-26 Bihar, Kathmandu 8.0 Ms
damage
Severe
1828-06-06 Kashmir 1,000
damage
Formed the
7.7–
1819-06-16 Gujarat XI >1,543 Allah
8.2 Mw
Bund
Severe
1618-05-26 Bombay IX 2,000
damage
1505-06-06 Saldang, Karnali zone 8.2–8.8 6,000

Source: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia navigation Jump

22
 Compared to other years

Number of earthquakes worldwide for 2008–20185,6

Magnitude 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

8.0–9.9 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 1 1

7.0–7.9 12 16 21 19 15 17 11 18 16 6 11

6.0–6.9 168 144 151 204 129 125 140 124 128 106 84

5.0–5.9 1,768 1,896 1,963 2,271 1,412 1,402 1,475 1,413 1,502 1,451 1,283

4.0–4.9 12,292 6,805 10,164 13,303 10,990 9,795 13,494 13,239 12,771 11,296 9,131

Total 14,240 8,862 12,300 15,798 12,548 11,341 15,121 14,795 14,420 12,860 10,510

An increase in detected earthquake numbers does not necessarily

represent an increase in earthquakes per se. Population increase, habitation
spread, and advances in earthquake detection technology all contribute to
higher earthquake numbers being recorded over time 7.

Aftershocks

A smaller earthquake that follows the main shock and originates close to
its focus. Aftershocks generally decrease in number and magnitude over time.
Aftershocks that follow the

Floods

Floods occur when there is significant rise of water level in a river,

stream, Lake Reservoir or a coastal region. A flood is a harmful inundation of
property and land utilized by man and may be of two types8.

Slow flood, caused by an increase in the volume of water produced by

rain in rivers and lakes over a long period, days or weeks, mainly affecting

5
"USGS Real-time Earthquake Map with exact dates and live earthquake reports". United States
Geological Survey. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
6
Jump up^ "Earthquake Statistics". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
7
Jump up^ "USGS Earthquake Myths". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the
original on March 19, 2016
8
Kala V.S.1998 “Monsoon floods in India” A Hydro-Geographic Prospective Published by Memoir
Geological Survey of India No.41,229-256.

23
property such as houses and cattle, and displace the inhabitants from their usual
dwelling places. Sudden flood, caused by an increase in the volume of water in
rivers and lakes, causing deaths, injuries and violent destruction of property9. It
may be the result of torrential rains, cyclones, structural failures such as the
collapse of walls of a reservoir or the embankment of a river proving
insufficiently robust to contain the Visakhapatnam sea view Photos.

Fig.No.3: Costal Region of Visakhapatnam

Fig.No.4: Car gets swept away by road flooding

9
Singh J 2002, Geographical bases and demission, Radha Publication, New Delhi,66-66.

24
 Fig.No.5: People getting displaced from the flooded area

India accounts for one-fifth of global deaths due to floods, according to

government data that lends perspective to a new World Bank study that says
climate change will lower the standards of living of nearly half of the countries
population by 2050.

As many as 107,487 people died due to heavy rains and floods across
India over 64 years between 1953 and 2017, according to Central Water
Commission data presented to the Rajya Sabha on March 19. Damage to crops,
houses and public utilities was reported to be Rs 365,860 crore or as much as
three per cent of the country's current GDP -- the data shows.

"The main reasons of floods have been assessed as high intensity rainfall
in short duration, poor or inadequate drainage capacity, unplanned reservoir
regulation and failure of flood control structures," according to a reply to the
Rajya Sabha.

With heavy rains sweeping western India, many cities such as

Mangaluru, Mumbai and Junagarh have flooded during the 2018 monsoon
season. Over 30 people died in floods that inundated 58 villages.

25
 "Temperatures have been rising across the [South Asia] region, and are
projected to continue increasing for the next several decades under all plausible
climate scenarios," the World Bank study, published on June 28, said.

These changes will result in more frequent flooding, greater water

demand and increased heat-related medical issues.

South Asian cities such as Kolkata, Mumbai, Dhaka and Karachi that are
home to over 50 million people face a substantial risk of flood-related damage
over the next century, the report said.

India is one of the world's most vulnerable regions to climate change. It

has increased the frequency of downpours as well as the gaps between rainy
days during the monsoon, as IndiaSpend reported earlier.

As India's climate warms, extreme weather, such as intense rain and

floods, is predicted to worsen.

The new World Bank study mentioned above said the worst affected
states by 2050 would be Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. Seven of the 10
most affected districts will belong to Vidarbha, Maharashtra.

India could see a six-fold increase in population exposed to the risk of

severe floods by 2040 to 25 million people from 3.7 million facing this risk
between 1971 and 2004, based on a study published in Science Advances, a
peer-reviewed journal.

"India is highly vulnerable to floods," according to the National Disaster

Management Authority, a government body. "Out of the total geographical area
of 329 million hectares (MH), more than 40 MH is flood prone."

Over 1,600 people die every year due to floods, affecting nearly 32
million people. More than 92,000 cattle’s are lost every year, seven million
hectares of land is affected, and damage is over Rs 5,600 crore.

"High losses from floods reflect India's inadequacy to cope with the
current variability in climate, let alone future climate change," Ashvani Kumar

26
Gosain, professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Delhi, told India Spend earlier.

States that are flood-prone include West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra

Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.

"Intense rains during the monsoon season cause rivers like Brahmaputra,
Ganga and Yamuna to swell their banks, which in turn floods the adjacent
areas," according to this reply to the Lok Sabha on April 4.

There are 226 flood forecasting stations across 20 states, two Union
territories and 19 river basins to monitor floods in the country. The government
plans to expand the network to 325 stations by March 2020.

Dam Collapse

It may be caused by a shifting of a dam foundation after an earthquake,

nearby oil drilling or due to faulty construction. Earth dams are more likely to
collapse when excessive rainfall fills the reservoir to over-flowing. The excess
water then pours over the top of the dam, gradually washing it down and
cutting deep channels into it. This weakens the entire structure so that it then
gives way entirely. The result of a dam collapse is a sudden release of large
amounts of water which sweep over low-lying villages, causing many deaths
and injuries.

Fig.No.6: Delhi Lake Dam (side view) Fig.No.7: Delhi Lake Dam (top view)

27
 Fig.No.8: Dam failure of Machchhu Dam

The Machchhu Dam, situated on the Machchhu River, burst, sending a

wall of water through the town of Morbi (now in the Morbi district of Gujarat,
India. Estimates of the number of people killed vary greatly ranging from 1800
to 25000 people.

Causes of Dam Failure Disaster

 Overtopping caused by floods that exceed the capacity of the dam.

 Deliberate acts of sabotage.
 Structural failure of materials used in dam construction.
 Movement and/or failure of the foundation supporting the dam.
 Settlement and cracking of concrete or embankment dams.
 Piping and internal erosion of soil in embankment dams.
 Inadequate maintenance and upkeep.
Cyclone

It is large scale closed circulation system in the atmosphere with low

barometric pressure and strong winds that rotate clockwise and counter
clockwise in the southern and northern atmosphere respectively. The system is
referred to as a cyclone in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific and hurricane in
the western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. Hurricanes and typhoons are the
same stormy types as the tropical storms. Hurricanes are large atmospheric
vortices with wind speeds of more than 100 kph.

28
Fig.No.9: Visakhapatnam coastal Fig.No.10: Damage due to Hudhud

area during Hudhud Cyclone Cyclone in Visakhapatnam

Fig.No.11: Map Showing Cyclone Fig.No.12: Odisha on October 10,

prone Areas 2018 Photos from IMD (Thitli

Cyclone)

29
Thunderstorm

Storm with thunder and lightning and usually heavy rain, Tropical
Storm. Formed over open seas and is characterized by extreme wind damage,
intense downpours of rain, wave storms at sea, severe coastal wave action,
marine floodings, riverine flooding, lightning and thunderstorms.

Fig.No.13, 14: Formation of a Thunderstorm. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.*

Thunderstorms are known to occur in almost every region of the world,

though they are rare in Polar Regions and infrequent at latitudes higher than
50° N and 50° S. The temperate and tropical regions of the world, therefore, are
the most prone to thunderstorms. In the United States the areas of maximum
thunderstorm activity are the Florida peninsula (more than 90 thunderstorm
days per year), the Gulf Coast (70–80 days per year), and the mountains
of New Mexico (50–60 days per year). Central Europe and Asia average 20 to

30
60 thunderstorm days per year. It has been estimated that at any one moment
there are approximately 1,800 thunderstorms in progress throughout the world.

Thunderstorm formation and Structure-Vertical atmospheric motion

Most brief but violent disturbances in Earth’s wind systems involve

large areas of ascending and descending air. Thunderstorms are no exception to
this pattern. In technical terms, a thunderstorm is said to develop when the
atmosphere becomes “unstable to vertical motion.” Such instability can arise
whenever relatively warm, light air is overlain by cooler, heavier air. Under
such conditions the cooler air tends to sink, displacing the warmer air upward.
If a sufficiently large volume of air rises, an updraft (a strong current of rising
air) will be produced. If the updraft is moist, the water will condense and form
clouds, condensation in turn will release latent heat energy, further fueling
upward air motion and increasing the instability.

Once upward air motions are initiated in an unstable atmosphere, rising

parcels of warm air accelerate as they rise through their cooler surroundings
because they have a lower density and are more buoyant. This motion can set
up a pattern of convection wherein heat and moisture are transported upward
and cooler and drier air is transported downward. Areas of the atmosphere
where vertical motion is relatively strong are called cells, and when they carry
air to the upper troposphere (the lowest layer of the atmosphere), they are
called deep cells. Thunderstorms develop when deep cells of moist convection
become organized and merge, and then produce precipitation and
ultimately lightning and thunder.

Upward motions can be initiated in a variety of ways in the atmosphere.

A common mechanism is by the heating of a land surface and
the adjacent layers of air by sunlight. If surface heating is sufficient, the
temperatures of the lowest layers of air will rise faster than those of layers
aloft, and the air will become unstable. The ability of the ground to heat up
quickly is why most thunderstorms form over land rather than oceans.

31
Instability can also occur when layers of cool air are warmed from below after
they move over a warm ocean surface or over layers of warm air. Mountains,
too, can trigger upward atmospheric motion by acting as topographic barriers
that force winds to rise. Mountains also act as high-level sources of heat and
instability when their surfaces are heated by the Sun.

World patterns of thunderstorm frequency: Thunderstorms occur most

often in the tropical latitudes over land, where the air is most likely to heat
quickly and form strong updrafts.

The huge clouds associated with thunderstorms typically start as

isolated cumulus clouds (clouds formed by convection, as described above)
that develop vertically into domes and towers. If there is enough instability and
moisture and the background winds are favourable, the heat released by
condensation will further enhance the buoyancy of the rising air mass. The
cumulus clouds will grow and merge with other cells to form a cumulus
congest us cloud extending even higher into the atmosphere (6,000 meters
[20,000 feet] or more above the surface). Ultimately, a cumulonimbus
cloud will form, with its characteristic anvil-shaped top, billowing sides, and
dark base. Cumulonimbus clouds typically produce large amounts of
precipitation.

Types of thunderstorms

At one time, thunderstorms were classified according to where they

occurred—for example, as local, frontal, or orographic (mountain-initiated)
thunderstorms. Today it is more common to classify storms according to the
characteristics of the storms themselves, and such characteristics depend
largely on the meteorological environment in which the storms develop. The
United States National Weather Service has defined a severe thunderstorm as
any storm that produces a tornado, winds greater than 26 meters per second (94
km [58 miles] per hour), or hail with a diameter greater than 1.9 cm (0.75
inch).

32
Isolated thunderstorms

Isolated thunderstorms tend to occur where there are light winds that do
not change dramatically with height and where there is abundant moisture
at low and middle levels of the atmosphere—that is, from near the surface of
the ground up to around 10,000 meters (33,000 feet) in altitude. These storms
are sometimes called air-mass or local thunderstorms. They are mostly vertical
in structure, are relatively short-lived, and usually do not produce violent
weather at the ground. Aircraft and radar measurements show that such storms
are composed of one or more convective cells, each of which goes through a
well-defined life cycle. Early in the development of a cell, the air motion is
mostly upward, not as a steady, uniform stream but as one that is composed of
a series of rising eddies. Cloud and precipitation particles form and grow as the
cell grows. When the accumulated load of water and ice becomes excessive,
a downdraft starts. The downward motion is enhanced when the cloud particles
evaporate and cool the air almost the reverse of the processes in an updraft. At
maturity, the cell contains both updrafts and downdrafts in close proximity. In
its later stages, the downdraft spreads throughout the cell and diminishes in
intensity as precipitation falls from the cloud. Isolated thunderstorms contain
one or more convective cells in different stages of evolution. Frequently, the
downdrafts and associated outflows from a storm trigger new convective cells
nearby, resulting in the formation of a multiple-cell thunderstorm.

Tornado

Localised and violently destructive windstorm occurring over land.

Characterized by a long funnel-shaped cloud composed of condensation and
debris extending to the ground and making a path of greatest destruction 10.

10
K.N.Shastri-Disaster Management in India, Neha Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2012.

33
 Fig.No.15: Tornado Formation

A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both

the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of
a cumulus cloud (National weather services).11

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending from the base

of a thunderstorm down to the ground. Tornadoes are capable of completely
destroying well-made structures, uprooting trees, and hurling objects through
the air like deadly missiles. Tornadoes can occur at any time of day or night
and at any time of the year. Although tornadoes are most common in the
Central Plains and the southeastern United States, they have been reported in
all 50 states. This website is designed to teach you how to stay safe when a
tornado threatens. If you know what to do before, during and after a tornado,
you will minimize your risk of injury and increase your chances of survival.
You'll also find links to research, past events other topics of interest as well as
downloadable safety handouts about thunderstorms, lightning, and tornadoes.

If you, or someone you know, have been a victim of a tornado,

please share your story so we can prevent others from becoming a victim.
When you write, please note that NWS has permission to use your story and, if
possible, let us know the town and state you were in and the year the event took
place.

11
https://www.weather.gov/safety/tornado 10/09/2018

34
Storm Surges

A sudden rise of sea as a result of high winds and low atmospheric

pressure, sometimes called a storm tide, storm wave or tidal wave. It generally
affects coastal areas but may intrude some distance inland.12

Fig.No.16: Hurricane Storm Surge Fig.No.17: Storm surge looms as dire

threat from Hurricane

Powerful winds aren’t the only deadly force during a hurricane. The
greatest threat to life actually comes from the water – in the form of storm
surge. Storm surge is water from the ocean that is pushed toward the shore by
the force of the winds swirling around the hurricane. This advancing surge
combines with the normal tides and can increase the water level by 30 feet or
more. Storm surge combined with waves can cause extensive damage. It can
severely erode beaches and coastal highways. The pounding waves can take
out boats and buildings. As the waters move inland, rivers and lakes may be
affected, and add to the rising flood levels. While we can’t prevent storm surge,
we do have a system that can warn us of the incoming threat.

As a hurricane develops over the open ocean, forecasters at the National

Hurricane Center closely monitor its path to evaluate the risk of a coastal strike.
They use a computer model called SLOSH to predict storm surge heights. The

12
R.K.Bhandani, Freedom of Natural Disasters edited by K.N.Sastri - Disaster Management in
India, Published by Neha Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi,2012.

35
model depends critically on the hurricane’s track, intensity, and size. SLOSH
uses water depths, land elevations, and barriers to the flow of water to compute
surges as they move inland. This data helps determine which areas may need to
be evacuated.

When a hurricane slams our coast, it’s important to be aware of all the
dangers. As a reminder, emergency managers want us to run from the water
and hide from the wind. Don’t take unnecessary risks during a
storm. Conditions can change in the blink of an eye. Storm surge is a
dangerous event during a hurricane, where furious winds are driving deadly
flows of water from our seas to our shores.

Storm surge can be the deadliest effect of a tropical storm. The National
Hurricane Center is attempting to mitigate this risk by issuing storm surge
watches and warnings (NOAA) Because Harvey is forecast to stall, storm surge
inundation may persist for several days in the hardest-hit areas, flooding roads,
homes and businesses, and making it difficult to return to them.

The National Weather Service has launched the first-ever issuance of

their new product, the Storm Surge Warning. A rendition of what was
previously the Coastal Flood Warning, this alert is reserved only for cases
when “the danger of life-threatening inundation from rising water moving
inland” will pose a serious threat to local residents.

Storm13

Violent weather conditions, with strong winds and usually rain or snow
or thunder, etc. atmospheric disturbance involving perturbations of the
prevailing pressures and wind fields, on, scale ranging from tornadoes (one km
across) to extra tropical cyclone (1,000-3,000 km across).

13
https://www.hawaiibusiness.com/storm-warning/10/09/2018

36
Fig.No.18: Storm footage from net geo Fig.No.19: Storm warning
storm chases

A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or in an astronomical

body's atmosphere especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe
weather. It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such
as strong wind, tornadoes, hail, thunder and lightning (a thunderstorm), heavy
precipitation (snowstorm, rainstorm), heavy freezing rain (ice storm), strong
winds (tropical cyclone, windstorm), or wind transporting some substance
through the atmosphere as in a dust storm, blizzard, sandstorm, etc. Storms
have the potential to harm lives and property via storm surge, heavy rain or
snow causing flooding or road impassibility, lightning, wildfires and vertical
wind shear. Systems with significant rainfall and duration help alleviate
drought in places they move through. Heavy snowfall can allow special
recreational activities to take place which would not be possible otherwise,
such as skiing and snowmobiling.

Hail
It derives from the impact of hail-stones, precipitated particles of ice and
is most commonly associated with thunderstorms.

Fig.No.20,21 Large Hail pounds. West North side Hail Pounds parts of
South Eastern Wisconsin

37
 Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice
pellets (American English "sleet"), though the two are often confused. 14 It
consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone.
Ice pellets fall generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited
during cold surface temperatures. 15 Unlike other forms of water ice such
as graupel, which is made of rime, and ice pellets, which are smaller
and translucent, hailstones usually measure between 5 millimeters (0.2 in) and
15 centimeters (6 in) in diameter. The METAR reporting code for hail 5 mm
(0.20 in) or greater is GR, while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded GS.

Hail is possible within most thunderstorms as it is produced

by cumulonimbus, and within 2 nautical miles (3.7 km) of the parent storm.
Hail formation requires environments of strong, upward motion of air with the
parent thunderstorm (similar to tornadoes) and lowered heights of the freezing
level. In the mid-latitudes, hail forms near the interiors of continents, while in
the tropics, it tends to be confined to high elevations.

There are methods available to detect hail-producing thunderstorms

using weather satellites and weather radar imagery. Hailstones generally fall at
higher speeds as they grow in size, though complicating factors such as
melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with rain and other hailstones
can slow their descent through Earth's atmosphere. Severe weather warnings
are issued for hail when the stones reach a damaging size, as it can cause
serious damage to human-made structures and, most commonly, farmers' crops.

Sand storm

Dust or sand energetically lifted to great heights by strong and turbulent

winds; Landslide. The term “landslide” is used in its broad sense to include
downward and outward movement of slope forming materials (natural rock and
soil). It is caused by heavy rain, soil erosion and earth tremors and may also

14
What's the difference between hail, sleet, and freezing rain? Retrieved on 10/09/2018.
15
Jump up^ "Merriam-Webster definition of "hailstone"". Merriam-Webster10/09/2018. Archived
from the original on 10/09/2018

38
happen in areas under heavy snow (avalanches). It seems appropriate,
therefore, to associate landslides with other hazards, such as cyclones, several
local storms and river floods.

Fig.No.22: Sandstorm at Federal Aviation Administration

Fig.No.23: Sandstorm
Source: June 27, 2017 Weizmann Institute of Science

The airborne dust carried in sand storms affects the health of people and
ecosystems alike. New research suggests that part of the effect might not be in
the particles of dust but rather in bacteria that cling to them, traveling many
kilometers in the air with the storms.

39
Dust Storm

A dust storm is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and

semi- arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind
blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transported
by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place
and deposits it in another.

Dry lands around North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula are the main
terrestrial sources of airborne dust. It has been argued that16 poor management
of the Earth's dry lands, such as neglecting the fallow system, are increasing
dust storms size and frequency from desert margins and changing both the local
and global climate, and also impacting local economies. 17

The term sandstorm is used most often in the context

of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara Desert, or places where sand is a
more prevalent soil type than dirt or rock, when, in addition to fine particles
obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles are blown
closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer
particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban
area

Causes

As the force of wind passing over loosely held particles increases,

particles of sand first start to vibrate, then to saltate (leaps). As they repeatedly
strike the ground, they loosen and break off smaller particles of dust which then
begin to travel in suspension. At wind speeds above that which causes the
smallest to suspend, there will be a population of dust grains moving by a range
of mechanisms: suspension, saltation and creep.

16
Eslamian, Saeid, Eslamian, Faezeh (2017). Handbook of Drought and Water Scarcity:
Management of Drought and Water Scarcity. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-351-85113-8. Retrieved
409/09/2018
17
Jump up to a b Squires, Victor R. "Physics, Mechanics and Processes of Dust and
Sandstorms"(PDF). Adelaide University, Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-06-
05. Retrieved 10/09/2018

40
Earth flow

A mass movement characterized by slow down-slope translation of soil

and weathered rock within a land-slide.

Fig.No.24: Earth Flow

On the east coast of the North Island the underlying geology consists of
weakly cemented sandstone and mudstone. With rainfall, such slopes fail very
easily even on gentle topography. Saturated with water, this earth flow had the
consistency of wet cement. From where it originated (top left) it moved down a
gully (center) towards Mangataikapua Stream, which it has blocked. Landslides
are the main force shaping this undulating terrain.

Fig.No.25: 28 Pavilion Earth Flow

41
 Pavilion earth flow; note the transverse ridges in the zone of
accumulation. (Photo: J. Ryder)

Source: Earth Flow K. Diyes B. Amarathunga 11/SS/005 Geology Faculty of

Geomatics Sabaragamuwa University Of Sri Lanka (Wikipedia)

Insect Infestation or Animal Infestation

Pervasive influx and development of insects or parasites affecting

humans, animals, crops and materials.

Fig.No.26: Biological hazards: animal and insect infestation

Source: https://www.ifrc.org/.../biological-hazardsanimal-and-in...dt.

