NEUROSCIENCE

3.05 TELENCEPHALON
NOREEN TRINIDAD, MD | JUNE 19, 2022

OUTLINE → These neurons form a thin mantle of gray matter

I. Supratentorial III. Functional that covers the outer surface of the cerebral
A. Diencephalon Neuroanatomy of the hemispheres, forming the gyri of the brain.
B. Telencephalon Basal Ganglia • Basal Ganglia
II. Telencephalon A. Anatomy of the → Immediately adjacent to the ventricles, near the
A. Cerebral Basal Ganglia thalamus.
Hemisphere B. Role of the Basal • Subcortical White Matter Tracts
B. Functional Anatomy Ganglia → A dense collection of axons that connect areas
C. Cortical Neurons IV. Basal Ganglia within the cerebral hemispheres with each other
D. Layers of Cerebral Circuits and with other areas of the central nervous system.
Cortex V. Basal Ganglia Input • Basal Forebrain
E. Columnar and Output Zones → The ventral portion of the telencephalon
Organization A. Damage to the Basal
F. Hierarchical Ganglia
Processing of B. Lesions of the Basal
Sensory Information Ganglia
G. Parallel Processing
of Visual
Information

LEGENDS
Remember Lecturer Book Presentatio
n

I. SUPRATENTORIAL
A. Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Optic Nerve
• Pituitary Gland → Provides widespread input to the cerebral cortex
• Pineal Gland and is intimately connected with the Limbic
System
B. Telencephalon
• Arises from the lateral evaginations of the most The outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres is
rostral portion of the embryonic neural tube the cerebral cortex. The cortex is on the outermost
(prosencephalon) and gives rise to the cerebral part and it contains the neurons which have migrated
hemisphere to this location during embryonic development. This
• The two cerebral hemispheres fill most of the cranial neurons form a thin mantle of gray mater. When we
cavity above the tentorium cerebelli and are talk about neurons it’s the gray mater and for nerve
separated by the falx cerebri. fibers it’s white mater tracts. The ventral portion of the
• Each cerebral hemisphere consists of cerebral telencephalon constitutes the basal forebrain and this
cortex, subcortical white matter, and basal provides widespread input to the cerebral cortex and
ganglia as well as the thalamus (a diencephalic intimately connected with limbic system, so yan yung
structure) emotions, affective, reactive tayo.

II.TELENCEPHALON D. Functional Anatomy

C. Cerebral Hemisphere ● Limbic Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex → Most primitive
→ Outermost layer → Amygdala
→ Contains neurons that have migrated to this → Hippocampus
location during embryonic development. → Have a critical role in emotion and memory
Eto yung gumagana pag bata pa tayo kaya yung iba
na medyo emotional eh baka di nalampasan ng

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3.05 Telencephalon
pagdevelop nito. This is located on the medial
temporal lobe.
● Paralimbic Cortex
→ Located in the medial part of the hemisphere.
→ Degree of differentiation intermediate between
the limbic cortex and neocortex
→ Parahippocampal Cortex
→ Cingulate Cortex
Pag nakarinig na ng “para” ibig sabihin katabi, so
katabi ng limbic cortex. It is located on the medial wall
of your hemisphere and portions of