Fig.No.27: Biological hazards: animal and insect infestation

42
 The definition of insect infestation is when insects or parasites invade an
area, human, plant, or animal. One of the consequences of insect infestation is
sickness, where the bugs or pests presence in the human body could make the
person sick. Insects can also take over crops & plant life. In some cases, insect
infestations can be so severe, that they will completely destroy farmers crops
for that entire season. Insect infestations can also affect live stock and other
animals, causing them to get infections and die. Insect infestation usually
occurs in very dry regions, because they are attracted to the
dryness. Infestations also often happen in places with strong wind currents,
because the insects travel with the wind in their agriculture.

Volcanic Eruption

Discharge of fragmentary ejects lava and gases from a volcanic vent.

The most common consequences are displacement of population, temporary
food shortage and volcanic ash landslides called “lahar”.

Fig.No.28: Volcanic Eruption

This week, Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano began erupting in an awe-

inspiring, frightening display of nature’s raw power. While volcanic eruptions

43
can be beautiful displays of the natural world, they also pose a real threat for
those who are caught in the eruption zone or in the path of the lava flow. 18

Several types of volcanic eruptions during which lava, tephra (ash,

lapilli, volcanic bombs and volcanic bombs and volcanic blocks), and assorted
gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure—have been distinguished
by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that
type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one
characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may
display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series.

There are three different types of eruptions. The well-observed

are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within
magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of
volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma, the direct
opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third eruptive type is
the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact
with magma, these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead
causing the granulation of existing rock.

Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The

weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by
Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions,
followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra-
Plinian." Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive
mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0
to 8 that often correlates to eruptive type.

18
https://www.stealthangelsurvival.com/blogs/news/staying-safe-in-a-volcanic-eruption

44
 Fig.No.29: The biggest volcano eruptions in recorded history
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions 12/09/2018
Avalanche
Rapid and sudden sliding and flowing of masses of usually incoherent
and unsorted mixture of snow, ice and/or rock material.

Fig.No.30: Avalanche

45
 Fig.No.31: SRINAGAR: A 24-hour long rescue operation after an
Avalanche, authorities19
Two avalanches in the north Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir led to
the deaths of at least 20 people, most of whom were Indian Army soldiers. The
incidents took place on the country's Republic Day on 26 January in the Gurez
and Sonmarg sectors due to fresh snowfall across the state over the past four
days.

According to local news channel News 18, search and rescue operations
have managed to recover the bodies of 15 soldiers and five civilians from the
snow in the Himalayan area.

Cold Wave
Long lasting period with extremely low surface temperature.

Fig.No.32: North India Cold Wave

19
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/62395228.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm
_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst.12/09/2018

46
 Fig.No.33: North India Cold Wave

In Himachal Pradesh, mild snowfall greeted high altitude tribal areas,

mountain passes and key tourist resorts of Kufri, Fagu and Narkanda. (File
photo. Source: AP)

Description

A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling

of the air. A cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24 hour period.
The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the
temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum
temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year. Usually
cold waves are measured by the difference from the normal temperature. Cold
waves generally are capable of occurring at any geological location and are
formed by large cool air masses that accumulate over certain regions, caused
by movements of air streams. Cold waves affect much larger areas
than blizzards, ice storms, and other winter hazards. The “wave” in cold wave

47
is apparent in the upper-air flow (the Jetstream), which is usually amplified into
a strong ridge-trough pattern during a major cold outbreak.

The cold wave can negatively impact the safety of aviation operations.
To mention some of the most significant issues associated with cold wave:

 Ice and frost accretion on the critical external surfaces of an aircraft

 Extremely cold temperatures can stress the metal aircraft surfaces

 Vehicle batteries are strained and diesel fuel gels in extreme cold
weather which could have negative impact on ground operations, etc.

Formation of Cold Waves20

In the Northern Hemisphere, cold waves occur when very cold, dense air
near the surface moves out of its source region in northern Canada or northern
Asia.

The core of a cold wave at the surface is a strong high-pressure center

that forms during winter in high latitudes. Cold polar or Arctic air masses are
relatively shallow, extending one to several km above the surface. The surface
high-pressure center of the cold air is accompanied with an upper-level
convergence. The most extreme area of all is northern Asia (Siberia), where the
formation of cold surface air is enhanced by the large distance to the nearest
unfrozen ocean, isolating the area from warmth and moisture, and the presence
of mountains to the east and south, serving as barriers to trap and further isolate
the cold surface air once it has formed.

20
https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/may-temperature-breaks-all-
time-weather-record/#sthash.wn4WWrC1.dpuf

48
Heat Wave24

Long-lasting period with extremely high surface temperature.

Fig.No.34: Graph depicting Heatwave effect in India on May 2016

Indian summer in May broached the subject that everyone was avoiding.
Will May 2016 replicate the deadly heatwave that claimed almost 2500 lives in
2015? Leaving behind a scorching April that was one of the hottest in India, the
summer season of India entered May and started to witness excruciatingly hot
weather, which was taking no time to shatter weather records. While unusually
warmer winter followed by hot March had already given Indians a glimpse of
blazing hot summer season, the sizzling April left no stone unturned in
increasing the despair of people. Heatwave in India started to gradually tighten
its grip around Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal
with mercury soaring upto 46°C.

The trend of rising temperatures broke records when temperature

elevated to 51°C in Phalodi in Rajasthan on May 18th, the highest for India till
now. It was the fifth consecutive month for India when extreme
temperatures were settling higher than the normal. Smashing all-time weather
records, places in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan witnessed
unprecedented high temperature in May. As per the table above, Ahmedabad,

49
Delhi and Churu exceeded monthly average and set a new temperature record
in May 2016. While Ahmedabad scorched under the blazing hot sun as
maximum temperature settled at 48°C, beating average monthly temperature
and all-time record, Churu was not behind that smashed all previous records by
witnessing temperature of 50.2°C. Since April, over 600 people have died in
Telangana, Delhi, and Odisha due to the punishing heat wave out of which few
have not been accounted by the government.

In India, the month of May is typically one of the hottest and driest. In
the last four years, 4,204 people have died due to heat waves – 1,433 people
died in 2013, the number fell to 549 a year later but went up again last year to
2,135, according to India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences. However, heat wave is
expected to abate as pre-Monsoon activity has picked up pace in India. Though
Kerala and parts of West Coast would begin to witness Monsoon showers from
June 7 onwards, these rains will certainly take time to reach Northwest India
where temperature may soar again close to 40°C.

Fig.No.35: Heat Wave Warning Map of India

50
 Fig.No.36: People wearing scarfs to protect themselves from Heat waves

“Heat wave to severe heat wave conditions are very likely at a few
places over Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat; and at isolated places over
south Uttar Pradesh, Vidarbha and central Maharashtra”, the India
Meteorological Department (IMD) said in its forecast. It issued a “red alert”
and “severe heat wave” warning for east and west Rajasthan, east and west
Madhya Pradesh, Saurashtra and Kutch and the Gujarat region. The situation is
likely to remain the same for the next two days.

“The (heat) intensity is likely to reduce thereafter and gradually abate

during May 27 to 31. The maximum day and minimum night temperatures are
likely to remain markedly above normal over entire northwest, west and central
India during May 17 to 27. They are likely to fall to their respective normal or
below normal values between May 27 and June 1,” IMD said. Several parts of
the country are reeling under intense heat while the MET department has
predicted that the onset of monsoon will get delayed by six days. Meanwhile,
conditions were favourable for further advance of southwest monsoon into
some parts of South Bay of Bengal, Andaman Islands and remaining parts of
North Andaman Sea during the next 48 hours, the IMD said. Southwestl
monsoon hit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands two days before its normal date

51
but a cyclone in Bay of Bengal is likely to “weaken” its progress which will
result in delay of its onset in Kerala, it added.

Tsunami and Tidal Wave

Series of large sea waves generated by sudden displacement of sea water

(caused by earthquake, volcanic eruption or sub marine landslide).

Fig.No.37: Indian Ocean tsunami, 2004

Fig.No.38: Huge Tsunami wave In Indian Ocean

52
 On December 26, 2004, an undersea earthquake triggered a Tsunami
which devastated South-East Asia. The Earthquake measured 9.0 on the
Richter scale with an epicenter of 160 kilometers. It was the third largest
Tsunami ever recorded on a Seismograph. The Tsunami arrived over two hours
after the earthquake hit, which suggests that the earthquake must have triggered
something else which led to the Tsunami. It was judged to be the 10th worst
natural disaster of all time. The country hardest hit was Indonesia, with the
region known as Aceh taking the brunt of the waves and left completely
destroyed.

It was the fourth largest Earthquake in the past hundred years. Tsunamis
generated via Earthquakes are not uncommon. However, this tsunami was
particularly large. The unfortunate fact about the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
is that a simple warning system of floated buoys would have saved thousands
of lives. Such a system is implemented in the U.S.A. The “Tsunameters” used
to detect Tsunami’s cost only $250,000 each and only one is necessary with
another as a backup. The Indian government lacked the funding to purchase
them. Over 200,000 people died as a result of the Tsunami. Over eleven million
were displaced.

Fig No.39: Tsunami in Japan, 2011

53
 Fig No.40: Tsunami in Japan, 2011

[Representative Image] This pictures (39&40) taken by a Miyako City

official on March 11, 2011 and released on March 18, 2011 shows a tsunami
breeching an embankment and flowing into the city of Miyako in Iwate JIJI
PRESS/AFP/Getty Images.

Long Term-Natural Disaster

Drought

Period of deficiency of moisture in the soil such that there is inadequate

water required for plants, animals and human beings. A drought causes
malnutrition, epidemics and displacement of population from one area to
another.

Famine

Catastrophic food shortage affecting large numbers of people due to

climatic, environment and socio-economic reasons. The cause of the famine
may produce great migrations to less-affected regions.

54
Food shortage or crop failure

Abnormal reduction in crop yields such that it is insufficient to meet the

nutritional or economic needs of the community. This type of disaster is always
a consequence of another type and will therefore be classified under the major
cause.21

Epidemics
An abnormal increase in the number of cases of an infectious disease
which already exist in the region or population concerned. Epidemics may be
the consequence of disasters of another kind, such as floods, tropical storms,
earthquakes, droughts, etc. epidemics may also attack animals, causing local
economic disasters.

Desertification
The processes by which an already arid area becomes even more barren,
less capable of retaining vegetation, and progressing towards becoming a
desert. This is often a cause of long-term disasters.

Sudden Man Made Disaster

Structural Collapse
The structural collapse is used when the structure collapse results
independently, without any outside force. If the collapse is due to an outside
force such as an earthquake or explosion, then it is classified under that casual
factor.

Building Collapse
The sudden falling apart of a building in the absence of any outside
force. Mine Collapse or a Mine cave-in. It takes place in an excavation below
the earth’s surface. In a cave-in, parts of the overlying rocks fall down and
tunnels are blocked.

21
Singh J and Dhillon SS. 2003, Africhhamed geography, Tata Megraw Hill Publiction, New Delhi.

55
 Fig.No.41: Greater Noida Building Collapse

Fig.No.42: Greater Noida Building Collapse

Greater Noida Collapse

3 dead after building collapses in Greater Noida, several still trapped,

NDRF rescue op underway four teams of the National Disaster Response Force
are working on the disaster site. ‘6 storey building had collapsed last night. Till
now 2 dead bodies have been recovered. 4 teams are deployed here. Rescue
operations are underway,’ NDRF Deputy Commandant RS Kushwaha was
quoted as saying by news agency ANI.

56
TRANSPORT ACCIDENTS

Air Accidents

It involves aircraft accidents which transports passengers or freight. It

would also include the mid air collisions of the air crafts.

Rail Accidents

It includes derailment or collisions of passenger or freight trains. As also

accidents on unmanned crossings.

Fig.No.43: A Rail accident

Source:

According to the report, 22 people dead and over 200 injured in this
accident. The instances of accidents have increased by 10% percent in India
from last five years. Railway department has been taking swift disciplinary
actions against officials. But the latest accident suggests systemic failure. Large
scale accidents still happening in India. What is the reason behind these
tragedies? The report suggests that the 2016 Indore-Patna train tragedy
happened due to rail fractures. Manufacturing defects, extreme weather
condition, lack of maintenance are the main causes of rail fractures. Especially,

57
in winter, the chances are great to happen such incidents due to these
conditions.

Motor Accidents

It involves accidents of the vehicles on the highways or the passenger

buses falling in the river while being driven.

Fig.No.44: A Road accident

Source:

India has the highest number of road traffic accidents worldwide with
over 140,000 deaths occurring annually, beating even China. While annually
the nation loses almost 1.5 per cent of its GDP on account of road accidents,
India is not even spending 10 per cent of that amount to make our roads safe.
Delhi records an average of five road accident deaths per day – four of these
are of pedestrians and two-wheeler riders. Cyclists and pedestrians are the
vulnerable users on our roads.

Sea disasters

Involve ships, ships may sink in a storm, explode, burn crash into each
other, crash into an iceberg or rock, capsize or vanish without explanation.

58
Note that Sea disasters caused by conflict are classified under conflict. Those
which result in oil slicks are classified under Industrial/Technological accident.

Industrial/Technological Accident

Accidental release occurring during the production, transportation or

handling of hazards.

Fire at HPCL refinery in Vizag one killed, 35 injured

Visakhapatnam: One person was killed and 35 others injured when a fire
broke out at state-owned Hindustan Petroleum Corp Ltd's (HPCL) Vizag
refinery.

Fig.No.45, 46: Fire Accident at HPCL Refinery, Visakhapatnam

59
 The fire, which broke out between 4 and 4.30 pm, has been brought
under control, HPCL Chairman and Managing Director Subir Roy Choudhury
told PTI from Mumbai. “We don't know the cause of the fire yet,” he
said. Visakhapatnam Police Commissioner B. Shivadhar Reddy said 35
persons were injured in the fire that broke out at a newly built wooden cooling
tower. The tower was part of the diesel hydro desulphurisation unit (DHDS)
being built at the refinery. “All other units of the refinery are safe. But as a
precautionary measure, we will have to shut down some units,” HPCL Director
(Refineries) BK Namdeo said.

Choudhury said medical assistance has been rushed to the accident site
and HPCL was attending to the injured, who mostly were workers. The initial
reports from the site suggested that the fire accident occurred due to blasting of
cooling tower due to short circuit, sources said. A thick layer of smoke
engulfed the area causing tension and panic among nearby residents. Fire
fighting tenders from all over the city were pressed into service to control the
fire, police said, adding that the injured were shifted to INS Kalyani and other
nearby hospitals. HPCL directors are rushing to accident site and the company
has already instituted an inquiry to go into the cause of the accident. The
company will take care of all medical and other expenses including
compensation for the injured, a company spokesperson said.

EXPLOSIONS

Disasters will only be classified as explosions when the explosion is the

actual disaster. If the explosion is the cause of another disaster, it will be
classified under that head.

Chemical Explosions: It is caused by the explosion of combustible material,

generally of chemical origin.

Mine explosions: It occurs when natural gas or coal dust reacts with the air.

60
Nuclear Explosions/Radiation Leak

Accidental release of radiation occurring in the civil nuclear facilities,

exceeding the internationally established safety levels. In addition, the nuclear
explosion could have very serious ramifications resulting in a very terrible
catastrophe.22

Oil Leakages: The discharge of petroleum products or crude oil from tankers
or pipelines during transportation or storage. Oil spills are accidental discharge
often resulting from storms or collision. Oil slicks are generally small
discharges on the water’s surface.

Fires:It is generally caused by man but may also occur through natural causes,
for example, forest fires can be caused by lightning in the thunderstorms.
(When the fire is a result of a natural cause, it will be classified under the
natural cause.)

Pollution: This would include chemical, biological or atmospheric pollution. A

sudden pollution of water or air near industrial areas, leading to internal body
disorders which may be fatal or to external disorders with permanent damage
of the skin.

Man-Made Disasters as a consequence of Terrorist attacks

(i) Indiscriminate shooting or bombings

(ii) Assassination or attempt on the lives of the VVIP’s
(iii) Hijacking
(iv) Sabotaging the vital installations
(v) Hostage-taking
(vi) Use of nuclear/biological/chemical agents.

22
S Mukharjee, & S.Upadhyay and others –Disaster Management, Publish by Kisalaya Publication
Pvt. Lted., New Delhi, 2015

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 (vii) Large scale exodus due to terrorist attacks (as happened in the
Kashmir Valley)
(viii) Infiltration of intruders/foreign mercenaries/Pak regular Army (as
happened during the Kargil war)
(ix) Communal and Ethnic riots
(x) Narco-Terrorism

Long term Manmade Disaster

National (civil strife, civil war) War like encounters between armed
groups from the same country which takes place within the borders. This may
cause epidemics, lack of water, accumulation of rubbish, displaced persons,
refugees, food shortage, hunger, etc.

International: Warlike encounters between two or more armies from different

countries. These may cause-large scale mass movements of refugees and
displaced persons.

Displaced Population: Persons who for different reasons or circumstances

have been compelled to leave their homes. They may or may not reside in their
country of origin, but are not legally regarded as refugees. They may be forced
out by natural disasters, international conflicts or strife. There are three types
of mass movements-exodus, explusion and returnees.

Displaced Persons: The people who have been displaced but remain within the
territory of their own country.

Refugees: According to international legislation, persons having a well

founded fear of prosecution for reasons of race, religion or nationality and
unable to return or avail themselves of their protection of that country. This
includes mass exodus of natural disasters moving outside their country of
origin.

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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster Cycle

In order to establish and maintain adequate arrangement to deal with all

types of disasters, it is essential to have clear disaster management policy. It
will be useful to study the Disaster Management Cycle, which is illustrated
below:

Disaster Impact

*Response
Preparedness*

Mitigation* *Recovery

Prevention* * Development

Under the principle of disaster Management, the response to an

emergency should concentrate on the effects rather than the cause of the
disaster and, where ever possible, should be planned and undertaken as an
extension of normal day to day activities. Various segments of the Disaster
cycle illustrated above, may be defined as

Prevention

Measures aimed at impending the occurrence of disaster event

or/preventing such occurrence having harmful effects on communities,
constructing a dam or levee to control flood waters is an example of a
preventive measure, Controlled burning-off in a bushfire-prone area, prior to
the high-risk season, is another example.

63
Mitigation

The action taken to reduce the effects of a disaster on a nation or

community. For instance, the development and application of building codes
can reduce damage and loss in the event of earthquakes and cyclones.
Reconstruction-widening of roads etc. (earthquakes) and protection of existing
structures23.

Preparedness

Measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to

respond rapidly and effectively to situations. Preparedness measures include
the formulation of viable counter-disaster plans, the maintenance of registers
and the training of personnel.

Response

Response measures are those which are taken immediately prior to and
following disaster impact. It is directed towards saving lives and protecting
property and dealing with the immediate damage and other effects caused by
the

Recovery

The process will encompass those activities necessary to provide a rapid

return to normalcy following a disaster. The recovery process may take 5-10
years, or even more. Recovery is usually taken as including other aspects such
as restoration and reconstruction.

Development

The progressive advancements and modernization of societies, in this

case as it inter-relates with the effects of disaster and with disaster
management. There is a clear and valid inter-relationship between disaster and

23
K.N.Shastri, Disaster Management in India (disaster Mitigation), Neha Publishers and Distributors,
New Delhi, 2012 ISRN 978-73-80318-17-12.

64
national development and in particular, each can affect the other. Also, a post-
disaster period usually offers the opportunity to enhance aspects of national
development.

The boundaries between “prevention, mitigation and preparedness” are

somewhat blurred, and in any case not be universally agreed upon.

NATIONAL POLICY

The maintenance of effective preparedness is a dynamic requirement,

and, for it, there is need for a clear and comprehensive national disaster policy
which covers all aspects of disaster management. This is applicable to all the
levels of national structure and organization.

Indian Scene

Under the Constitution, disaster management is the responsibility of the

state government. At the National level, a National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC) head by the Cabinet Secretary has been constituted with
the Secretaries in-charge of the nodal ministries, responsible for various types
of disasters, as Members.

For natural disasters, the department of Agriculture and Cooperation

(DAC) in the Agricultural Ministry is the nodal department. The Central Relief
Commissioner in the ministry of Agriculture functions as the coordinating
agency at the national level under whom, also a Crisis Management Group
(CMG) has been constituted. He coordinates relief operations for all natural
disasters. The Ministry of Agriculture deals with the following disasters:
Floods, Cyclones, Landslides, Avalanches, Earthquakes and Drought. For
industrial accidents and hazards like forest fire, the Ministry of Environment
and forests is nodal ministry, for civil west and terrorist attacks, Ministry of
Home Affairs is the nodal ministry.

65
State Government

The basic responsibility for undertaking rescue, relief and rehabilitation

measures in the event of natural disasters is that of the State Government
concerned. The role of the Central government is supportive, in term of
physical and finance resources. Most of the State has Relief Commission who
is in charge of the relief measures during natural disasters in their states.

District Administration

The District Administration is the focal point for field level

organizations and implementations of all government contingency plans. The
District Collectors have been vested with considerable powers to carry out
operations in the shortest possible time. The District Administration in the
country is required to prepare in advance Contingency plan depending on the
type of disaster likely in the district. Contingency plans are prescribed which
are to be mobilised and followed.

The District of the Contingency plan: The District is divided into sub-
divisions and Tehsils of Talukas. The head of a sub-division is called the sub-
division officer (SDO) while Tehsildar looks after the Tehsil (Talukdar or
Mamletdar in some states). Contact, with the villagers is maintained through
the village officer or Patwari who has one or more villages in his charge.

During a disaster, the entire machinery of the District, including officers

of the technical and other departments, swing into action and maintain
continuous contact with each village in the disaster threatened area. The entire
hierarchy, rig, from the Central Government to the district level, is connected
with a Tele communication system.

Contingency Action Plan

Department of Agriculture Cooperation, in consultation with the

concerned Central Govt. Departments including, the Cabinet Secretariat and
State Governments, finalized a Contingency Action Plan (CAP) in 1989 for

66
meeting the situation arising out of major natural calamities. The CAP
identified the initiatives required to be taken by various Central
Ministries/Departments, set opt procedures and determined focal points in the
administrative machinery. The CAP also provided for formulation of state and
district level Disaster Relief Plans for identification of specific tasks and
agencies for implementation of such tasks. The District authorities are required
to review the Disaster Relief Plans in the light of lessons learnt in dealing with
natural calamities from time to time.

A Contingency Plan for the district for different disasters is drawn up by

the State Government. The Collectors/Deputy Commissioners also coordinate
with the local Armed forces units in the preparation of the Contingency Plan.
The Contingency Plan is brought up to date from time to time taking into
consideration various shortcomings faced over the period. There is no one
model to deal with disasters; the preparedness and response will need to vary
just as the nature and the effects of disaster will vary. Some key features which
will require the attention are as follows.

The initial response to a disaster is usually provided by the ‘Emergency

Services’ supported by number of other local authorities/agencies. The
Emergency Services’ maintain a state of readiness so that they can provide a
rapid response and alert local authorities and other services as soon as possible.
All organisations who need to respond quickly to a disaster should have
arrangements which can be activated at short notice. These arrangements
should be clearly established and promulgated. Each agency working at the
scene of disaster has its own role and functions, as follows.

 The Police service

 The Fire service
 The Ambulance/Hospital Service
 The para-military Forces
 The Military, Navy, Air Force

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  The Coastguard Agency
 The Civil Defense
 The Revenue Officials
 The Voluntary Organisations, and
 The Industrial. Commercial Organisations working at near the site of
disaster

Objectives for an Integrated Response are

 To save life
 To prevent escalation of the disaster
 To relieve suffering
 To safeguard the environment
 To protect property
 Recovery
 To restore normality as soon as possible, and
 To keep the public and media informed;

Control Rooms
An Emergency Control room in the department of Agriculture &
Cooperation is set up to assist the Central Relief commissioner. The Control
Room starts functioning soon after the receipt of First Information about the
occurrence of a major natural disaster. The Control room functions under the
guidance of the CRC and is the nerve centre of all emergencies. It is
responsible for:

 Collection and transmission of information concerning natural calamity

and relief.
 Keeping close contact with the state government affected by the natural
calamity.
 Interaction with other Central Ministry/Departments.
 Maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to
action points.

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State Control Room

Similarly, a Control Room is setup in the district affected by natural

calamity which monitors the developments and keeps the State Control Room
informed on a continuing basis.

Arrangements at the Site of Disaster

The scene immediately after the disaster is likely to be quite disorderly.

The immediate duty of the emergency Services is to establish control over the
immediate area and make arrangements for coordination. The deal with any
disaster, the receipt of information by the quickest means, also, complete
information, will go a long way to formulate the arrangements to the site of
disaster. Arrangements to be made at the site of disaster include:

1. A ‘Control room’ should be established at the scene as quickly as

possible and coordination established between the various essential
services. There is need for a unified command and control at every
level.
2. The duties of all the essential services like the police, the fire service,
the ambulance/medical service, para-military forces etc. should be
well defined and individuals should be earmarked to carry out the
responsibilities.
3. The Line of communication breaks down instantaneously, hence the
need for a comprehensive arrangement to keep the line in order.
4. Setting up the inner cordon to secure the immediate scene and
provide a measure of protection for personnel working within that
area. Entry in this area should be regulated by reporting to the in-
charge control room. It is necessary to account for those personnel
working in that area in case of escalation of the disaster.
5. Location of a collection point for the injured and the survivors before
they are removed from the site of disaster.

69
 6. Earmarking an area for the emergency services, volunteers and other
personnel of various agencies.
7. Location of an area as ‘temporary mortuary’, Arrangements for
conducting postmortem if the situation so demands.
8. Location for the media persons.
9. Location for the relations enquiring about the victims.
10. Regular training programme for the personnel associated with
disaster management. Also organizing live demonstration and
‘exercises’ for keeping the concerned people apprised and updated in
respect of preparedness.

Evacuation

The evacuation of disaster-affected communities can be the most

difficult of response operations evacuation could be of two types:

1. Precautionary (in most cases undertaken of warning indicators prior

to impact, in order to protect disaster-threatened persons from the
full effects of the disaster).
2. Post impact (in order to move persons from disaster- stricken area
into a safer surrounding and conditions).

In case of a sudden disaster or a warning, it may be necessary to advice

the public on whether they should evacuate a given area to a far-off place or
shift to some adjacent place which, according to the Disaster Manager is not
likely to be affected by the impact. This would include situations arising from:
- Severe storms floods, Earthquakes, Explosions, Spread of fire, and the release
of radioactive materials or other hazardous substances.

Other Disaster Related Action

There are other aspects which should be looked into which dealing with
the general principles of preparedness, which are likely to arise. These are

70
  Provision and dissemination of warning
 Search and rescue
 Survey and assessment of disaster effects
 Treatment and care of victims
 Clearance of debris and rehabilitation of roads, airfields, railway tracks
and allied systems, ports and other key areas
 Provision of food and emergency water supplies
 Provision of shelter
 Evacuation of individuals, groups and communities and livestock
 Provision of health and sanitation measures
 Restoration of essential services such as water supply, power supply and
communication
 Information and advice to the public
 Direction and co-ordination of counter-disaster measures
 Immediate financial aid to the victims
 Maintenance of public morale
 Counselling of victims and relatives
 Liaison with the media
 Rehabilitation of crops, production and other aspects of subsistence and
livelihood
 Measures for long term recovery, and
 Emergency building programmes

Equipment and Supplies

The disaster management organization should maintain various
categories of emergency equipment and supplies. These will vary according to
each requirement but generally the following need to be stored:

 Vehicles
 Emergency lighting sets, shovels, tarpaulins, blankets, tents and
communication equipment
 Training equipment

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Warning Systems

One of the most important requirements in any nation’s capability to

deal with Disaster is the effective warning system. The following are key
requirements in warning systems:

 Capability to receive international warning,

 Capability to initiate in-country warning,

 Capability to transmit warning from national and other levels.

 Capability to disseminate warning at local community level.

 Capability to receive warning and act upon it.

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

In the present day of advance technology, the importance of Information

Management cannot be over emphasized. Disaster could be better managed if
correct and accurate information by the quickest means is available otherwise,
response will not be timely and it will not be directed to critical areas in the
right order of priority. The need is to ensure that adequate arrangements exist
for acquiring the crisis information and that background information could also
be readily accessed for use as and when required. It has to be ensured that
information is distributed not only vertically through the organization but
horizontally as well. Unfortunately, in many cases, information management
proves to be sub-standard, usually due to inadequacies in planning resulting in
number of complications.

Preparation of Disaster Manual

Since it is the responsibility of the State governments to deal with and

manage disasters, each State government prepares and maintains Disaster
Manual containing information on the following.

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1. Brief Introduction of the State
a. Topography
b. Climate
c. Statistical details of the state including distract Wise population rural
and Urban Population Density of Population.
2. Vulnerability Analysis of the State
a. Economy
b. Poverty
c. Social Structure
d. Urbanization and the problem of Migration
e. Infrastructure
f. Housing
g. Disaster Insurance, and
h. Development Policies
3. History of Natural Disasters
a. Note on Geology, Structure and Lineament tectonics
b. Chronology of Earthquakes in the State indicating its location,
latitude, longitude, earthquake intensity, and
c. Chronology of other natural disasters, like cyclones, floods, droughts
etc. Areas affected-mapping of the areas damage caused-assessment
of the damage caused.
4. Man-made disasters
a. Nuclear reactor in the State, its location.
A comprehensive note on the ramifications of the leakage,
precautions to be taken in case of leakage and other provisions to
deal with it.
b. Industrial and Chemical units in the state.
c. List of Identified Chemicals0First aid and Antidotes available.
d. Petroleum products-its production, transportation of hazardous
chemical and petroleum products, storage-proper precautions and
safeguards.
e. Spillover in the coastal areas and likely repercussions.

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 5. Role of Panchayats and Municipalities.
Duties of Panches, Sarpanches, ZilaPramukhs, Pradansand personnel of
Municipalities and their accountability in dealing with the disasters.
6. Demarcation of areas
The areas should be clearly demarcated including wards, sectors-villages
etc.
7. Social Welfare Agencies
Complete list of such organisations, e.g. Aanganwadis-sathins etc. and
their involvement.
8. Listing of NGO’s
Complete list NGO’s in the State and districts, their chain of command
and list of office bearers.
9. Training Institutions
Their involvement and training to be imparted at various levels. Myths
about disasters and rumors to be dispelled.
10. Financial Planning
Availability of funds from the government and other sources.
System of auditing.
11. Institutional Coordination
An Institution should be ear-marked which should coordinate activities
between various agencies functioning in the state and mentioned
hereinabove.
12. Documentation
Each State should develop a system, if not already in existence, to
document all important developments concerning natural and man-made
disasters.

Natural Disasters: Causes and Consequences

A natural disaster is the consequence of natural hazard (e.g. volcanic

eruption, earthquake, or landslide) which affects human activities. Human
vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of planning or appropriate emergency

74
management, leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting
loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster,
and their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation:
“disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability”.

Earthquake

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may

occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little
warning. They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or
injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but
may de-stabilise the government, economy and social structure of the country.
But what is an earthquake? It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The
impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any warning, making it
impossible to predict.

Cause of earthquake: The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness

ranging from a depth of about 10 kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers
under the continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions called
‘plates’ which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers. The
theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile
mantle, and are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal
convection currents. When these plates contact each other, stress arises in the
crust24.

These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement

along the plate’s boundaries:

(a) Pulling away from each other,

(b) Pushing against one another and
(c) Sliding sideways relative to each other,

24
Sheel Kumar – earthquake Hazard Management edited by Jaybir Singh in Disaster Management –
future Challenges and opportunities, 2015 P.18.

75
 All these movements are associated with earthquakes. The areas of
stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or
rupturing are known as ‘faults’. The theory of ‘elasticity’ says that the crust is
continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates; it eventually
reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along
the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain is
relieve.

The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek
‘seismos’ meaning shock earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in
all directions.

Characteristics: Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and

velocities. The actual rupture process may last for a few seconds to as long as
one minute for a major earthquake. The ground shaking is caused by ‘body
waves’ and ‘surface waves’.

Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth:

 Deep : 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface

 Medium: 60 to 300 kms
 Shallow: Less than 60kms

The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time
the waves reach the surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus earthquakes are
more common and are extremely damaging because of their proximity to the
surface.

Measuring Earthquakes: Earthquakes can be described by these of two

distinctively different scales of measurement demonstrating magnitude and
intensity. Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is determined
by the use of a seismograph, which is an instrument that continuously records
ground vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named Charles
Richter. An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30

76
times the energy than one with 6.5 magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3
is the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquake that has been
recorded with this system is 9.25.

The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the
effects of an earthquake where it occurs. The most widely used scale or this
type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale was
extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is called the Modified
Mercalli Scale, which expresses the intensity of earthquake effect on people,
structure and the earth’s surface in values from 1 to XII. With an intensity of
VI and below most of the people can feel the shake and there are cracks on the
walls, but with an intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings
collapsing totally and there is a total disruption in normal life.

Predictability: Although some scientists claim ability to predict earthquakes,

the methods are controversial. Accurate and exact predictions of such sudden
incidents are still not possible.

Physical Damage: Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures

and infrastructure, especially bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers,
pipelines, electrical generating facilities. Aftershocks can cause much greater
damage to already weakened structures. Secondary effects include fires, dam
failure and landslides which may block water ways and also cause flooding.
Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous materials
resulting in possible chemical spills. There may also be a breakdown of
communication facilities. The effect of an earthquake is diverse. There are
large number of casualties because of the poor engineering design of the
buildings and close proximity of the people. About 95 percent of the people
who are killed or who are affected by the earthquake is because of the building
collapse. There is also a huge loss to the public health system, transport and
communication and water supply in the affected areas.

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Distribution Pattern: India falls quite prominently on the ‘Alpine – Himalayan
Belt’. This belt is the line along which the Indian plate meets the Eurasian
plate. This being a convergent plate, the Indian plate is thrusting underneath
the Eurasian plate at a speed of 5 cm per year. The movement gives rise to
tremendous stress which keeps accumulating in the rocks and is released from
time to time in the form of earthquakes.

Risk Reduction Measures

Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating

earthquake Impact. The most effective way to save you even in a slightest
shaking is ‘DROP, COVER and HOLD’.

Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and
guidelines for safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the
buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the
Municipality, according to the laid down by laws. Many existing lifeline
buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by
retrofitting techniques.

Public Education: Public education is educating the public on causes and

characteristics of an earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created
through sensitization and training programme for community, architects,
engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries teachers and
students.

Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per

the building by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and
engineering inputs need to be put together to improve building design and
construction practices. The soil type needs to be put together to improve
building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed
before construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided.

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 Tsunami

The term tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning
‘harbour’ and nami meaning ‘waves’. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal
waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides. These waves which
often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement of water from the
lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large
meteoroid impacts. Whatever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a
violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land with great
destructive power. The effects of tsunami can be unnoticeable or even
destructive.

Causes of Tsunami: The geological movements that cause tsunamis are

produced in three major ways. The most common of these are fault movements
on the sea floor, accompanied by an earth-quake. They release huge amount of
energy and have the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement
depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced.

The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either

occurring under water originating above the sea and then plunging into the
water. The largest tsunami ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay,
Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide produced a wave that reached a high
water mark of 50-150 meters above the shoreline25.

The third major cause of Tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a

volcano located near the shore or under water may be uplifted or depressed
similar to the action of a fault, or, the volcano may actually explode. In 1883,
the violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakotoa in Indonesia, produced
tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed upon Java and Sumatra. Over
36,000 people lost their lives in this tyrant waves.

25
Senthil Kumar G & S. Chidambaram-impact of Tsunami on Coastal zones edited by Jabir Singh
Disaster Management Future Challenge and Opportunities, I. K. International Publishing Home
Pvt. Ltd. 2015.

79
General characteristics: Tsunami differs from ordinary ocean waves, which
are produced by wind blowing over water. Tsunami travel much faster than
ordinary waves. Compared to normal wave speed of 100 kilometers per hour,
tsunami in the deep water of the ocean may travel the speed of jet airplane –
800 kilometers per hour. And yet, in spite of their speed, tsunami increases the
water height only 30-45 cm and often passes unnoticed by ships at sea.
Contrary to the popular belief, the tsunami is not a single gain wave. It is
possible for a tsunami to consist of ten or more waves which is then treed as
‘tsunami wave train’. The waves follow each other 5 to 90 minutes apart.
Tsunami normally causes flooding as a huge wall of water enters the main land.

There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:

(a) International tsunami warning systems, and

(b) Regional warning systems.

Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea,
but the great majority of them have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since
scientists cannot exactly predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict
when a tsunami will be generated.

(a) International Tsunami Warning Systems: Shortly after the Hilo

Tsunami, the Pacific tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed
with its operational Centre at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
(PTWS) near Honolulu, Hawaii, the PTWC is able to alert countries
several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning includes
predicted arrival time at selected coastal communities where the tsunami
could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is issued with subsequent
arrival time to other geographic area.
(b) Regional Warning Systems usually use seismic data about nearby
earthquakes to determine if there is possible local threat of a tsunami.
Such systems are capable enough to provide warnings to the general
public in less than 15 minutes.

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 The day-to-day maintenance of the gauge is carried with the assistance
from authorities of the ports. Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be
detected with the help of radars. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded
data from for radars and recorded the height of tsunami waves two hours after
the earthquake. It should be noted that the satellites observations of the Indian
Ocean tsunami would not have been of any use in delivering warnings, as the
data took five hours to process and it was pure chance that the satellites were
overhead at that time. However, in future it is possible that the space-based
observation might play a direct role in tsunami warning.

Typical Adverse Effects: Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes
from the source cause the majority of damage. The force of the water can raze
everything in its path. It is normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that
causes major destruction to the human settlements, roads and infrastructure
thereby disrupting the normal functioning of the society.

Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves

withdraw towards the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings,
the beaches get destroyed and the houses carried out to sea. Damage to ports
and airports may prevent importation of needed food and medical supplies.
Apart from the physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health
system. Deaths mainly occur because of drowning as water inundates homes.
Many people get washed away or crushed by the giant waves and some are
crushed by the debris.

There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has
caused large scale health problem. Availability of drinking water has always
been a major problem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be
damaged causing major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other
ground water may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage.
Flooding in the locality may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and
nets, environmental degradation etc.

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Distribution Pattern:
Even though India has not faced frequent Tsunamis but there is a need to
identify the areas that are generally affected by Tsunamis. The whole of the
Indian coastal belt is prone to Tsunami.

History of Tsunami’s in India

Date Location Impact

1524 Near Dabhol, Maharashtra Sufficient data not available
02 April 1762 Arakan Coast, Myanmar Sufficient data not available
16 June 1819 Rann of Kutch, Gujarat Sufficient data not available
31 Oct 1847 Great Nicobar Island Sufficient data not available
31 Dec.1881 An earthquake of 7.9 in the Entire east coast of India and
Richter Scale in Car Nicobar Andaman &Nicobar Island
Islands. in1m tsunamis were recorded
at Chennai
26 August Explosion of the Krakatoa East coast of India was
1883 volcano in Indonesia. affected 2 m tsunamis were
recorded at Chennai.

Risk Reduction Measures: While it is of course not possible to prevent a

tsunami certain tsunami prone countries some measures have been taken to
reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive
programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5ft) high in front of
populated coastal areas. Other localities have built flood gates and channels to
redirect the water from incoming tsunamis, however, their effectiveness has
been questioned, as tsunamis are often higher than the barriers. For instance,
the tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993 created waves as
much as 30 m (100 ft) tall – a high as a 10-story building. The port town of
Aonae on Hokkaido was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the
waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures
in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the

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height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis include.

Site Planning and Land Management: Within the broader framework of a

comprehensive plan site planning determines the location, configuration and
density of development on particular sites and the therefore, an important tool
in reducing tsunami risk.

1. The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open-space
uses as agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is
recommended as the first land use planning strategy. This strategy is
designed to keep development at minimum in hazard areas.
2. In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other
land use planning measures can be used. These include strategically
controlling the type of development and uses allowed in hazard areas,
and avoiding high-value and high occupancy uses to the greatest degree
possible.
3. Engineering Structures: Most of the habitation of the fishing
community is seen in the coastal areas. The houses constructed by them
are mainly of light weight materials without any engineering inputs.
Therefore there is an urgent need to educate the community about the
good construction practices that they should adopt such as:
a) Site Selection: Avoid building or living in buildings within
several hundred feet of the coastline as these areas are more
likely to experience damage from tsunamis.
b) Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to
mean sea level.
c) Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3
meters in height. Elevating house will help reduce damage to
property from most tsunamis.
d) Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
e) Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.

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 f) Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can
act as shelters at the time of a disaster.
4. Flood Management: Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami
waves will flood the coastal area. Flood mitigation measures could be
incorporated.

Cyclone

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high

atmospheric pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction of the
Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Southern
Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world.

General Characteristics

Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general

characteristics of a cyclone are:

1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge

Cyclones are general accompanied by strong winds which cause a lot of

destruction. In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the
rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing floods.

29th October, 1999, Super-cyclone with wind speed of 260-300 km/hour

hit the 140 kilometer coast of Orissa with a storm surge created in the Bay-of-
Bengal with water level 9 meters higher than normal. The super storm travelled
more than 250 km inland and within a period of 36hr ravaged more than 200
lakh hectares of land, devouring trees and vegetation, leaving behind a huge
trail of destruction. The violent cyclone was merciless and broke the backbone
of Orissa’s economy and killed thousands and devastated millions.

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 The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely.

a. Formation and initial development state: Four atmospheric/oceanic

conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone namely: A warm
sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of 60
meters, which provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation.
 High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by
water vapour) of the atmosphere to a height of about 7000
meters, facilitates condensation of water vapour into droplets and
clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure.
 Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of
temperature with altitude) encourages considerable vertical
cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air
occurs.
 A location of at least 4-6 latitude degrees from the equator allow
the influence of the force due to the earth’s rotation (coriolis
force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around
low pressure centre.
b. Fully matured: The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a
spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands.
These bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active central cloud
core which raps around a relatively calm zone. This is called the “eye”
of a cyclone. The eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by
thick clouds. The outer circumference of the thick cloud is called the
‘eye’ wall’.
c. Weakening or decay: A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as
its source of warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible when
the cyclone hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher altitude or
when there is the interference of another low pressure.

Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to land
a cyclone may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks. On an average

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the life cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these three stages mentioned
above) takes six days. The longest cyclones typhoon John which lasted for 31
days (August to September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific
basins),

Cyclones vary infrequency in various parts of the world. The 7516.6

kilometers long Indian coastline is the earth’s most cyclone battered stretch of
the world around 8 per cent of the total land area in India is prone to cyclones.
About two-third of the cyclones that occur in the Indian coastline occur in the
Bay of Bengal. The states which are generally affected in the east coast are
West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Naidu and on the West Coast
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.

Warning: Low pressure and the development can be detected hour or days
before it causes damage. The satellites trace the movement of these cyclones
based on which the people are evacuated from areas lively to be affected. It is
difficult to predict the accuracy. Accurate landfall predictions can give only a
few hours: notice to threatened population

India has one of the best cyclone warning systems in the world. The
India Meteorological Department (IMD) is the nodal department for wind
detection, tracking and forecasting cyclones. Cyclone tracking is done through
INSAT satellite. Cyclone warning is disseminated by several means such as
satellite based disaster warning systems, radio, television, telephone, fax, high
priority telegram, public announcements and bulletins in press. These
warnings are disseminated to the general public the fishing community
especially those in the sea, port authorities, commercial aviation and the
government machinery.

Elements at Risk: Strong winds, torrential rains and flooding cause a huge
loss to life and property. The 1999 Super Cyclone of Orissa killed more than
10,000 precious lives with women and children greatly affected. Apart from

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loss to life there is a huge loss to infrastructures like houses built of mud, older
buildings with weak walls, bridges, settlements in low lying areas.

Typical Adverse Effects: First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause
major damage to infrastructure and housing, in particular fragile constructions.
They are generally followed by heavy rains and floods and, in flat coastal areas
by storm surge riding on tidal waves and inundating the land over long
distances of even upto 15 kilometer inland.

1) Physical damage: Structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind

force, flooding and Storm surge. Light pitched roofs, of most structures
especially the ones fitted on to industrial buildings will suffer serve
damage.
2) Casualties and public health: Caused by flooding and flying elements,
contamination of Water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea,
and malaria.
3) Water supplies: Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by
flood waters.
4) Crops and food supplies: High winds and rains ruin the standing crop
and food stock lying in low lying area. Plantation type crops such as
banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea water
may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The
loss of the crop may lead to acute food shortage.
5) Communication: Severe disruption in the communication links as the
wind may bring down the electricity and communication towers,
telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and satellite disk and
broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed,
Lack of proper communication affects effective distribution of relief
materials.

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Risk reduction Measures
Coastal belt plantation: Green belt plantation along the costal line in a
scientific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a
cover through green belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a wide buffer
zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone
travel freely inland. The lack of protective forest covers destruction. With the
loss of the forest cover each consecutive cyclone can penetrate further inland.

Hazard Mapping: Meteorological records of the wind speed and the

directions give the probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be
predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and often very
destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of occurrence for
particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to
cyclone in any given year. It will be useful to estimate the severity of the
cyclone and various damage intensities in the region. The map is prepared with
data inputs of past climatological records, history of wind speed, frequency of
flooding etc. land use control designed so that least critical activities are placed
in vulnerable areas. Location of settlements in the flood plains is at utmost
risk. Siting of key facilities must be marked in the land use. Policies should be
in place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.

Engineered structures: Structures need to be built to withstand wind

forces. Good site selection is also important. Majority of the buildings in
coastal areas are built with locally available materials and have no engineering
inputs. Good construction practice should be adopted such as:

1. Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to

construct on stilts or on earth mound.
2. House can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All
elements holding the structures need to be properly anchored to resist
the uplift or flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large
overhangs of roofs, and the projections should be tied down.

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 3. A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
4. Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
5. Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and
water.
6. Protect river embankments: Communication lines should be installed
underground.
7. Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
8. Flood management: Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads
to flooding in the cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of
landslides too and flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.
9. Improving vegetation cover: The roots of the plants and trees keep the
soil intact and prevent erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen
flooding. The use of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak.
Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break severe wind
speeds. It minimizes devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also
highlighted the need for urgent measures like shelterbelt plantation
along cyclone-prone coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose
should not only be able to withstand the impact of strong cyclonic
winds, but also check soil erosion.

Flood

Flood is a state of high water level along a river along a river channel or
on the coast that leads to inundation of land, which is not usually submerged.
Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen
suddenly without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over,
heavy rains etc.

There are different types of floods namely flash flood, riverine flood,
urban flood, etc. Flash floods can be defined as floods which occur within six
hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with cloud
bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized warnings and immediate
response to reduce damage. Wireless network and telephone connections are

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used to monitor flood conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings for timely
evacuation may not always be possible.

Causes

There are several causes of floods and differ from region to region. The
causes may vary from a rural area to an urban area. Some of the major causes
are:

a) Heavy rainfall.
b) Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity
of the rivers/stream.
c) Blockage in the drains leads to flooding of the area.
d) Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
e) Construction of dams and reservoirs.
f) In area prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down
pour along with storm surge leads to flooding.

Typical Adverse Effects

The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and

property. Structures like houses, bridges, roads etc. get damaged by the gushing
water, landslides triggered on account of water getting saturated, boats and
fishing nets get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by
drowning. Lack of proper drinking water facilities contamination of water
(well, ground water, piped water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics,
diarrhea, viral infection, malaria and many other infectious diseases.

Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated

as a result there is a huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal
fodder. Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be
rendered infertile due to erosion of top layer or may turn saline if sea water
floods the area.

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Distributional Pattern

Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. The
Vulnerability Atlas of India shows pictorially the area liable to floods. Around
12 per cent (40 Million hectare) of land in India is prone to floods.

Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra
basin (comprising of Barak, Teesta, Torsa, Subansiri, Sankosh, dihing and
Luhit), the northwestern river basin (comprising Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
Beas and the Ghaghara), peninsular river basin (Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi,
Baitarani, Godavari, Krishna, Penna and the Kaveri) and the coastal regions of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Kerala. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Orissa are some of the state who has been severely prone to floods. Our
country receives annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in
3-4 months i.e., June to September, due to the intense and periodic rain, most
of the rivers of the country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond
their carrying capacity.

Warning

Flood forecasting and warning has been highly developed in the past
two decades. With the advancement of technology such as satellite and remote-
sensing equipment’s flood waves can be tracked as the water level rises.
Except for flash floods there is usually a reasonable warning period. Heavy
precipitation will give sufficient warning of the coming river flood. High tides
with high winds may indicate flooding in the coastal areas. Evacuation is
possible with suitable monitoring and warning. Warning is issued by the
Central Water Commission (CWC), Irrigation and flood Control Department,
and Water Resources Department, CWC maintains close liason with the
administrative and state engineering agencies, local civil authorities to
communicate advance warning for appropriate mitigation and preparedness
measures.

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Risk Reduction Measures:

Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing

the risk of the region. Historical records give the indication of the flood
inundation areas and the period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage.
Warning can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water
levels in case of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the
land characteristics will determine the submergence area. Flood hazard
mapping will give the proper indication of water flow during floods.

Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters
inundate the floodplains and the coastal area. The number of casualties is
related to the population in the area at risk. In areas where people already have
built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better sites to as
to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the areas
which are subjected to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools
should be built in safe areas. In urban areas, water holding areas can be created
like ponds, lakes or low lying areas.

Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and

strengthening of structures to withstand flood forces and seepage. The
buildings should be constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build on stilts
or platform.

Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by

decreasing the amount of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase
absorption could be a mitigation strategy in certain areas), protection of
vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other water holding areas,
conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion includes levees,
embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can store water and can
release water at a manageable rate. But failure of dams in earthquakes and
operation of are leasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas. Flood
Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to

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keep flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows of houses
etc. Houses may be elevated by building on raised land. Buildings should be
constructed away from water bodies.

Flood Management in India, systematic planning for flood management

commenced with the five Year Plans, particularly with the launching of
National Programme of flood Management in 1954. During the last fifty years,
different methods of flood protection structural as well as nonstructural have
been adopted in different states depending upon the nature of the problem and
local conditions. Structural measures include storage reservoirs, flood
embankments, drainage channels, anti-erosion works, channel improvement
works, detention basins etc. and non-structural measures include flood
forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing, disaster preparedness etc. The
flood management measures undertaken so far have provided reasonable
degree of protection to an area of 15.81 million hectares throughout the
country.

Drought

Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal

pattern in a region for an extended period of time leading to general suffering
in the society. It is interplay between demand that people place on natural
supply of water and natural event that provides the water in a given
geographical region. The state of Kerala which receives more than 3000 mm of
rainfall every year is declared drought affected as it is insufficient to have two
good crops. The more the imbalance in supply the higher is the drought.

Causes of Drought: Though drought is basically caused by deficit rainfall,

which is a meteorological phenomenon, it manifests into different spheres
because of various vulnerability factors associated with them. Some of these
factors are human induced. Though drought is a natural disaster, its effects are
made worst in developing countries by over population, over grazing,

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deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground and surface water for
growing crops, loss of biodiversity.

General Characteristics

Types of Droughts: Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are

spread across different domains as listed below.

1) Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is simple

absence/deficit of rainfall from the normal. It is the least severe form of
drought and is often identified by sunny days and hot weather.
2) Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of
natural stream flows or ground water levels, plus stored water supplies.
The main impact is on water resource systems.
3) Agricultural Drought: This form of drought occurs when moisture level
in soil is Insufficient to maintain average crop yields. Initial
consequences are in the reduced Seasonal output of crops and other
related production. An extreme agricultural drought can lead to a
famine, which is a prolonged shortage of food in a restricted region
causing widespread disease and death from starvation.
4) Socio-economic drought: Socio-economic drought correlates the supply
and demand of goods and services with the three above mentioned types
of drought. When the supply of some goods or services such as water
and electricity are weather dependant then drought may cause shortages
in supply of these economic goods.

Elements at Risk: In general, all those elements that are primarily dependent
on water are most affected. It affects the rain fed crops and then slowly creeps
into the irrigated crops. People who are dependent on agriculture and areas
where the other livelihood opportunities are least developed are greatly
affected. The herdsman, landless labourer, subsistence farmers, women,
children and farm animals are the most vulnerable groups.

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Typical Adverse Effects: Drought, different from any other natural disaster,
does not cause any structural damages. As the meteorological drought turns
into hydrological drought, the impacts start appearing first in agriculture which
most dependant on the soil moisture. Irrigated areas are affected much later
than the rainfed areas. However, regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to
continue normal life even when drought conditions are prevailing around. The
impacts slowly spread into social fabric as the availability of drinking water
diminishes, reduction in energy production, ground water depletion, food
shortage, health reduction and loss of life, increased poverty, reduced quality of
life and social unrest leading to migration.

Distribution pattern

 Around 68 per cent of India’s total area is prone to drought.

 315 of a total of 725 Talukas in 99 districts are drought prone.
 50 million people are annually affected by drought.
 In 2001 more than eight states suffered the impact of severe drought.
 In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan experienced the fourth consecutive
year of drought.

Risk Reduction Measures: There are various mitigation strategies to cope up

with drought.

1. Public Awareness and education: If the community is aware of the do’s

and don’ts then half of the problem is solved. This includes awareness
on the availability of safe drinking water, water conservation techniques,
agricultural drought management strategies like crop contingency plans,
construction of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be
generated by the print, electronic and folk media.
2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the rainfall
situation, availability of water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and
comparing with the existing water needs in various sectors of the
society.

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 3. Water supply augmentation and conservation through rainwater
harvesting in houses and farmers’ fields increases the content of water
available, water harvesting by either allowing the runoff water from all
the fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds) or allowing it to
infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour bunds,
contour cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps increase water
availability for sustained agricultural production.
4. Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought vulnerability.
Land use based on its capability helps in optimum use of land and water
and can avoid the undue demeand created due to their misuse.
5. Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected
by the drought. Some of such livelihoods include increased off-farm
employment opportunities, collection or non-timber forest produce from
the community forests, raising goats, carpentry etc.
6. Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the
effectiveness of preparedness and response efforts by enhancing
monitoring, mitigation and response measures.
7. Planning would help in effective coordination among state and national
agencies in dealing with the drought. Components of drought plan
include establishing drought taskforce which is a team of specialists who
can advise the government in taking decision to deal with drought
situation. Establishing coordination mechanism among various agencies
which deal with the droughts. Providing crop insurance schemes to the
farmers to cope with the drought related crop losses, and public
awareness generation.

Landslide

The term ‘Landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill

slopes and can be defined as the downward and outward movement of slopes
and can be defined as the downward and outward movement of slope forming
materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of all these

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materials along surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either
slowly or quickly form one place to another. Although the landslides are
primarily associated with mountainous terrains, these can also occur in areas
where an activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings and open
pit mines takes place. They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes,
floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing landslide may block
the flow of river for quite some time.

Causes of Landslide: There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major
causes are as follows:

1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure

of rock or soil may also cause landslides.
2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation,
construction of roads might increase the vulnerability of the terrain to
slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short
as several hours or have a more moderate intensity lasting several days
have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the hilly
terrains also results in landslide.
4. Human excavation: Human excavation of slope and its toe, loading of
slope/toe, draw down in reservoir, mining, deforestation, irrigation,
vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.
5. Earthquake shaking: Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in
many different topographic and geologic settings. Rock falls, soil slides
and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively thin or shallow dis-
aggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most abundant types of
landslides triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption: Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides
commonly is followed by accelerated erosion and frequent mud or
debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.

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Types of Landslides

The common types of landslides are described below:

Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from steep slopes
or cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.

Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such as debris
flow, debris avalanche, lahar, and mudflow.

Creep: Slow, steady down slope movement of soil or rock, often indicated by
curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilled poles or fences.

Debris flow: Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic
matter combined with entrained air and water to form slurry that then flows
down slope, usually associated with steep gullies.

Debris avalanche: A variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

Lahar : Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the slope of a volcanic

deposits, sudden melting of snow and ice due to heat from volcanic vents, or
the breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes or lakes dammed by volcanic
eruptions.

Mudflow: Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that contains at least 50

percent sand, silt, and clay-sized particles.

Lateral spreads: Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in nearly
horizontal movement of earth materials. Lateral spreads usually are caused by
liquefaction, where saturated sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state, usually triggered by an
earthquake.

Slides: Many types of mass movement are included in the general term
“landslide”. The two major types of landslides are rotational slides and
translational landslides.

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Topple: A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward and falls, bounces, or rolls
down the slope.

Adverse Effects: The most common elements at risk are the settlements built
on the steep slopes, built at the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams
emerging from the mountain valley. All those buildings constructed without
appropriate foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk.
Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.

Distributional Pattern: Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our

country, which accounts for considerable loss of life and damage to
communication routes, human settlements, agricultural fields and forest lands.
The Indian subcontinent, with diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and
climatologically conditions is subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards.
The Himalayas including Northeastern mountains ranges being the worst
affected, followed by a section of Western Ghats and the Vindhyas’. Removal
of vegetation and toe erosion has also triggered slides. Torrential rainfall on
the deforested slopes is the main factor in the Peninsular India namely in
western Ghat and Nilgiris. Human intervention by way of slope modification
has added to this effect.

One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa, Uttarakhand on 11th and
17th August 1998 when nearly 380 people were killed when massive landslides
washed away the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims going to Lake
Mansarovar in Tibet. Consequently various land management measures have
been initiated as mitigation measures.

Risk Reduction Measures: Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope

failures. This will help to avoid building settlements in such areas. These maps
will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning, Land use practices such as:

 Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be

afforested with suitable species. Existing patches of natural vegetation
(forest and natural grass land) in good condition should be preserved.

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  Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only
after a detailed study of the region has been carried out.
 In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken
to avoid lockage of natural drainage.
 Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made
mandatory.
 Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of
the landslide.
 No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope..

Retaining: Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are
commonly seen along roads in hill stations). These are contracted to prevent
smaller sized and secondary landslides that often occur along the toe portion of
the larger landslides.

Surface Drainage Control Works: The surface drainage control works are
implemented to control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration
or rain water and spring flows, engineered structures with strong foundations
can withstand or take the ground movement forces. Underground installations
(Pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible to move in order to withstand
forces caused by the landslide.

Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of

arresting landslides. This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers
below, while preventing excessive run-off and soil erosion. Insurance will
assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by landslides or by
any other natural hazards.

2.1 SCOPE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The term “disaster management” encompasses the complete realm of

disaster-related activities. Traditionally people tend to think of disaster
management only in terms of post disaster activities taken by relief and
reconstruction officials; yet disaster management covers a much broader scope,
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and many modern disaster managers may find themselves far more involved in
pre-disaster activities than in post-disaster response. This is because many
persons who work in the development field, or who plan routine economic,
urban, regional or agricultural development projects, have disaster management
responsibilities. 26 For example, housing specialists planning a low-income
housing project in a disaster-prone area have the opportunity (and an
obligation) to mitigate the impact of a future disaster if the houses incorporate
disaster resistant construction technologies. In the same manner , agricultural
development projects must be planned in such a way that they help stem
environmental degradation and thus lower the farmer’s vulnerability to losses
from droughts, floods, cyclones, or other natural hazards. In fact, in dealing
with natural hazards, the vast majority of disaster management activities are
related to development projects; only a small portion are related to emergency
response.

2.2 OBJECTIVES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The objectives of disaster management are:

 To reduce or avoid the human, physical, and economic losses

suffered by individual, by the society, and by the country at large.
 To reduce personal suffering.
 To speed recovery.

When assisting refugees or displaced persons, a fourth objective is to

provide protection to victims or persons whose lives or property are threatened
by armed conflict, tribal animosity, religious persecutions, etc. The University
of Wisconsin Disaster

Management Programme defines “protection” as intervention by

governments, international organisations, or private relief organisations to
protect persons threatened by armed conflict. Intervention for refugees or

26
Mukash Kapoor, Disaster Management, Saurabh Publishing House,2016ISBN: 978-81-89005-62-7

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displaced persons may include provision of sanctuary or a means of escape
form conflict, and emergency support to victims threatened by disease,
starvation, and exposure to the environmental elements.

2.2.1 Role of Disaster Managers

The term “disaster manager” is applied to a person who has

responsibility for planning and managing pre- and/or post-disaster activities.
Disaster managers may be found in a variety of positions in much different
type of agencies. The most prominent disaster managers are the personnel in
governmental disaster preparedness agencies, national emergency or relief
agencies, national reconstruction agencies, and emergency service agencies,
departments or ministries. All require disaster management specialists.

Municipal or provincial governments often have disaster managers.

Large cities will often have a director of emergency services; and persons in
public health departments, police departments, or public works departments
may be assignment additional responsibilities in emergency management.

Inter-governmental organisations often have specialized disaster or

emergency management agencies. For example, the United Nations Disaster
Relief Office (UNDRO) provides a wide variety of emergency management
services to member governments. The United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency
(UNRWA) provide specialised assistance to refugees. Even within the non-
disaster agencies of the United Nations, there are often special emergency
management offices. Examples include UNICEF, which has an emergency
Unit; the World Health Organisation, which has a Director of Emergency
Relief Operations; and the Pan American Health Organisation( a regional office
of WHO), which has an Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Relief
Coordination office that focuses specially on the Americas. The world food
Programme also has a special office for Emergency Relief.

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 Some nongovernmental organisations, both at the local level and at the
international level, are specifically organised to provide emergency services.
The most prominent of these are National Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies, the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and the
International Committee of the Red Cross. There are also hundreds of other
private relief organisations throughout the world organised to provide
specialised assistance to victims. These agencies range in size and scope from
small, local ambulance corps to large U.N. agencies with scores of staff and
multi-million dollar budgets.

Many non-governmental development organisations (NGOs) have

disaster specialists on their staffs. This is in recognition of the fact that disasters
often occur where development agencies have normal programmes, and they
cannot avoid becoming involved in post-disaster activities. This is also because
of the frequency in which NGO’s are called on to assist disaster victims. The
specialists help to develop disaster plans for their organisations and to manage
post-disaster operations.

Disaster management specialists can also be found outside the systems

specially oriented towards disaster management or relief. Government
ministries, such as agriculture, forestry, public health, defence, and public
works will often have major departments or key personnel assigned to disaster
management or mitigation roles. It is common, for instance, to find a public
works department employee who has assigned responsibilities for flood control
activities. To be effective, that person must exercise responsibility not only in
flood fighting but also inland use, settlement planning and evacuation. Thus,
the effective disaster manager must have input into a variety of activities.

Many people who serve in critical roles provide useful services in

disaster management. While they are not considered disaster managers per se,
their technological knowledge and skills especially their experiences warrant
recognition of their potential contribution and function in disaster management.
The examples are myriad: city and regional planners, watershed management

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and water resource development specialists, flood control engineers and
specialists, code and enforcement officials, public health specialists, doctors
and nurses, dietitians and nutritionists, economic and agricultural development
specialists, social scientists and welfare specialists, clergy and religious/
ecumenical personnel, structural engineers, architects, reforestation and range
land management specialists, firefighters, police, and development workers in
general.

Although the above typically serve as a decision makers, other

specialists often have an impact on disaster management decisions. These
specialists include representatives from civic groups, academia, and the media,
persons from research institutions focusing on disasters or disaster
consequences, disaster management consultants, directors of development
agencies, city managers, and other government officials.

In order to be successful, a disaster manager must have a broad base of

knowledge in many different subjects and the ability to blend this knowledge
into workable coordinated programmes to meet the needs of those affected by
disaster. A disaster manager must deal with six distinct sets of activities in
order to affect successfully the course of events related to disasters. Known as
the elements of disaster management, these include risk management, loss
management, control of events, equity of assistance, resource management, and
impact reduction.

2.2.2 Risk Management

Risk management consists of identifying threats (hazards likely to

occur), determining their probability of occurrence, estimating what the impact
of the threat might to be the communities at risk, determining measures that can
reduce the risk, and taking action to reduce the threat.

In natural diseases, risk management includes:

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  Hazard mapping
 Vulnerability mapping
 Estimation of potential losses, which can include:
 Losses of housing and physical structures
 Agricultural losses
 Economic losses
 Losses to physical infrastructure (such as roads, bridges, electric
lines, etc.)
 Development of appropriate disaster management prevention and
mitigation strategies.

Risk management is accomplished by lessening the effects of the natural

hazard or by taking actions in normal development projects that will reduce the
risks to an acceptable level. For example, if flooding is determined to be a
major risk, the risk can be reduced by physical measures such as dams, flood
control embankments, or channeling of the streams. Risk can also be reduced
by moving threatened communities from flood plains and/or restricting
economic activities in the flood zone to those that could absorb flood losses
(such as forestry or agriculture).

2.2.3 Loss Management

Losses in a disaster include human, structural, and economic losses.

Loss management addresses each of these through both pre- and post-disaster
actions designed to keep losses to a minimum. The most effective loss
management activities occur prior to the disaster and are focused on reducing
the society’s vulnerability to the disaster.27 Actions include:

 Improving the resistance of building and physical structures in the

event of disaster

27
Blaikie P. Cannon T.Davis I and wishes B, At risk Natural Hazards, people’s vulnerability and
Disasters Routledge London & New York, 1996.

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  Proving improved safety for the occupants of building or settlements
situated in hazardous areas
 Increasing and/or diversifying the network of social support (or
coping) mechanisms available to victims and communities in
threatened areas.

Post-disaster loss management focuses on improving the response and

broadening the range of support given to victims. This includes facilitating
relief delivery and stimulating a rapid recovery. These are accomplished
through emergency preparedness, which consists of (1) the estimation of post-
disaster needs and development of approaches and programmes to speed relief,
response, warning and evacuation of persons known to be at risk from an
immediate threat, (2) the provision of emergency assistance to help reduce the
impact of losses, and (3) reconstruction, to lessen the economic burden of long-
term recovery.

Disaster preparedness refers to a broader range of activities, such an

establishing emergency policies, developing evacuation plans, designating
emergency shelters, and developing methods for rapid assessment of pre-
positioning supplies. Materials planning emergency services, training and drills
for emergency staff, training seminars and courses, and broad campaigns of
public awareness aimed at preparing communities for the onset of a disaster are
other aspects of preparedness.

Another means of improving response is to expand or diversify the

portfolio of assistance given to the disaster victims. Shelter, water, food,
medicine, and clothing are usually considered as the normal emergency
response. The potential range of assistance is in fact much broader. It should
include economic assistance, family reunification, assistance to small business,
rehabilitation of a community’s public utilities, emergency assistance to
farmers that enables them to harvest the remnants of crops, provision of food
to livestock and draft animals, reduction of erosion caused by floods, social and
psychological counseling, and literally hundreds of other activities.
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2.2.4 Control of Events

The critical element of disaster management is the control of events

during and after the emergency. It is important that disaster managers control a
situation rather than respond to it. Control is maintained through the following
measures:

 Anticipation of a disaster and the cause-and-effect relationships

generated by each type of event.
 Mitigation, or reduction, of the scope of a disaster. Mitigation is the
most important function in bringing disasters under control. The
more that can be done to reduce the effects of disaster, the fewer
problems the disaster manager will face in the aftermath.
 Preparedness. By reviewing the anticipated scope of a disaster,
managers can plan adequate responses, develop organisational
procedures, and prepare to meet he needs that are going to arise. 28
 Accurate information collection and assessment. Once a disaster has
commenced, the manager needs to have a reliable data upon which to
base priorities and to guide response.
 A balanced response. Each type of disaster will require a different set
of responses. The disaster manager must review the different
strategies and approaches for meeting disaster needs and develop an
appropriate mix of responses, so that all sectors of the community
can be equitably assisted. More than one approach may be necessary
in order to meet a variety of needs in the same sector.
 Action. Once a problem has been identified and a response strategy
selected, the action must commence immediately. Appropriate action
must be phased in a timely manner and undertaken before demands
and needs escalate. Action delayed means lost opportunities and a
lessening of control, which add to the suffering of the victims.

28
Christoplosk, Ian Mitchell, John and Liljelund, Anna, Reframing risk: the Changing context of
Disaster Mitigation and preparedness-in Disasters Volume 25,No.3,Sept.2001.

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  Leadership. Disaster management should lead, rather than follow,
public action. If programmes are timely, the first element of
leadership is attained. Rapid response and timely aid give people
hope and encourage them to take positive actions themselves to help
meet their needs. A delayed response leads to confusion and
frustration and may force disaster managers to choose alternative
courses that are ultimately less desirable.
 Discipline. Disaster managers, disaster management systems and
organisations, and all key personnel in the relief and disaster
management system must operate in an orderly, precise, and
disciplined manner. The appearance of discipline and self-
assuredness will reassure the public and promote compliance. The
success of a disaster manager relates directly to the leadership
exercised and the ability to coordinate the actions required to bring
order out of chaos.

2.2.5 Equity of Assistance

All disaster assistance should be provided in an equitable and fair

manner. Assuring that all disaster victims are treated fairly and equally is an
important element of disaster management. This is especially important at the
national level when a variety of different relief agencies, each with different
constituencies and demands by their management and donors, are trying to
provide assistance. Doctrines of fairness must underlie uniform relief and
reconstruction policies in order to insure that disaster victims receive fair
treatment and obtain adequate access to the resources available.

2.2.6 Resource Management

Few disaster managers have adequate resources to meet all the

competing needs and demands of a post-disaster environment. Thus, resource
management becomes a critical element of disaster response. The disaster
manager must be familiar with the response available. He or she must know

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how to form them into a balanced package of assistance and how to maximise
their use to the greatest advantage. For example, in the aftermath of a flood a
relief agency may receive seeds that will enable 1,000 farmers to replant the
crops that were destroyed by the flood. Yet disaster assessment surveys
indicate that 2,000 farmers need replacement seeds. The manager who decides
to give away all the seeds and reinvest the proceeds from the crop sales to
purchase additional seeds can expand the number of persons serviced and thus
maximise the contribution.

2.2.7 Impact Reduction

Disasters can have an impact far beyond the immediate human, physical,
or economic losses. In a very real sense, disasters represent a loss of
opportunity, not only to individuals, but also to entire societies. They can also
be a serious setback to the country’s entire development programme. The
impact of the disaster on individuals and their society should be reduced to a
minimum. For a nation struck by a disaster, this means managing the disaster in
such a way that recovery is accomplished quickly and that recovery efforts
contribute to the overall development needs of the country and all its citizens.

2.2.8 Disasters in Human Settlements

The principal disaster of this type is urban fire. When fires break out in
Third World shantytowns they can have a devastating effect. Flimsy, wooden
shanties packed closely together create conditions that allow the fires to spread
quickly and burn virtually out of control. As unchecked urban growth continues
throughout the Third World, this great will grow even greater.

2.2.9 Disaster Victim

A victim is a person affected by a disaster. The term “victim” has many

negative connotations. It provokes image of helplessness, of people who must
be taken care of. For this reason, many agencies use substitute words such as
“beneficiaries” or “recipients”. Unfortunately, these terms do not adequately

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describe all the people affected and may not accurately depict the actions
taking place. The term “survivors” could be used, but technically the word
applies only to those who have escaped a life-threatening situation, whereas
any individuals may be drastically affected by the consequence of a disaster
even though they were not directly threatened by the loss of life. Victims are
not helpless. They are capable of making intelligent choices. When allowance
is made for their special need to cope with personnel losses and to put
personnel affairs in order, they can participate effectively in all post-disaster
activities. In fact, participation in constructive activity is one of the most
effective means of coping, and disaster victims are usually highly active and
thoroughly dedicated relief workers. Furthermore, as local people, they are
particularly well suited to deal with the needs of their communities.

While most countries, and international law, do not classify combatants

as refugees, some countries and NGOs do. UNHCR and other humanitarian
organisations may classify as refugees persecuted people, such as tribal or
ethnic minorities, who desire to flee a country but who still remain in their
homeland. This classification can provide them protection until they can be
relocated to another country. Those Vietnamese under consideration for the
Orderly Departure Programme of UNHCR furnish an example.

The term “displaced persons” also refers to people who are forced to
leave their homes and homeland as a result of droughts and famines. The
Ethiopians who migrated to Djibouti because of the 1984 drought were
displaced persons. Several definitions of “refugee” illustrate the differences.
UNCHR defines a refugee as any person who,

“Owing to a well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race,

religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, Owing to
such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who,
not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual

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residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to return it.”

In armed conflicts displaced persons and refugees are of special concern

to disaster managers. Displaced persons are individuals and families forced to
leave their homes because of the conflict, but who remain inside their country.
Refugees are noncombatants who have sought (or are seeking) safety by
leaving their homeland and entering another country. The laws regarding
refugees and displaced persons are vague in many ways. For example, do
persons who flee their homes because of extreme economic hardships coupled
with human rights oppression qualify as refugees or as illegal immigrants?

2.2.10 Disaster Types

Disaster may be classified according to how rapidly they begin and how
long they last. In this classification system are two types of disasters: rapid-
onset or cataclysmic disasters, and long term or continuing disasters.

Rapid-onset disasters include earthquakes, cyclone, floods and tsunami

(popularly known as “tidal waves”). Slow-onset, long –term or continuing
disaster include civil wars, droughts and famines, and epidemics

This type of classification is useful because the general approaches that

are used to respond to the disaster in each category are very similar. For
example, in supporting refugees and displaced persons, feeding programmes
similar to those that are required persons, feeding programmes similar to those
that are required for famine victims are used.

In a cataclysmic disaster, one large-scale event causes most of the

damage and destruction. Following this event there may be tremendous amount
of suffering and chaos, and secondary disasters such as landslides may occur.
Yet, things soon begin to improve. By contrast, in a long-term, continuing
disaster the situation remains constant or may even deteriorate as time passes.

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In a cataclysmic disaster the damaged area is usually relatively small, while the
area affected in a continuing disaster may be extremely large.

2.2.11 Phases of Disaster Response

The Preparatory Phase. The preparatory phase of disaster response

includes all of the activities that help a society and the disaster agencies to
prepare for a disaster event. Activities carried out in the preparatory phase
include organisation, legislation, legislation, development of procedures,
inventories of resources, and establishment of response plans. These activities
are broadly classified as disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

In general, disaster prevention is even focused. In other words, the

objective of prevention is to prevent the disaster to be occurring. Disaster
mitigation accepts the fact that some natural events may occur, but it tries to
lessen the impact by improving the community’s ability to absorb the impact
with minimum damage or disruptive effects. Disaster preparedness assumes
that a disaster will occur; it focuses on structuring the emergency response and
on laying a framework for recovery.

Warning phase: Preceding most disasters is a period of time during which it

becomes obvious that sometime hazardous is going to happen. Certain
specialists focus on trying to detect signs of a building threat. By monitoring
events, they look for indicators that tell when, where, and what magnitude the
events may be. This is known as prediction or forecasting. The objective is to
provide disaster managers with enough information so they can give the people
at risk adequate notice or warning to prepare for the disaster and, if necessary,
to evacuate.

At the present time, warning is possible for droughts and famines,

cyclones and most severe weather phenomena, volcanoes, large scale fires, and
in some causes earthquakes. Work is also underway in refugee management to
develop early warning techniques that will let relief agencies know of
impending refugee crises.

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Emergency Phase: This phase of disaster response involves actions that are
necessary to save lives and reduce sufferings. They include search-and-rescue,
first aid, emergency medical assistance, and restoration of emergency
communication and transportation networks. Some disasters also necessitate
evacuation from areas from vulnerable to further disaster events and provision
of temporary shelter, food, and water. Other actions, taken during the
emergency phase include initial disaster assessment and emergency repairs to
critical facilities.

Rehabilitation (Or Transitional) Phase: The transitional phase is a time

period when people begin to return to work, to repair infrastructure, damaged
buildings and critical facilities, and to take other actions necessary to help the
community to return to normal. During this phase, emotional recovery occurs
as families and individuals regroup and try to put their lives back in order. In
many ways, the rehabilitation period is the most difficult for the victims.
Relief agencies must be sensitive to varying degrees of need and must provide
appropriate forms of assistance. Emergency relief measures must be
discontinued during this phase so that people can begin to regain their self-
reliance

Reconstruction Phase: The reconstruction phase of a disaster involves the

physical reordering of the community and of the physical environment. During
this period people reconstruct housing and other community facilities, and
agriculture returns to normal. The actual time span is often very difficult to
define. It may start fairly early and may last for many years.

2.3 TOOLS AND METHODS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster management uses a variety of different tools, programmes, and

methodologies to lessen the impact of a disaster and to provide the managers
with means of guiding relief and reconstruction activities.

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2.3.1 Prevention and Mitigation Tools

The primary focus of disaster management should be to prevent

disasters and/or to mitigate those that do happen. Disaster managers can
generally use four sets of tools. They are:

 Hazard management and vulnerability reduction.

 Economic diversification.
 Political intervention.
 Public awareness.

The first two apply exclusively to disasters caused by natural

phenomena, while the latter are used to try to mitigate impending refugee
situations.

As a general rule government, intergovernmental organizations, and the

larger VOLAGS carry out hazard management programmes. This is because
many of the hazard management activities involve vast areas and require large
amounts of resources. At the community level, however, small agencies and
communities can undertake a variety of activities with little outside assistance.
Planting windbreaks and building flood embankments are examples of such
activities.

The role of the disaster manger in hazard management is usually to

insure that development plans and programmes incorporate hazard
management activities. For example, a country’s office of disaster
preparedness may help make the various ministries aware of the flooding
problem and may carry out studies in conjunction with other ministries. The
actual management of a watershed to prevent or reduce flooding is usually the
responsibility of river authorities, or of ministries of forests, agriculture, human
settlements, and/or rural development. These activities are often carried out
with the help of the central planning office and/or rural and urban planning
departments.

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The ranges of specific tools for mitigating environmental hazards are:29

 Planning, Building regulations, including zoning, building codes,

performance standards, and improved urban design, Strategic
development or investment of sites and services, Economic incentives,
Housing education, i.e., the training of home builders to improve the
quality and performance of housing, Code encouragement, i.e., the use
of building inspectors to advice and encourage homeowners to utilise
disaster-resistant construction techniques (rather than simply to enforce
codes), Financial incentives as an inducement to builders to use hazard –
resistant construction techniques, Insurance, Environmental
management, for example, reforestation and rangeland management in
watersheds, Immunisation campaigns to reduce the threat a of disease.

 Planning Strategies

 Various strategies that can mitigate the impacts of hazards can

be adopted through normal planning Among these are:-

 Adjusting normal development programmes to reduce losses.

For example, certain

 Varieties

 Crops of that are more wind – or flood-resistant can often be introduced

in areas prone to floods or cyclones.

 Economic diversification. In regions where the principal or sole source

of income is threatened, planners should attempt to diversify the
economy and introduce economic activities that are less vulnerable, or
not as vulnerable to the same types of disaster. Diversification is
extremely important where economies are based on a single cash crop.
Small island countries that depend on exporting bananas, palm oil, or
other tropical agricultural products are vulnerable to extensive damage in
29
Smith Keith, Environmental Hazards, Second Edition, Rutledge London and New York, 1996

115
 a cyclone. Such countries could diversify into fishing, light
manufacturing, or other activities, for example. Diversification will help
protect the economy against natural disasters and also against
unanticipated price fluctuations on the international market.

 Developing “disaster resistant” economic activities within a region.

Some economic activities are relatively unaffected by certain types of
disasters. For example, warehousing is more suitable than manufacturing
for locating in flood plains. Coconut palms are more suitable than citrus
or other fruit trees in cyclone-phone coastal area. Efforts should be
made to identify and to encourage the development of enterprises that
are less vulnerable to the hazards.

Regulations

Planners can use there sets of regulatory controls for hazard

management. These are land-use planning and zoning: building codes and
performance standards: and land-use and building standards.

Conventional land-use controls regulate function, density, and location

of activities, the rate of development, and limits of growth, “Zoning” may be
defined as a division of land into districts or land-use zones: the prescription of
regulations within these zones depends on how the zones are to be developed.
Zoning ordinances are usually divided into broad land-use categories, such as
agricultural, residential, industrial, and/or commercial uses. Sub-zones may
include such designations as reforestation areas, range-land management zones,
and watershed management zones.

Zoning has a broad function in the reduction of vulnerability, since

vulnerable areas can be controlled or set aside for certain types of development.
For example, a hazardous area can be zoned permanently for agricultural or
recreational use, thus minimizing concentrations of a population or a built
environment on this site.

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 Land use controls and regulations can be an effective tool for reducing
vulnerability, but they are not a universal cure. Controls must be relevant to
local conditions and must be formulated with a realistic assessment of the
actual risk.

Building codes are used to control the built environment within an area.
Economic concerns often dictate that hazardous areas be developed. To offset
the threat and mitigate potential damages, building codes can be formulated to
guide construction so that buildings and other man-made structures are as safe
as possible.

Building codes and land-use zoning are often criticized as being

ineffective in less developed countries, since enforcement is difficult and most
growth is unregulated. Furthermore, codes and zoning are considered “passive”
regulatory instruments: their enforcement often creates an adversary system
between the public and the government. If development occurs in an area
where it is not permitted, governments are usually powerless to reverse the
situation. Enforcement activities may give rise to corrupt inspection officials
who institute a system of bribery to overlook nonconforming uses or structures.

Because of these criticisms, planners have recently proposed an

alternative that appears more workable in many of the developing countries.
These are known as performance standard zoning and build in regulation. In
this approach, flexible standards are developed and adopted. They permit a
variety of uses and construction as long as certain basic, minimal standards of
safety and health are met. The standards usually permit people to use a variety
of approaches to attain the desired standard. Rather than strictly enforcing the
standard, the government makes a commitment to provide technical and
planning assistance to persons in order to enable them to reach the highest
standard possible. This type of approach is called an “active” approach. While
it may be more expensive, a higher degree of compliance can usually be
attained. Furthermore, governments become advocates and advisors rather
than adversaries.

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2.4 STRATEGIC INVESTMENT

Planners are often able to encourage development away from hazardous

areas by investing or creating a favourable environment for investment in less
vulnerable regions or communities. This strategy is often difficult to
implement in regional development. Most hazards are not site – or area-
specific, they can threaten wide areas. For example, earthquake ones often
extend for thousands of miles and relocation of threatened settlements or
enterprises is often not possible. Furthermore, hazards that occur infrequently
are usually not considered in economic development planning.

Strategic investment has proven successful in agricultural sectors. For

example, regional planning authorities in India have been successful in
extending irrigation, land reclamation activities, and regional farm-to-market
roads onto coastal plains that might otherwise have been developed with more
intensive forms of economic activities. By developing the coastal plains with
large, plantation agriculture relying on fewer labourers, the authorities have
substantially mitigated human losses from hurricanes.

2.5 ECONOMIC INCENTIVES

Governments are often able to extend a number of economic incentives

to people and organizations in order to encourage development away from
hazardous areas. Example of incentives includes provision of land, loans,
grants, favourable credit, favourable taxation, technical assistance, or a
combination of these.

In an effort to reduce human and agricultural losses, the government of

Bangladesh recently initiated a programme to provide small plots of irrigated
land to landless peasants, these persons normally worked as sharecroppers on
hazardous flood plains in the lower Brahmaputra delta and on low-lying,
offshore islands threatened by hurricanes and storm surges. Low-cost loans for
initial and development were made available through cooperating private sector
institutions. And relocation grants were provided by the government. Once

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people had arrived in the new areas, technical assistance for farming was
provided by government agricultural extortionists.

2.6 PUBLIC AWARENESS AND EDUCATION FOR HAZARD

MANAGEMENT

Effective hazard management requires an informed public, especially

those at risk. In hazard management this is called public awareness. Public
awareness campaigns disseminate information about the types of hazard, the
effects of a hazard, the measures available to reduce the impact, and the actions
to take when the hazard strikes.

Typical public awareness activities include.

 Film and video programmes that illustrate and describe the hazard and
the risk and describe the hazard and the risk and demonstrate what can
be done to prevent or mitigate losses.
 Radio Programmes.
 School curricula and booklets that include lessons and projects about
hazard mitigation.
 Comic books (perhaps based on the films or video programmes) made
available for general distribution.
 Posters placed around the community to act as a general reminder of the
issues.
 Presentations on the subject made to public groups or private
organizations (e.g., neighborhood councils).
 Brochures and handouts distributed door-to door or at public event,
fairs, etc.
 Features or articles in local media, especially periodicals.

It is crucial to promote disaster awareness in areas where risk and

vulnerability are high and people are indifferent to potential hazards.

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 Public awareness activities can help motivate the public to initiate
precautionary measures. Such activities can influence decision-making at all
levels. However, public awareness will not be successful unless it is continuous
and highly visible.

A public awareness programme for disaster mitigation describes or

demonstrates techniques that can be taken to keep a disaster from happening.
These can include cultivating drought resistant food crops making structural
improvements to buildings to withstand the forces of earthquakes or high winds
and sitting buildings or agricultural land out of flood plains.

Public awareness is also an important disaster preparedness tool.

Preparedness awareness activities are designed to inform the public abound.
What individuals can and should do to protect themselves and their property.
Disaster preparedness activities naturally vary with each type of disaster. In the
case of high winds, people would be encouraged to board up windows, batten
down loose objects, etc. In the case of flooding, evacuation routes would be
identified for the public. If a communicable disease epidemic threatens,
information about its mode of transmission and means of control would be
important.

Timing for a public awareness programme in disaster preparedness

depends on the type of disaster. For predictable and seasonal hazards such as
flooding and high winds, a programme of public awareness should be initiated
immediately before and during the season. For slow-onset disasters (e.g.,
drought), implementation should begin as soon as there are indicators of its
development. For non predictable events (e.g., earthquakes), issues of
preparedness need to be brought continuously to the public’s consciousness.

Economic Mitigation

The purpose of economic mitigation is to reduce that disaster’s impact

on the economy and on the economic well-being of the disaster victims. This is
done by strengthening those sectors of the economy that are particularly

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vulnerable to disasters, by diversifying the economy, by introducing or
expanding “ disaster-resistant” economic activities, and by spreading or
relocating economic activities to less vulnerable areas so that not all the
principal enterprises would be affected at the same time. Insurance or other
economic risk-spreading activities are also possible.

Economic mitigation uses the same general methodology employed to

reduce physical losses. Once hazard mapping has been completed, planners
identify those sectors of the economy that are vulnerable to disasters. This is
done by relating risk to economic activities or means of production. First, the
key elements of the economy and those that are not particularly vulnerable to
disaster are identified. Often this is not difficult, especially for countries that
have one-crop economies or only a few industries that earn foreign currency.
Every economic activity is examined to determine if a hazard could affect a
significant portion of that activity. This analysis is conducted on both the
macro and micro levels. In other words, even though a flood may not have a
significant economic impact on a country as a whole, it may have a major
impact on a community or region.

Economic vulnerability determinations should consider other critical

activities and installations. Energy facilities and systems are of prime concern,
as are transportation networks, fuel distribution facilities, road systems, and
financial institutions. Even though the means of production may not be affected
by a disaster, the disruption of transportation networks can make difficult the
marketing or distribution of goods. Economic diversification and insurance are
the two primary economic mitigation measures. Diversification spreads the risk
so that if a disaster occurs, the total losses in any one area or sector are
acceptable. For many countries diversification can be a difficult choice. Small
nations that are dependent upon one or two crops for their livelihood may find it
politically and economically difficult to justify diversification simply on
grounds of disaster mitigation. In this case, long-term development choices

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come into play. The decision may ultimately rest more on political or
economical factors than on disaster mitigation strategies.

Insurance can play a major role in mitigating disaster losses.

Unfortunately, there are too few programmes currently available for low-
income persons in the developing countries, although new programmes and
alternative insurance schemes are being developed. In some cases governments
and large economic institutions have found alternative ways of providing
insurance to low-income people. For example, cooperatives can often be
insured even though individual farmers who are members of the cooperative
cannot. If a disaster occurs, the insurance pays the cooperative, which in turn
divides the proceeds of the insurance among its members.

The indirect effect of insurance is also important to consider. Disaster

claims paid for large institutions, facilities, installations, or structures infuse
much needed cash into the local economy. This can have a spin-off effect
reflected in increased jobs, increased purchases and orders for local suppliers,
and other economic boosts to the area affected by a disaster. Thus, even if it is
not possible to insure low-income families and their houses, farms or business,
the objective of disaster management should be to insure the maximum number
of larger economic activities.

Adjusting On-Going Development Activities

Adjustment to on-going development programmes is a major way to

address disaster mitigation. Many development projects have the potential to
reduce either physical or economic vulnerability of families and communities.
For example, housing programmes can incorporate, often at little or no
additional cost, a variety of disaster resistant construction and planning
techniques: unfortunately these measures are frequently overlooked because the
development programme planners are not aware of disaster mitigation
opportunities. Thus, an important function of disaster management is to review

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and adjust normal development programmes so that they help mitigate or
prevent future disasters. Areas of particular interest are:

 Housing and urban development programmes (siting and construction).

 Establishment of new settlements.
 Forestry projects.

 Agricultural development projects land reclamation.

 Rangeland management.

Diversification and Expansion of the Social Support Network

The level of disorganization that results from a disaster is an inverse

function of the level of social organization of the community. Societies with an
overlapping complex of social organizations, both formal and informal, can
more easily absorb a disaster and more quickly respond. In third World poor
communities, the network of social organizations is usually minimal: as a
consequence, a disaster can have a far greater impact on the poor community.

Diversification of a community’s social structure is an important

mitigation measure. For the most part this can best be accomplished through
extending normal development work in one three ways. The first is institution
building. Local organizations that serve as a means of coping with disasters or
providing support to disaster victims should be identified and strengthened. A
conscious effort to increase the organizations, capacities and skills can enhance
their abilities to deal with crises.

The second activity is to increase the number of coping mechanisms

within the community. By developing formal institutions and linking these
groups to outside resources, communities can establish vehicles for intervention
and assistance.

The third activity is to broaden the scope of service of local groups and
to encourage activities that promote cooperation among different elements or

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groups within the society. Such cooperation can reduce the social impact of a
disaster.

By increasing self-sufficiency and reliance on internal resources,

agencies improve the ability of local people to cope with a disaster. This can be
a mitigating factor and can help to speed recovery.

2.7 TECHNOLOGIES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster managers should be familiar with certain technologies or sets of

information used in disaster management. Among the more important are
mapping, interpretations of serial photography, communications. Information
management, logistics and computer applications, epidemiology and preventive
medicine.

Mapping

Disaster management relies heavily on the use of maps and mapping

techniques for control of disasters and for managing response. At a minimum,
disaster managers must be familiar with a variety of different types of maps
including topographic maps, land-use maps, hazard maps, geologic maps,
vegetation maps, population distribution maps, seismic maps, and hurricane
tracking maps. Disaster managers must know how to read maps. They must
also know how to plot information accurately on the maps and how to interpret
trends through map reading. 30

The introduction of microcomputers to disaster management will

increase the use of computer-generated maps. Schematic maps generated
through computer graphics are being used to provide updated information about
disaster situations as they develop. For example these maps can be used to
monitor flooding and guide a disaster manager who must decide when to
evacuate certain area. By monitoring the stream flow and water level at an
upstream location, a disaster manager can map the expected flood zone and

30
Trajillo.M, Ordonez A.Hernandez, C., ‘Risk Mapping and Local capacities. Lessons from mexico
and Central America Oxfam, Oxford, 2000.

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predict threatened areas, the extent of the flooding, and areas that should be
evacuated on a priority basis. The manager can likewise determine where to
focus flood control activities.

Computer-generated maps are used in risk analysis, vulnerability

analysis, evacuation planning, flood monitoring, damage assessment, and
reconstruction planning.

2.8 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND REMOTE SENSING

Aerial photography used wisely is a valuable tool for disaster managers.

It can be an expensive tool if misused. Disaster managers must know how to
interpret aerial photography and how to apply it to both pre-disaster planning
and post-disaster response activities. Possible uses of aerial photography
include hazard analysis and mapping, vulnerability analysis and mapping,
disaster assessment, reconstruction planning and management.

Remove sensing is the acquisition of information about a subject that is

at a distance from the information gathering device. Weather radar, weather
satellite, seismographs, sonobuoys, and videotape are examples of remote
sensing systems. Aerial photography is a form of remote sensing, but in
disaster management the term generally refers to the use of satellites with
imaging systems that produce a computer-generated image resembling a
photograph and with other electronic monitoring devices. For example,
meteorological satellites track hurricanes by remote sensing. The “picture” of
the hurricane is a computer – generated image made by the satellite’s sensors

The use of remote sensing in disaster management is increasing. Pre-

disaster uses include risk analysis and mapping, disaster warning, especially
cyclone tracking, drought monitoring, volcanoes, large-scale fires and
agricultural production: and disaster assessment, especially flood monitoring
and assessment, estimation of crop and forestry damages, and monitoring of
land-use changes in the aftermath of a disaster. Meteorological satellites
monitor weather patterns, detect and track storm systems, and monitor frosts
and floods.

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Communications

Electronic communications are an important technology of disaster

management. Electronic communications are used for coordination and control,
assessment, reporting, monitoring and scheduling logistics, and re-unification
and tracing separated families. A disaster manger must be familiar with
communications equipment and their limitations. He or she must understand
the effective use of communications networks both prior to and in the aftermath
of a disaster.

A disaster manager must above all know how to communicate, what to

communicate, and with whom to communicate, using the different technologies
available. Electronic communications too often give disaster mangers the
impression that they can control a situation simply by communicating. The
information that comes in through electronic communications can often
overwhelm and /or misinform a manager. Thus the manager must be
knowledgeable about the systems. But he or she must also know how to
structure the communications systems. Structuring will allow rapid
communication of vital information and accurate assessment of a developing
situation.

Disaster management is highly dependent on accurate information

collection and interpretation. Disaster managers must therefore be familiar with
how to collect, structure, and evaluate information in emergency situations.
This is usually done by establishing an information management system. In
recent years microcomputers have provided disaster managers with a new tool
for structuring information and data and analyzing information patterns and
trends. Micro-computers are now routinely used for programme planning,
project scheduling and monitoring. Management of logistics, damage
assessment, casualty management, communications, and cost accounting
management.

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Logistics

Every disaster manager eventually becomes involved in logistics.

Therefore, he or she must be familiar with basic logistics planning, inventory
management, warehousing and stock control procedures, materials distribution
methods, and accounting procedures. Materials distribution methods and
accounting procedures. Logistics planning can include, for example, evaluating
the capability and capacity to move supplies through the relief system
identifying bottlenecks and developing alternate solutions. Logistic planning in
a country struck by a disaster might include the estimation of the capacity to
receive supplies at air and sea ports and to unload the supplies and reload into
trucks. It might include determining the sufficiency of trucks of the right size
and type, and the availability of parts and fuel for the trucks. Other
considerations might be adequate roads to the site of relief, adequate warehouse
at collection points, and a distribution system with the administrative capability
and the methods to deliver the goods to the final point of utilization.

Epidemiology is the branch of medicine that investigates the causes and

control of epidemics. In relation for disasters epidemiology has come to mean
the evaluation of all the causes of the occurrence or non-occurrence of a disease
(and more broadly of the death and injuries) resulting from a disaster.
Epidemiologic surveillance after disasters and refugee crises includes
identification of diseases to include in the surveillance, the collection,
interpretation and utilization of data: laboratory diagnosis of samples;
development of policies and plans for a public health programme; and
establishment of a programme for the control of communicable disease. The
last two points coincide with programmes. In environmental health
management and preventive medicine.

Additional Technologies of Disaster Management

Many disaster mangers become involved with disasters through their

specialized job skills or through their work in a specific sector of the

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government or economy. For example, an engineer in a department of public
works may need to know the technologies of road repair after flooding or
landslides and of bridge repair after an earthquake. The following are other
examples of skills or technologies for which special training may enhance the
individual’s disaster management capabilities.

Agriculture, production, and food systems and technologies that relate to

disasters identify disaster resistant crops, methods of restoring crops damaged
by disaster, restoration practices for soils damaged by a disaster, and alternative
crops to replace quickly the losses from disasters. The last action will minimize
dependence on outside food and economic aid.

Disaster assessment is the technique of evaluating the damage and the

needs created by a disaster. Useful disaster management assessment identifies
procedures for data collection and information dissemination; it also identifies
priorities for relief assistance.

Refugee camp planning is essentially the discipline of town planning but

with the added requirements of developing a human community environment
under the crisis of emergency conditions. Such planning must take into account
a volatile political reality and an uncertain future for the camp’s residents.
Additional aspects of refugee camp planning include the technologies of
sanitation, security circulation and transportation, water and food supply.

Meteorology is of use to disaster mangers involved with warning,

communication, search and rescue in areas subject to high winds, flooding, and
even drought.

The following are additional specialized technologies that will further

enhance a disaster manager’s skills:

 Personnel administration
 Cost accounting
 Government and non-profit accounting

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  Critical path techniques
 General geology

Such a list could be much longer, but the purpose of this section is to
bring to the attention of the student the existence and the importance of these
technologies. As stated at the outset of this course, a better trained and more
knowledgeable disaster manager can contribute to more effective disaster
services; he or she can ultimately reduce the disruption to society caused by
natural and man-made disasters.

2.9 NATURAL DISASTER ASSISTANCE AND REFUGEE

OPERATIONS

When most people think of disasters, they imagine voluntary agencies or

the Red Cross or Fire Brigade etc. Providing emergency relief materials and aid
to disaster victims. While this image is, in part, correct, it depicts only a portion
of the assistance that is provided and the manner in which it is delivered.

2.9.1 Government’s Role

The ultimate responsibility for coping with natural disasters lies with the
national government of the affected country. Responsibility for disaster
mitigation is usually assigned to a government ministry. For example,
mitigation activities for drought would normally be assigned to an agricultural
ministry, while mitigation and preparedness activities for earthquakes would
typically be assigned to a housing or public works ministry.

Preparedness planning is usually carried out by an inter-ministerial

committee or by a unit of government that specializes in planning and
coordination. The latter may be a specially created preparedness group or it may
be an existing planning group such as a central planning office. During an
emergency the disaster preparedness authorities may assume responsibility for
coordination of emergency activities, or a new emergency committee may be
established. Depending on the type of disaster, however, operational

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responsibilities will again usually be assigned to one or more ministries, usually
those with some degree of operational capacity or with special equipment
required for the emergency period. For example, public works departments,
which have trucks and engineering equipment, are often assigned lead
responsibility during floods, while public health departments are usually
assigned lead responsibility during famines or epidemics. During the post-
emergency phases and especially during reconstruction, operational
responsibility may be shifted to another government ministry or combination of
ministries. If the disaster has been particularly destructive or widespread,
special regional agencies may sometimes be formed with staff seconded from
the normal ministries. These regional agencies tend to remain in existence for
about one to five years. They are then disbanded and the personnel return to
their former jobs.

2.9.2 Foreign Assistance Patterns

Donor governments and international voluntary organizations render

foreign assistance when the disaster relief and recovery requirements exceed the
resources available in the affected country. The assistance patterns vary
according to the phase and the type of disaster. While many development
agencies participate in development activities that might mitigate disasters, few
would see this as their primary role. Likewise, few participate in disaster
preparedness planning.

During the emergency phase, nongovernmental organisations often

become prominent in dispensing emergency relief. This is because of their
flexibility and inherent ability to respond quickly to an emergency. In general,
non-governmental organizations should usually be regarded as specialized
service agencies; that is, they have special skills or interests that are generally
secretor-focused. They usually provide assistance for only limited periods of
time, primarily during the emergency and rehabilitation phase. Since their
funding is dependent on public support and interest in a particular disaster.
Voluntary agencies tend to work in person-to-person type of activities and

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generally prefer to do small-scale, short-term projects rather than long-term
activities that require large capital expenditures. In order to make the most of
scarce resources, governments often prefer to turn over large segments of
humanitarian efforts to these agencies so that government resources can be
channeled into longer term, and more expansive recovery activities. Because
voluntary agencies work directly with the disaster victims, they tend to be
highly visible. Yet the overall responsibilities are fairly limited.

During reconstruction, development agencies may also become involved.

This is because many of the reconstruction activities involve development
work, and many agencies recognize that the reconstruction period offers
opportunities for advancing development goals.

Major foreign governments usually have a greater interest in disaster

mitigation and preparedness that non-governmental agency. Most of the work in
these activities has been stimulated by government donor agencies responsible
for disaster aid. Foreign government usually provides bilateral assistance
directly to the host government and may provide technical assistance for
planning, or financial assistance in implementation.

When a disaster occurs, foreign governments may provide assistance

through several different methods. These include bilateral assistance to the
government for general support or for specific projects and multilateral
assistance through organizations such as the United Nations or various regional
groups. They may also fund voluntary agencies to conduct specific projects.

The pattern of aid established during the emergency will usually carry
over into reconstruction, but emphasis on voluntary agencies is generally
replaced with more bilateral assistance directly to the government and its
ministries. Technical assistance for project administration and planning is also a
popular form of aid.

The United Nations system is another major source of international aid

for disasters. The United Nations Development programme (UNDP), the Food

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and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Center for
Housing and Human Settlements (HABITAT) are the Principal U.N. agencies
actively engaged in disaster-prevention programmes.

Preparedness activities fall under the domain of the United Nations

Disaster Relief Office (UNDER), UNDRO normally works through the UNDP
resident representative in each country to provide planning assistance for
disaster preparedness. This assistance is usually in the form of technical
assistance and studies designed to help the government structure its emergency
response.

During an emergency many different United Nations Agencies may

respond. UNDRO often sends a representative to help coordinate foreign
donations. Acting on a government’s request, UNDRO may stay on for several
weeks to report on emergency needs and respond to those needs by external
donors.

The United Nations specialized agencies may also respond with

emergency assistance. UNICEF often initiates programmes for women and
children, and in droughts the World Food Programme (WEP) provides
emergency rations to augment available food supplies. UNHCR will sometimes
assist the victims of natural disasters if they happen to be refugees or if drought
victims are forced to leave their homeland in search of assistance. Most
emergency assistance is provided as ‘project aid” by the U. N. agency using its
own staff and locally hired personnel. The United Nations agencies have
tremendous logistical capabilities and can undertake emergency projects on a
vast scale.

During the post-emergency phases, the United Nations development

agencies often take a lead role; the FAO is usually very active in agricultural
recovery activities while UNDP and HABITAT become involved in physical
reconstruction of houses and basic infrastructure. Assistance in the later phases,

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however, is usually in the form of cash and technical assistance, not operational
projects.

The Red Cross system (or Red Crescent in Moslem countries) can also
bring many resources to bear in an emergency. The Red Crosse/Red Crescent
Society in each country is usually chartered by the government and given semi-
official status. Each national society in each country is usually chartered by the
government and given semi-official status. Each national society, in turn,
belongs to the international League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(LRCS) to which they can turn for additional foreign assistance should it be
required. The Red Cross/Red Crescent is primarily concerned with emergency
operations. The vast majority of their activities involve preparing for and
responding to an emergency, ideally, the national society will have many
regional and local chapters, all of which have undergone some form of
emergency training. In many cases, these are supported by a system of national
emergency supplies that can be quickly augmented from international stockpiles
maintained by the LRCS or obtained from its member societies through its
international disaster appeals.

Because the primary focus is on emergency humanitarian assistance,

most of the aid provided is “in kind” or materials. The LRCS also provided
technical assistance to national societies in preparedness planning and
emergency response management.

Worldwide, there are more than 1,000 different non-government,

privately funded organizations that might respond to a disaster. These groups,
known as private voluntary organizations (PVOs or VOLAGS) operate at both
an international and local level to obtain funds and supplies for disaster victims.
Most VOLAGS work on a person-to-person basis and focus their efforts on
low-income families and communities. Some VOLAGS deal exclusively with
disasters. These are considered “relief” organizations. Others focus more on
development and work in disasters’ only when one strikes where the agency has
a programme in operation.

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 Among the better known VOLAGS are CARE Caritas, Catholic Relief
Services, Church World Service, OXFAM, the Salvation Army, the various
national organizations to Save the Children and Terre des Hommes, Medicines
sans Frontiers, Christian Aid, Lutheran World Relief, and World Vision.

Many NGOs at the local level provide assistance; and consortia, can
often mobilize substantial resources. Some agencies have their own
programmes administered by a professional staff, supplemented in disasters by
volunteers. Others operate through local counterpart organizations, though in a
few cases they do have their own programmes. Their interests are not restricted
to any one sector. VOLAGS have entered housing, agriculture, small business,
and many other fields, both in normal and in post-disaster times.

2.9.3 Refugee Operations

The patterns of assistance for refugee operations vary greatly from those
of natural disasters. Under international protocol, the responsibility for the
protection of refugees in the country of first asylum is assigned to the host
country, but at their request this responsibility may be transferred to the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) or to another international
organization. Thus, in a refugee operation, the primary emphasis is usually on
protection, assistance, and direct aid provided to the refugees by outside
organizations. This is an important distinction. Rather than helping a local
government to expand its capabilities to deal with a natural emergency, refugee
operations try to ease the burden and responsibility of the host government.
How much of this burden will be taken over by foreign assistance depends on
many factors, especially on how long the refugees remain in the country of first
asylum.

In reality, there is almost no pre-disaster planning for refugee

operations. What little, planning does take place usually occurs in the few
days, or even hours, before the refugees arrive. The host government normally

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assigns a government task force, the military, or in some cases, an operational
agency of the government, to oversee and coordinate relief operations.

Once the refugees begin crossing the border, the United Nations system,
the League of Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies (LRCS) and/or the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), an independent Swiss
organization established to deal with war victims, swing into action. The
United Nations system is usually responsible for protection and coordination of
assistance, while the LRCS or ICRC is responsible for humanitarian aid in the
immediate vicinity of the conflict area or in a zone near the border.
International voluntary agencies are usually available to assist in providing
specialized services to the refugees. In many countries the U.N. agency
becomes the coordinating agency for all international aid.

During the emergency period, voluntary agencies may work in a variety

of roles. The U.N. has often requested VOLAGS with special skills or
capabilities to assist in various field operations including processing and
delivery of humanitarian assistance in refugee camps. UNHCR especially
prefers to use VOLAGS as implementing partners in operational matters.

After the emergency, refugee support operations tend to become long,

drawn out affairs. Many refugees remain in the country of first asylum for a
decade or more. In some cases, host governments choose to allow the refugees
to establish small settlements and farms so that they can help support
themselves, but in many countries the refugees are forced to remain in campus
while long-term, permanent solutions are sought. During the long interim
period, referred to as the “maintenance phase,” disaster managers have often
found themselves working in what would otherwise be considered development
work. Activities have included settlement planning. Housing construction,
water resource development, agricultural extension, and public health and
nutrition work.

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 The primary objective of refugee assistance is to find a permanent or
durable solution to the refugee’s plight. The three solutions are voluntary
repatriation (returning to their homeland), settlement in the country. A key
problem for disaster managers is how to provide assistance and protection to
refugees in such a way that promotes, not hinders, the development of durable
solutions.

2.10 ASSISTANCE MODELS

The term “victim” is non-specific. It encompasses everyone affected and

obscures the reality that each disaster affects a specific group in a population
more than others. Earthquakes affect people living in poor quality, non-
engineered houses. In every type of disaster, specific groups of potential
“primary victims” can be identified. The characteristics of these groups
provide a key to determining the kind of assistance that is appropriate during
each phase of a disaster. These characteristics also give an indication about
how to deliver the assistance.

Disaster assistance deals with two types of aid: relief, which is designed
to reduce suffering and replace losses: and long-term assistance, which might
be called “change-related” aid. The objective of the latter is to encourage
people to change their normal habits or practices in order to reduce their
vulnerability to a disaster or to make sure that a disaster does not recur.

Knowledge of the characteristics of the victims enables us to plan for

both types of assistance. Relief is the easiest. Droughts can again provide an
example. Farmers, especially marginal, subsistence farmers, will be prominent
primary victims. In an emergency they and their families will need food and
alternative sources of income until they can replant and harvest a normal crop.
Therefore, the relief programme must have a feeding component and a long-
term assistance component; the latter, in the form of social services, will help
the families find other means of supporting them until the emergency has
passed and they can replant.

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 Knowing that primary victims will be farmers also helps us to plan
disaster mitigation and reconstruction programmes. Both activities require that
people change some aspect of their normal way of doing things. In the disaster
context, change can be brought about in one of three ways; through public
awareness, in other words providing people with information so that they will
act on their own; through legal measures, i.e., forcing people to change by law;
or through extension and education, i.e., demonstrating and teaching,
alternative methods and encouraging their implementation by means of a
variety of services.

If we know that the target audience will consist of farmers, mitigation

measures will involve changing crops, cropping patterns, or agricultural
practices. This will require demonstrations, technical assistance, and extensive
people-to-people contact. We also know that public awareness and legal
methods will have little impact on changing agricultural patterns; therefore, the
assistance model for mitigation and reconstruction must be based on extension
and education.

2.10.1 Mitigating Measures of Refuges Crisis

Unfortunately, measures for mitigating refugee situations as they being

to occur are poorly developed and documented, and rather unsuccessful. The
few measures that the international community has at its disposal are not well
defined, and governments are often reluctant to exercise the ones that they do
have. In the early1980s, many humanitarian agencies began to talk of “early
warning activities” and the development of political and humanitarian
intervention that could possibly prevent or mitigate crises from escalating into
a massive refugee situation. These discussions have thus far proven unfruitful,
except to further emphasize the links between certain natural disasters and the
political consequences that often follow-along with conflicts that lead to
refugee migrations.

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 For refugee mitigation measures to be successful, a system of early
warning must be in place to alert governments and humanitarian agencies of an
impending crisis. The early warning would be based on indicators that a
political situation could lead to armed conflict resulting in displaced persons
and possibly in refugees seeking asylum in another country. Research has
shown that a number of indicators can point to an impending crisis.
Unfortunately, there is tremendous debate as to which interventions are then
possible. The four most commonly discussed outside interventions are Political
intervention by outside governments or intergovernmental organizations such
as the United Nation; Political interventions can range from military
intervention to political or economic sanctions being taken against the country.
Interventions are most often limited to expressions of concern by friendly
nations.

Public opinion and moral persuasion: Widespread Public outcries

against humanitarian abuses are considered to be the most effective tool for
mitigating these abuses, although totalitarian governments have shown a
remarkable ability to ignore world-wide opinion in many cases. However, a
major public outcry against a particularly situation may influence outside
governments to take political or economic sanctions that could lead to
resolution or mitigation of the situation.

2.10.2 Linking aid to human rights policies

One measure sometimes used by Western democracies is that of making

economic or development assistance dependent upon the observance of human
rights standards. In USA, this policy, first introduced by the Carter
administration in the late 1970s, had mixed results. Most observers attribute
this to an unequal application of the policy due to geopolitical considerations.
It is likely, however, that his approach will continue to be advocated as an
alternative to direct political intervention.

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2.10.3 Internal Interventions

Thus, far, most mitigation measures that have been discussed are those
actions taken by governments or intergovernmental organizations outside the
country where the situation is developing. There is often little that disaster
mangers can do inside the country. The measures are generally limited to moral
persuasion and trying to influence public opinion. These are examples of non-
governmental organisations within a country helping to reduce tensions and
alleviating some of the problems. For example, religious organizations can
often be effective mediators between parties in conflict. Relief organizations
can frequently serve as a bridge between those seeking reconciliation.
International organizations can often help reduce human rights abuses by
placing large number of staff members in an area where abuses are occurring.
These individuals serve as de3 facto observers and, by their presence, reduce
human rights abuses. Nongovernmental organizations can often work in a
p[partnership with the press to create a climate of accommodation and/or to
help stem a growing crisis.

2.10.4 Phases of Refugee Relief Operations

The phases of refugee relief operations parallel in many ways the

operations in natural disasters, but there are some significant differences.

Emergency: Preparedness is the set of activities taken by organizations to plan

and prepare for reacting to a new refugee emergency. These preparations can
and should meet any contingency, but they may also focus on a known
situation that is predicted to develop into an emergency. Preparedness
activities usually include organizing, developing contingency plans, stockpiling
emergency supplies, developing procedures, and training staff.

Monitoring and Early Warning: It is the process of keeping watch on current

events in order to predict when political, economic or social events may
deteriorate to point where information to diplomats may allow mediation
before a crisis develops. Diplomats can also provide relief agencies with

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timely data that will facilitate the development of contingency plans specific to
the area of concern.

Forward Planning: It is advanced planning carried out when an emergency is

imminent, e.g., refugees are known to be displaced and moving toward a
border. Some of the usual activities include preparations for protecting the
refugees and granting them refugee status, as well as alerting agencies that will
provide assistance.

Emergency Response: It encompasses the activities that occur immediately

after the refugees arrive in the care of humanitarian agencies. Typically,
emergency activities include protection and legal assistance; provision of
health services-food, shelter, water, sanitation, and many other basic necessities
for survival; and a variety of social services to people with special needs such
as unaccompanied minors and widows with small children.

Maintenance refers to the services that are provided to refugees during

the period after the emergency but before a permanent solution to their plight is
developed. Maintenance operations may include tracing and family re-
unification, general care and food distribution, a variety of social services such
as education and cultural activities, and efforts to help the people to become as
self sufficient as possible under the circumstances.

Durable (Permanent) Solution: It is the term used to describe collectively the

three longer solutions that resolve a refugee situation-voluntary repatriation,
assimilation, and resettlement to a third country. In this phase, any number of
activities can take place including transportation of the refugees, legal
assistance, and provision of financial and material aid to the refugees to help
them start their new lives. If the solution is repatriation or assimilation, the
patterns of assistance often resemble reconstruction and development
assistance given to the victims of natural disasters.

Evaluation occurs as a refugee operation ends or as a new phase begins.

Evaluation should be carried out by every manager and key members of the

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staff. The results and lessons learned should become the basis for further
emergency preparedness activities.

Preparedness Tools: The most important preparedness tool is the disaster plan
and its various components. Every organization that responds to a disaster
should develop a plan that

 Organizes the response.

 Establishes an organizational structure for each phase of the disaster.
 Establishes objectives, priorities, and goals for the organization.
 Assesses resources.

The development of the disaster plan permits disaster preparedness

training, which is an equally important tool in preparedness.

2.11 TOOLS OF POST-DISASTER MANAGEMENT

A disaster manager uses a variety of tools to plan and manage disaster

response. Most important of these are plans and procedures, policies, code and
standards, and standardized programmes or programme structures. The next
four sections examine in detail these important tools.

2.11.1 Plans and Procedures

Plans and procedures are the most important tools of disaster

management because they structure and guide emergency action. Plans are
based on the premise that it is better to make your decisions long before a
disaster strikes than in the aftermath of a disaster, when information is
inaccurate and the situation is confusing and often unknown.

The primary types of plans and procedures are:

 Disaster Plans: These include preparedness plans, such as warning and

evacuation plans, disaster and needs assessment plans; search-and rescue
plans. Disaster plan are prepared on the basis of known risks, estimated
impact areas, and predicted needs.

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  Contingency Plans: Contingency plans are actions planned in
anticipation that something unexpected might occur. For example, a
government may determine that it can handle a disaster of a certain
magnitude; it would then develop its plans accordingly. However, on the
chance a larger magnitude disaster would outstrip its capacity to meet all
the needs, a contingency plan for outside assistance might be developed.
 Forward Planning: This planning term concerns the development of
specific plans to meet an immediate emergency., forward planning is
usually based on an early warning of an impending threat (for example, a
warning from a meteorological department that a cyclone is likely to
strike a certain community, or information that large numbers of
refugees might soon seek asylum in another country). Forward planning
usually involves the pre-positioning of emergency supplies and the
preparation of emergency response services and resources for action
 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS): SOPs are developed within an
organization to provide standard responses to anticipated situations. The
objective of a standard procedure is to help make the response routine
and to eliminate the need for a lengthy decision-making process. If
certain criteria are met, the response is triggered automatically. SOPs for
specific disaster types in certain regions can often be compiled and
presented in an emergency action manual. These manuals establish the
tasks that must be carried out during each phase of an emergency and
describe the procedure for accomplishing each in the proper sequence.
They also structure the response so that everyone in the organization
knows what is expected and at what point each event should happen.
They also structure the response so that each succeeding activity builds
upon previous actions.

2.12 POLICIES

In providing assistance to disaster victims, organizations often propose

many differing approaches and programmes. Different approaches often result

142
in inequitable unequal provision of materials and services. This can cause
problems for the host government and for organizations with long-term
commitments to the disaster-affected area.

Uniform disaster policies are one way to avoid these problems. Such
policies provide a mechanism for shaping disaster mitigation and vulnerability
reduction efforts as well as emergency response and reconstruction. They also
provide a basis upon which programmes can be coordinated, and in some cases,
integrated. Relief and reconstruction policies should ideally beset as part of the
disaster preparedness process. However, if they do not exist at the time of a
disaster, they should be established during the initial stages of emergency
response.

Normally, the host government is responsible for the development and

implementation of policies, but all major organizations, especially those that
will be providing substantial relief aid, should participate in the process.
Policies should be straightforward and concise. Simplified, brief policies
increase the chances of voluntary compliance. Policies must be flexible,
permitting relief agencies to adapt their programmes to the specific
requirements of the communities in which they are working. The objective of
policies is to guide action, not to dictate the precise nature and approach of all
agencies. It is also important to incorporate consistent development philosophy
and goals into disaster policies.

2.12.1 Codes and Standards

Codes and standards are a primary disaster management tool used to

mitigate losses and control reconstruction activities in certain sectors. In the
housing sector, building codes or performance standards are used to set the
minimum acceptable safety levels for houses and buildings. Specific codes and
performance standards are also developed for hospitals, lifelines (water,
sanitation, electrical and transportation systems), and critical facilities
(government installations, communications installations, etc.)

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 Programme standards are used to establish the minimum levels of
assistance and support that should be provided to disaster victims. In famine
and refugee relief programmes, feeding standards are set according to
nutritional requirements. For example, 1800 calories per person per day is
considered the minimum average standard for food supplied to refugees or
famine victims as part of a daily ration. Other standards may be applied to
water supply, material assistance and services offered by relief agencies.

Standards are normally set by disaster managers in each relief agency,

but there is a growing trend internationally to develop common, uniform
standards for many of the social and humanitarian services offered universally.

2.12.2 Standardized Programme Structures

A relief agency will commonly develop a standard approach for

responding to a recurring need in a specific type of disaster. Agencies trying a
particular approach in one disaster will often develop a programme model that
can be used in similar disasters in the same region. Some successful examples
of standardized programmes are:

Supplementary feeding programmes

 Shelter-to-housing programmes
 Housing education programmes
 Materials distribution programmes
 Food-for-work programmes.

Some agencies feel that a standard programme will not meet all the
needs of victims in different situations; yet they recognize the need for
standardizing the management of the disaster response. These agencies often
develop standardized programme structures, which establish the key positions
in an emergency programme, develop an organization chart, and provide the
preliminary resources necessary to initiate programmes. Sufficient authority is

144
delegated to the programme staff to enable them to design and implement a
programme tailored to the particular needs of the affected community.
Standardized programme structures are workable only if the personnel are
experienced and trained disaster mangers.

2.12.3 Public Awareness

Post-disaster programmes can have an enormous impact on a

community. It is essential that they are planned to be effective and appropriate
for the community, that they meet only the needs the community cannot meet
for itself, and that the programme contribute to the development of the
community. This frequently means that programmes objectives should include
the participation of the victims in the programme planning and design. The
programme should b have an educational component that will upgrade the level
of knowledge in in the community, to prevent or reduce a future disaster. The
programme should also be tied to a long-range integrated development scheme.

2.12.4 Emergency Response

The primary purposes of public awareness activities during an

emergency are to:-

Alert the public:

Instruct the public about the nature of the danger (repeating information
from the preparedness stage)

Describe actions the public can take to protect their property and
personal health, and warn people about what not to do.

Explain what to do for food, shelter, medicine, or how to obtain

assistance in locating missing persons.

The duration of the emergency period and its time of occurrence are
functions of the type of disasters. The emergency period for an earthquake is

145
usually the first week after the event. The period for high wind storms begins
48 hours before the storm strikes and lasts for approximately a week to 10 days
afterward, depending on flooding. Slow-onset disasters such as droughts have
an emergency period that continues until lives are no longer in danger. The
timeframe for the emergency

Period is typically very compressed, and public awareness messages are

usually coordinated with the civil defence or national emergency organization.
The most common media are the radio, newspapers, special printed bulletins,
and posters.

Emergency public awareness programmes emphasise getting people to

react. To do this, a well-planned and thoroughly developed system of getting
timely messages out needs to be in place before the emergency occurs.

2.13 AWARENESS ACTIVITIES FOR RECOVERY AND

RECONSTRUCTION

The general objective of public awareness during this period is to inform

the victims how they, individually or collectively, can begin the process of
recovery. Planning for these information activities should begin as soon as
possible after the disaster.

The information needed includes advice about reconstruction of

housing, sources of employment, or recovery in the agricultural sector.
Recovery and reconstruction can and should begin immediately after the
emergency has passed. Unfortunately this period is commonly characterized as
one of false starts, mistakes, and waste. Accurate and timely information can
help reduce delays.

The public awareness programme needs to have a similarly long

perspective, and reconstruction information needs to be kept in the forefront of
the public’s attention. It is also important to remember that reconstruction and
recovery programmes should encourage mitigation of future disasters.

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2.14 CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY OF COASTAL
MEGA CITIES

Human species are the only species on the earth that have created in
extensive ecological changes ion all spheres of the earth31 However, in no other
place have the ecological changes been so strong as in the urban areas
(Wyman, 1991) in fact, urban areas are the most intensively transformed areas
in the world after mines and rice fields. Urbanization refers to the following
three principle process.

1. Shift of human population into the Cities.

2. Growth of cities and towns(many of which have gradually grown in size
and population and have become Mega Cities)
3. Socio-economic changes that accompanies this growth

As expanding population prods the way for variegated forms and the
nature of economic activates and urban processes like industrialization,
vehicular emission and concretization invariably encroaches upon the city
environment and thereby causes an alteration beyond acceptable limits. Cities
(covering just 2 percent of the Earth’s surface) account for roughly 78 percent
of the carbon emissions, from motor vehicles, industrial activity, electricity use,
and municipal waste (IPCC, 1990)32. The urban way of life creates an artificial
regime of Green House Gases (GHGs) that interferes with the natural system of
the earth (IPCC, 2001). 33 Such interference is changing the world’s climate
(temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed etc.) and many other of the
world’s systems such as existing sea levels and indeed all life on earth. All
such changes are intrinsically linked to Global Climate Change, which has been
recognized as a global problem.

31
Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami, Senior Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi.
32
IPCC(1990),working Group II Report, WMO, and UNEP
33
IPCC(2001),Climate Change 2001:Impacts.Adapation and Vulnerability. Summary for
Policymakers and Technical Summary of the Working Group II Report of IPCC, Third
Assessment,2001

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 Mega cities present a special case of climate-induced risks. This is
because there exists an interaction between the processes of urbanization and
that of climate change. Urban activities like energy use in the vehicular and
industrial sectors that are integral to the process of metropolisation emit GHGs
that have heat-trapping properties that result in enhanced greenhouse effects or
global warming it is important to note that such anthropogenic greenhouse
effect and the resultant climatic change will be superimposed on a background
of natural climatic variations which together create enhanced radiated forces or
excessive heating of the atmosphere (Attri,2003).34 This is perhaps why the
average surface air temperature of Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. New York and
Manila is 15 C, which is about 3 C higher than it would otherwise be (WMD,
1990) 35 . Also, rapid land-use changes leading to the concretization in urban
areas, involve several processes that are central to the estimation of climate
change and its associated threats (IPCC, 1999). 36 First, land-use change to
urban usage influences GHG emissions, which directly alters the radiated
forcing properties. Secondly, such changes modify land surface characteristics
and indirectly, climatic processes. Thirdly, land-cover modification and
conversion alters the properties of the eco-systems and their vulnerability to
climate change. Population pressure is another inherent problem of mega cities
that prods the way for enhanced economic activities on one hand while
producing negative externalities life air pollution, on the other, and both these
processes lead to the emission of GHGs and hence the climate change. One thus
finds a sea change in the behavior of climatologically elements when compared
with the rural areas.

If the 20th century was the century of the urban sprawl. The 21st will be
the century of the Mega City. Mega cities are engines of economic growth and
centers of innovation for the global economy and the hinterlands of their

34
At trim S.D. (2003),”Status of Climate Change in India”, in Dash, S.K. and Rao Prakash (2003),
Climate Change in India and Mitigation Policies. WWF, New Delhi.
35
WMD (1990), World Meteorological Report, World Meteorological Organisation.
36
IPCC (1999), The Regional Impacts of Climate Change. An Assessment of Vulnerability. A
special.

148
 37
respective nations (Schiller, 1996). The foundations of prosperity and
prominence for most Mega Cities lie in their long-slandering commercial
relationships with the rest of the world. They concentrate most of the national
industrial activity, population, and generate large parts of the national GDP. For
example. Mexico City concentrates 22 percent of the total population in
Mexico, 30 percent of the commercial employment, and 40 percent of the
industrial activity. Sao Paulo generates 47 per cent of the industrial GDP in
Brazil, 36 per cent of the national GDP, and it concentrates 14 percent of the
national population. Lima concentrates 55 percent of the national population in
Peru, and it generates 43 percent of the national GDP, and 50 percent of the
industrial GDP. Despite the importance of mega-cities, little has been done to
understand their challenges for sustainability and the interactions with the
global environmental changes (IHDP, 2002).38

Change in the climate of the earth is an all-pervading phenomenon,

which does not recognize any geographical boundary whether international,
natural, regional or local (Amagoalik, 1989).39 However, it has been found that
megacities are experiencing far more changes in the climate than their rural
counterparts and smaller cities due to the intense urban activities contributing to
uncontrolled emissions of GHGs heating up the earth’s atmosphere (Deelstra,
1995).40

The short wave energy received from the sun is absorbed by the
atmosphere, the oceans, ice.

37
Schiller Andrew, Alex de Sherbinin. Wen-Hua Hsieh and Alex Pulsipher (1996).”The
Vulnerability of Global Cities to Climate Hazards” in Megacities. National Science Foundation.
USA.
38
IHDP,2002, Urbanization and Global Environmental Change. Report on Scoping Meeting, Bonn.
39
Amogoalik.J (1989), Address to Climate Change Institute Symposium on the Arctic and global
Change, Ottawa.
40
Deelstra.T (1995), “Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Cities” in Doeke, Eisma (Ed). Climate
Change Impact on Coastal Habitation. Levwis Publishers. London.

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2.15 UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE CHANGE

Land and living organisms, whereas the long wave radiation emitted by
the warm surface of the earth gets partially absorbed by trace gases in the
atmosphere called greenhouse gases (GHGs). The main natural greenhouse
gases are water vapor (H20), carbon dioxide (Co2) and methane (CH4). There
is usually a balance between the energy absorbed form solar radiation and the
deflected radiation from the earth and atmosphere. Increased levels of these
GHGs in the atmosphere are responsible for the increase in the global
temperature (Bindoff, 1995)41 since 1975, the average world temperature has
increased by approximately 0.5 C and climate change could be due to the
accumulation of GHGs in the lower atmosphere. This climate change
encompasses temperature changes on global, regional and local scales, and also
changes in the rainfall, winds, and possibly ocean currents (Karl, 1995).42 This
change in the climate is a gradual process but for the last two decades the
manifestations of this change have become by and large apparent to human
beings. For instance, in India the distinction between the seasons has blurred
(IMD), 1990).43 The monsoon season has disappeared in Delhi. Climate change
is irreversible though no one knows how the climate will respond in the future.
However, it is certain that increases in the concentration of GHGs could lead to
a sharp rise in global temperatures.

2.15.1 Determinates of Climate Change

The earth has a climatic system with its multiple components that
interact with each other and therefore creates an ideal climate for the sustenance
of all life forms. This climate has its natural heating mechanism, which is
maintained by the earth’s heat budget and natural greenhouse glasslike water
vapor (also produces greenhouse effects in the atmosphere). However, it is the

41
Bindoff. N.L and J.A.Church (1992). “Warming of Water Column in the Southwest Pacific” in
Nature, 357,59-62.
42
Karl.T.R , R.W.Knight and N.Plummer (1995). “Trends in High Frequency Climate Variability in
the Twentieth Century” in Nature, 377,217-220.
43
IMD (Indian Meteorological Department) (1990), Climatologically table 1951-1980.IMD, Pune.

150
indiscriminate emission of greenhouse gases by modern urban activities that
produces unwarranted heating of the atmosphere over and above the natural
heating hereby disturbing the thermo-dynamics of the earth (Holdgate, 1992). 44
Therefore, it becomes pertinent to consider both natural as well as human
induced determinants of climate change

Carefully considering all the determinants of climate change, it could be

said that natural variations like the sun and the global energy balance, natural
greenhouse effect, radiated forcing etc, play a very insignificant role in causing
alterations in the climate like unprecedented warming, change in patterns of
precipitation etc (IPCC, 1996),45 In fact, it is the anthropogenic determinants
that come to the fore, forcing such unprecedented changes in the climate. The
most important human-induced variants of the climate are caused by an
enhanced greenhouse effect, which results from the intense urban activities
Land-use change also results in the alteration of the physical and biological
properties of the land surface and thus affects the climate system as well.

2.15.2 Impacts of Climate Change

According to the IPCC report, the main threats to the cities in response
to the actual climate changes are the following:

 A rise in sea level: this is the most fundamental challenge that urban
settlements face from global warming. The threat will likely increase
due to the ongoing Influx of people and economic assets into coastal
zones. At risk are entire sections of coastal cities and their
infrastructure, beaches subject to erosion, river floors in estuarine zones
are subject to sedimentation and wetlands and tidal flats subject to
flooding. Furthermore, groundwater risks increased Stalinization, and

44
Holdgate,M.W.(1992), Climate change – Meeting the Challenge, Commonwealth Secretariat,
London.
45
IPCC (1996), the science of climate change; Contribution of working Group I to the Second
Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

151
 coastal aquifers risk diminishing, affecting fresh water supplies and peri-
urban agriculture.

2.15.3 Tropical Cyclones

Increasingly frequent and intense tropical and extra-tropical cyclones

will likely cause severe wind damage and storm surges which, compounded
with a rise in the sea level, are expected to become a severe problem for low-
lying coastal regions and cities, Ports and other coastal infrastructure are
especially at risk.

 Flooding and landslides: expected increases in the scale, internist and

frequency of rainfall in most developing countries will severely strain or
overwhelm the storm drainages systems of many urban centers. This
could lead to periodic flooding of low lying areas as well as landslides
and mud-slips on geologically unstable slopes, often subject to informal
settlements. Cities built next to rivers and on reclaimed lands in
riverbed planes will be prone to additional inundations.
 Water quality and shortage: urban flooding damages water treatment
works and floods wells, pit latrines and septic tanks. Sewage treatment
systems and solid waste disposal areas can also be affected,
contaminating water supplies.

Where overall rainfall decreases, droughts will likely to compromise the

replenishment of the water tables, the normal sources of water supply, surface
runoffs are expected to decrease drastically in many arid and semi-arid regions
of the tropics and sub-tropics. This trend has already begun in some areas from
1997-2001, the worst drought for a century afflicted Central Asia – forcing up
to a million people in Afghanistan alone to leave their homes in search of food.
Reports emerged of families selling their daughters into marriage at the age of
eight or nine to raise money to survive. In west and central Africa, 20 million
people in six countries rely on Lake Chad for water. The lake has shrunk by
95% in the last 38 years under global warning, the flows of some of Asia’s key

152
rivers – including the Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Brahmaputra are projected
to fall by up to one quarter. This trend, combined with the growing
concentration of Asia’s population in urban areas and higher per capita water
demands, could prove catastrophic. India’s capital, Delhi – whose population
has soared from 0.4 million in 1911 to over 14 million in 2001 – may exhaust
its freshwater reserves within 15 years Meanwhile, China’s population is
expected to grow from 1.2 billion today to 1.5 billion by 2030, while its
demand for water goes up by 66% over the same period. Already two-thirds of
China’s cities are facing severe water shortages. (The end of dev. NEF).

 Heat and cold waves: intense episodes of thermal variability could

severely strain urban systems by adding an environmental health risk for
more vulnerable segments of the population. Imposing an extraordinary
consumption of energy for heating and air-conditioning where available,
and disrupting ordinary urban activities.
In addition to these major threats, the IPCC report indicates additional
risks related to:
 Increased possibility of urban fires and severe hail and windstorms:
 Negative impacts on the productivity of fisheries and agriculture on
which some urban economics partially depend :
 Worsening urban air pollution exacerbated by increased ground ozone
formation:
 Enhanced effects of urban heat islands due to higher overall
temperatures. The heat island effect of large cities amplifies the impact
of global climate change. In the US this urban heat-island effect was
estimated as an average of just over 1.1deg. C for a sample of 30 Us
cities and about 2.9 deg. C for New York City. In Moscow, USSR, the
heat-island effect is projected to add about 3edg – 3-5 degree C to
average annual temperatures.

The indirect impacts of such climatic threats are, of course, much wider.
They include environmental health problems due to the expected changes in

153
geographic ranges and the incidence of vector-borne and infectious diseases.
Allergic and respiratory disorders, nutritional disorders due to climate-related
food shortages, and the physical damage to and institutional strains imposed
upon the health care system. Where impacts are felt, urban economic activities
will timely be affected by physical damage to infrastructure. Services and
businesses. There will also be repercussions on overall productivity, (trade,
tourism and the provision of public services, (Bigio, 2001) 46

Though these threats exist, more or less, in all of the mega cities, few of
them pose a special challenge because of their hazardous location. These
include coastal areas or river deltas, where storms and floods are common.
Cities such as maila, Mumbai, Caracas, and Havana are following a worldwide
trend. There are many hazardous locations that differ from one city to another.

Mega Cities at Risk

City/conurbation Population 2000 Hazards to which exposed

(Million)
Tokyo 26 Earthquake, flood
Mexico City 18 Earthquake, flood landslide
Los Angeles 13 Earthquake, flood, wild fire
Lagos 13 Flood
Sao Paulo 18 Landslide, flood
Mumbai/Bombay 18 Flood, cyclone, earthquake
Shanghai 13 Flood, cyclone, earthquake
Calcutta 13 Cyclone, flood
Jakarta 11 Earthquake, volcano
Beijing 11 Earthquake, server winter
Manila 11 Flood, cyclone
Johannesburg- 8 Flood, tornado
Gauteng

46
Bigio, Anthony G. (2001), Cities and Climate Change, Routledge, London

154
2.16 COASTAL VULNERABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Global climatic change is expected to affect coastal communities around

the world, many of which are already considered vulnerable to ongoing climate
variability (IPCC, 2001).47 This vulnerability arises out of a simple mechanism
i.e., climate change will warm the earth to such a point that the polar ice-sheets
will begin to melt and this ice free water will increase the water level of the
seas leading to drowning of coastal settlements. Vulnerability is a function both
of the exposure to changes in climate and on the ability to adapt to the impacts
associated with that exposure (Dolan, 2004) 48 it is important to note that
vulnerability should be assessed both of a location as well as a community.
IPCC has defined vulnerability of coastal areas by their degree of incapability
to cope with the impacts of climate change and accelerated sea-level rise. This
assessment also includes the susceptibility of the coastal zone to physical
changes, the anticipated impacts on socio-economic and ecological systems and
available adaptation options. Exposure of coastal environments can be
characterized by susceptibility (or sensitivity), resilience and resistance.
Natural susceptibility is viewed as largely independent of human influence but
resilience and resistance are often affected by human activities, positively or
negatively.

2.17 COASTAL MEGA CITIES

Coastal cities are the convergence point for two intensely complex
ecosystems. The natural ecosystem of the coastal zone, and the “constructed
ecosystem” of concentrated human settlement. (Timmerman, 1998). 49

A vast majority of the global populations concentrated along this

interface: it is estimated that about 55% of the world’s population lives in

47
IPCC (2001), Climate Change 2001:Impacts.Adapation and Vulnerability. Summary for
Policymakers and Technical Summary of the Working Group II Report of IPCC, Third
Assessment,2001
48
Dolan.A.H. and I.J. Walker (2004), “Understanding Vulnerability of Coastal Communities to
Climate Change Related Risks” in Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue,39, 2004
49
Timmerman, Peter (1998), Coastal Cities: A New Agenda, Institute for Environmental Studies,
University of Toronto.

155
coastal areas. The belts extending 60km from the coastline have become the
most attractive part of the world and the rise of the coastal mega cities has
become one of the most important processes. Out of the tern largest mega cities
eight are located by the coast (UNEP – WCMC Coastal mega cities and climate
change) thus, Coastal cities will inevitably be a focus of concern in the 21st
century.

Climate change is not by any means the most serious immediate threat to
the ecosystems and the quality of life in the world’s coastal cities, but it a stress
that will exacerbate a range of other problems (Sharma, 2000)50. Studies in
areas such as Uruguay have revealed that the most serious potential impact
from climate change is through sea level rise (Nicholls, 1995)51 According to
IPCC, coastal mega cities are particularly at risk to sea level rise, which may
reach as much as 95cms. By 2100.

At cities have grown dramatically over the past 50years, a trend that is
projected to continue into the near future (Schiller, 1996). 52 Such growth,
stimulated by the world’s expanding economy, stresses fragile but important
ecosystems. Government oversight of coastal zones is disjointed even in
developed countries, and is often influenced by competing industrial concerns
including shipping, fishing, and petroleum extraction. Integrated coastal

Management programmes are being advocated by experts as a way to

bring together wide-ranging interest for the benefit of coastal environments
(IPCC, 2001). 53 Although many such programs are working, their success
hinges on adequate funding and cooperation among stakeholders. In 1950, New
York City was the planet’s only “mega city” defined as a city with more than 10

50
Sharma. V.K. (2000). “Problems of Marine Ecosystems and Sustainability of Coastal Cities: A
cocus on Mumbai, India” in Indian Journal of Environmental Health Volume 42, No.2, 82-91.
51
Nicholls. Robert (1995), “Coastal Mega Cities and Climate Change”: in Geo .Journal, Vol
37,no.3,369-379.
52
7. Schiller Andrew, Alex de Sherbinin. Wen-Hua Hsieh and Alex Pulsipher (1996).”The
Vulnerability of Global Cities to Climate Hazards” in Megacities. National Science Foundation.
USA.
53
IPCC (2001),Climate Change 2001:Impacts. Adapation and Vulnerability. Summary for
Policymakers and Technical Summary of the Working Group II Report of IPCC,

156
million people. New there are 17 mega cities around the globe, and 14 are
located in coastal areas.

The magnitude of impacts will vary from place-to-place and will depend
on a variety of factors, including the magnitude of relative sea-level rise and
other aspects of climate change, coastal morphology and human modifications
(IPCC, 2001).54

India has been identified as one amongst 27 countries which are most
vulnerable to the impacts of globs warning related accelerated sea level rise
(UNEP, 1989) 55 According to the country’s report to the United National
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), if sea levels were to
rise by one meter, about 7.1 million people in India could be displaced, and
more than 5,000 square kilometers of land and 4,000 kilometers of roads could
be lost. In a study undertaken by (TERI (1996),56 Mumbai was found to be the
most vulnerable city to a 1-m se-level rise.

Global climate change is thus a serious problem and it needs urgent

attention of the world community. It needs to be understood that all action of
society are not vulnerable to the impacts created by climate change and sea
level rise. Instead it is the marginalized poor sections of the society that form
the vulnerable group likely to be devastated by a possible sea level rise.
Similarly, all areas need not be treated equally. Among these mega cities need
more attention than rural areas and smaller cities. Likewise, coastal mega cities
pose the greatest threat due to the huge numbers as well as the macro operating
factors that are affecting the regional as well as the global climate. There needs
to be a concerted effort to forge a strong global partnership to deal with climate
change and sea level rise. However, any strategy to deal with the same must
consider the vulnerability aspect of both the locations as well as the
communities.

54
IPCC (2001), Climate Change 2001:Impacts.Adapation and Vulnerability. Summary for
Policymakers and Technical Summary of the Working Group II Report of IPCC, Third
Assessment, 2001.
55
UNEP (1989). UNEP report of the Environmental Effects of Ozone depletion. Ch.3-1-18 (1989).
56
TERI (1996).The Economic Impact of One meter Sea Level Rise on Indian Coastline. Method and
Case Studies, report Submitted to Ford Foundation.

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2.18 RESPONSES AND RECOVERY

Disaster response is the sum total of actions taken by people and

institutions in the face of disaster. These actions commence with the event
itself if it occurs without warning. The focus in the response and recovery
phases of the disaster management Cycle is on meeting the basic needs of the
people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found.

Developmental considerations contribute to all aspects of the disaster

management cycle. One of the main goals of disaster management, and one of
its strongest links with development, is the promotion of sustainable
livelihoods and their protection and recovery during disasters and emergencies.
Where this goal is achieved, people have a greater capacity to deal with
disasters and their recovery is more rapid and long lasting. In a development
oriented disaster management approach, the objectives are to reduce hazards,
prevent disasters, and prepare for emergencies.

2.19 DISASTER RESPONSE

The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to

maintain life, improve health, and to support the morale of the affected
population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but limited aid,
such as assisting refugees with transportation, temporary shelter, and food, to
establishing semi-permanent settlement in camps and other locations. It also
may involve initial repairs to damaged infrastructure. The focus in the
response phase is on meeting the basic needs of the people until more
permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations
are often strongly present in this phase of the disaster management cycle.

During a disaster, humanitarian agencies are often called upon to deal

with immediate response and recovery. To be able to respond effectively, these
agencies must have experienced leaders, trained personnel, adequate
transportation and logistic support, appropriate communications, and guidelines
for working in emergencies. If the necessary preparations have not been made,

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the humanitarian agencies will not be able to meet the immediate needs of the
people.

This section identifies the principal activities of disaster response. Each

activity is (formally or informally) governed by a set of policies and
procedures, typically under the auspices of a lead agency. In the end, disaster
response activities are implemented by multiple government organization,
international and national agencies, local entities and individuals, each with
their roles and responsibilities.

2.19.1 Aims of disaster response

The overall aims of disaster response are:

 To ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of victims,

keeping them in the best possible health in the circumstances.
 To re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as
possible for all population groups, with special attention to those whose
needs are greatest: the most vulnerable and under privileged.
 To repair or replace damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable
economic activities. To do this in a manner that contributes to long-term
development goals and reduces vulnerability to any future recurrence of
potentially damaging hazards.
 In situations of civil or international conflict, the aim is to protect and
assist the civilian population, in close collaboration with the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and in compliance
with international conventions.
 In cases involving population displacements (due to any type of disaster)
the aim is to find durable solutions as quickly as possible, while
ensuring protection and assistance as necessary in the meantime.

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2.19.2 Disaster Response Activities

The following are typical activities of emergency response:

(i). Warning

Warning refers to information concerning the nature of the danger and

imminent disaster the reats. Warnings must be rapidly disseminated to
government officials, institutions and the population at large in the areas. at
immediate risk so that appropriate actions maybe take, namely, either to
evacuate or secure property and prevent further damage. The warning could be
disseminated via radio, television, the written press, telephone system and cell
phone.

(ii). Evacuation and migration

Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones at risk of

an imminent disaster to a safer location. The primary concern is the protection
of life of the community and immediate treatment of those who may be injured.

Evacuation is most commonly associated with tropical storms but is also

a frequent requirement we technological or industrial hazards. For evacuation
to work there must be:

 A Timely and Accurate Warning System

 Clear identification of escape routes.
 An established policy that requires everyone evacuate when on order is
given
 A public education programme to make the community aware of the
plan.

In the case of a slow onset of a disaster, for example severe drought, the
movement of people from the zone where they are at risk to a safer site is not,
in fact, evacuation, but crisis-induced migration. This movement is usually not

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organized and coordinated by authorities but is a spontaneous response to the
perception by the migrants that food and/or security can be obtained elsewhere.

(iii). Search and rescue (SAR)

Search and rescue (SAR) is the process of identifying the location of

disaster victims that may be trapped or isolated and bringing them to safety and
medical attention. In the aftermath of tropical storms and floods. SAR usually
includes locating stranded flood victims, who may be threatened by rising
water, and either bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first
aid until they can be evacuated or returned to their homes. In the aftermath of
earthquakes, SAR normally focuses on locating people who are trapped and/or
injured in collapsed buildings.

(iv). Post-disaster assessment

The primary objective of assessment is to provide a clear, concise

picture of the post-disaster situation, to identify relief needs and to develop
strategies for recovery. It determines options for humanitarian assistance, how
best to utilize existing resources, or to develop requests for further assistance.

(v). Response and relief

When a disaster has occurred response and relief have to take place
immediately; there can be no delays. It is therefore important to have
contingency plans in place.

Relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and

emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve human lives. It also
enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health care, shelter,
clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare food). Relief
supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the days and
weeks immediately following a sudden disaster. In the case of deteriorating
slow-onset emergency situations and population displacements (refugees,

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internally and externally displaced people), emergency relief may be needed for
extended periods.

(vi). Logistics and supply

The delivery of emergency relief will require logistical facilities and

capacity. A well-organized supply service is crucial for handling the
procurement or receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies for distribution
to disaster victims.

(vii). Communication and information management

All of the above activities are dependent on communication. There are

two aspects to communications in disasters. One is the equipment that is
essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and their supporting
systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines. The other is information
management; the protocol of knowing who communicates what information to
whom, what priority is given to it, and how it is disseminated and interpreted.

(viii). Survivor response and coping

In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is easy to overlook

the real needs and resources of the survivors. The assessment must take into
account existing social coping mechanisms that negate the need to bring in
outside assistance. On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new and
special needs for social services to help adjust to the trauma and disruption
caused by the disaster. Participation in the disaster response process by
individuals to community organizations is critical to healthy recovery. Through
these appropriate coping mechanisms will be most successfully developed

(ix). Security

Security is not always a priority issue after a sudden onset of disasters.

It is typically handled by civil defence or police departments. However, the

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protection of the human rights and safety of displaced populations and refugees
can be of paramount importance requiring international monitoring.

(x). Emergency operations management

None of the above activities can be implemented without some degree of

emergency operations management. Policies and procedures for management
requirements need to be established well in advance of the disaster.

(xi). Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to

enable basis services to résumé functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to
repair dwellings and community facilities, and to facilitate the revival of
economic activities (including agriculture). Rehabilitation focuses on enabling
the affected populations (families and local communities) to resume more-or-
less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life. It may be considered as a transitional
phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii) more major, long-term
reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

(xii). Reconstruction

Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely

damaged physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local
infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy (including agriculture).
Reconstruction must also consider the possibilities of reducing those risks by
the incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures. Damaged structures and
services may not necessarily be restored in their previous form or locations. It
may include the replacement of any temporary arrangements established as a
part of at the emergency response or rehabilitation. Under conditions of conflict
however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may not be feasible. For obvious
reasons of safety and security, activities in rehabilitation and reconstruction
may need to wait until peace allows them.

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2.20 MODERN AND TRADITIONAL RESPONSES TO DISASTERS

The, responses to disasters may employ a mix of approaches from

traditional to modern with these approaches moving back and forth depending
on the nature of disaster in term of their scope. The scope of disasters has
influenced responses in the following ways:

 Humanitarian (aid to relieve pain and suffering),

 Remittance (Cash sent to victims),
 Relief assistance (food, medication, tents),
 Networking (contacting organization),
 Volunteerism (internal and external groups of people volunteering help
or community – based approach; and
 Mutual aid agreements (pre-drawn up agreements to provide resources).

As disasters continue to occur, people affected by them sometimes need

external assistance in order to survive and recover. Response can be either
modern or traditional to the extent that assistance is transferred to individuals in
the disaster. The assistance can either be provided in-kind, in the form of food
aid, shelter materials, seeds or blankets, or it can be provided in cash, enabling
people to decide for them elves what they most need, and to buy in local
markets.

A striking means of response to disasters has been remittances where

people residing outside the disaster area channel sum of money or goods or
lore. Distances to those affected. The terms used to describe this response are
most conveniently understood to refer to transfers between migrants are their
places of origin.

In many countries the community-based approach to emergency

response has been the Community Emergency Response Team(CERT),
organized in communities to work closely with the local government and the

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community members themselves to identify community needs and priorities for
any disaster situation.

Other examples of response are:

i. Local Partnerships: One charitable organization, (World Vision) has

a rich network of local partnerships wide churches, community
organizations and government agencies that come to us when families
in their community suffer disaster Local police precincts and
politicians’ offices often call on florid Vision to assist them after an
emergency.
ii. Gifts-in-Kind: Charitable organizations actively solicit corporate
partners to donate needed new products to assist disaster survivors in
their recovery and supervise the distribution of these products. Their
goal is for every Storehouse to have a constant supply of emergency
resources to be distributed at a moment’s notice. Products will include
such things as water, blankets, medical supplies, latex gloves, and kits
containing enough hygiene and paper products, and other necessities to
supply a family of four for up to four days.
iii. Civil Service: World Vision as one of the charitable organizations
works to be a voice in the community by serving on planning
committees such as National and State. Volunteer Organisation Active
in Disasters (VOAD), Office of Emergency Management (OEM),
FEMA, Red Cross, Salvation Army and Habitat for Humanity (H4H).
These relationships allow organizations to serve as a liaison to the
community and be a voice for the children and families they serve.
iv. Specific Needs: In the aftermath of an emergency, families have
many needs. Because of the large variety of donations that are
received and distributed, World Vision is able to meet these special
needs. New clothes, shoes, furniture, mattresses, school supplies,
building materials and cleaning supplies are only a few of the unique
offerings that it is able to offer.

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2.21 MODERN METHODS OF DISASTER RESPONSE

New technologies can by very useful and powerful tool in disaster response,
namely:

i. Cell Phones - cell phones as warning devices can be very useful.

Short messages can be sent to recipients warning of imminent threat of
tropical storms, wind storms or any severe weather likely to cause
damage.

ii. Spatial information – use of satellite imagery. The emergency

management community is keenly aware of the potential of mapping
technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS), remote
sensing (satellite imagery), and global positioning systems (GPS) in
support of emergency response operations.

Increasingly, geographic technologies are being utilized for hazard

mitigation as well as response efforts. These range from damages
assessments mapping the event and affected areas to search and
rescue, rick assessment, risk perception (Hodgson and Palm,1992), and
risk communication (Hodgson and Cutter 2001).

iii. Social media and social networking – social media and social
networking can be used as a tool to emergency response
communications. Text messaging such as Twitter and the social net
working system such as Face book can be used as a channel of
communication in disaster response.

Examples of suggested applications of social media and social

networking include:

 Use blogs to rapidly publicize the need for assistance grants.

 Create geo-tagged photo groups to document damage.
 Publicize volunteers willing to share recovery-relevant expertise.

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  Use map-based mashups (combinations of data in webpages) to display
relevant local information.
 Immediately share “lessons learned”.
 Integrate volunteer directories with social networks to simplify
information sharing.
 Distribute weather information via methods that support geographic
targeting.
 Encourage sharing of resource information among corporations that
most likely be involved in recovery work.
 Use the assistance application process as basis for voluntary sharing of
information among affected populations.

2.22 DISASTER RECOVERY

As the emergency is brought under control, the affected population is

capable of undertaking a growing number of activities aimed at restoring their
lives and the infrastructure that supports them. There is no distinct point at
which immediate relief changes into recovery and then into long-term
sustainable development. There will be many opportunities during the recovery
period to enhance prevention and increase preparedness, thus reducing
vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition from recovery to on-
going development.

Recovery activities continue until all systems return to normal or better.

Recovery measures, both short and long term, include returning vital life-
support systems to minimum operating standards; temporary housing, public
information, health and safety education; reconstruction, counseling
programmes; and economic impact studies. Information resources and services
include data collection related to rebuilding, and documentation of lessons
learned. Additionally, there may be a need to provide food and shelter for
those displaced by the disaster.

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2.23 RECOVERY ACTIVITIES ARE CLASSIFIED AS SHORT-TERM
AND LONG-TERM

During response, emergency action was taken to restore vital functions

while carrying out, protective measures against further damage or injury.

a) Short-term recovery is in immediate and tends to overlap with response.

The authorities restore interrupted utility services, clear roads, and either
fix or demolish severely damaged buildings. Additionally, there may be
a need to provide food and shelter for those displaced by the disaster.
Although called short-term, some of these activities may last for weeks.

b) Long–term recovery may involve some of the same activities, but it may
continuator a number of months, sometimes years, depending on the
severity and extent of the damage sustained. For example, it may
include the complete redevelopment of damaged areas. The goal is for
the community to return to a state that is even better than before the
emergency.

This is an ideal time to implement new mitigation measures so that the

community is better prepared to deal with future threats and does not leave
itself vulnerable to the same setbacks as before. Helping the community to
take new mitigation steps is one of the most important roles during the
recovery phase.

2.24 THE RECOVERY PLAN

The recovery process should be understood clearly and it is important to

have a general plan for recovery which should be appended to emergency
operation plans.

The primary purpose of the plan is to spell out the major steps for
managing successful recovery. For each step you will also designate key
partners and their roles and steps to mobilize them. The plan should have at
least the following seven steps:

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 1. Gathering basic information
2. Organizing recovery
3. Mobilizing resources for recovery
4. Administering recovery
5. Regulating recovery
6. Coordinating recovery activities
7. Evaluating recovery

For the majority of disasters, local communities are able to provide the
assistance needed for recovery. However, for a major disaster, it may be
necessary to obtain assistance from the government and other sources.
Therefore, preparations must be made to request outside aid if a major disaster
occurs. This will mean informing and convincing decision makers, especially
those outside the affected area. Documenting the effects of the disaster is the
best way to carry this out.

Documentation involves providing evidence of what happened.

Photographs of the damage provide irrefutable evidence. Take pictures of the
damage, the repair work, and completed restorations. You cannot take too
many pictures.

There can be a good documentation if the following five simple steps

are followed:

1. Take pictures of damages and repairs. More is better than too little.
Private Citizens may have excellent shots to supplement your own.
2. Take notes on damages and repairs. Again, more is better than too little.
If there is too much to write at one time, dictate your notice into a tape
recorder for later transcription.
3. Clip and file newspaper reports and stories. If you can get video footage
from the television stations, do that also.
4. Record all expenditures carefully and keep all receipts and invoices.
5. Make sure anyone acting on behalf of the jurisdiction does the same.

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2.25 DISASTERS AS OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
INITIATIVES

Disasters can be a vehicle for major development programmes. The

political impact of damage and disruption can be a real catalyst for change.
Disaster inspired development initiatives are influenced in a number of ways,
but two aspects are especially important. First, disasters can highlight particular
areas of vulnerability, for example where serious loss of life has occurred, or
where the economic damage is disproportionate to the strength of the impact.
The outcome of this is usually to highlight the general level of
underdevelopment. Second, for a few weeks or months, the political
environment may favour a much higher rate of economic and social change
than before, in areas such as land reform, new job training, housing
improvements, and restructuring of the economic base (note however that this
may involve a transfer of resources from other areas and sectors.) the value of
direct international assistance given after disasters may partially compensate
for economic losses, although the amounts are usually rather small in relation
to the total loss.

There may also be longer-term benefits from a drastic restructuring of

the economy as a result of a disaster. For example, small island economics
which were previously dependent on a single crop may expand their economic
base, often with international assistance. The extent to which development
opportunities can be followed up after a disaster will usually be constrained or
otherwise influenced by donor investment policy for emergency loans. It is
illustrative to review the current World Bank criteria for emergency lending for
post-disaster investment.

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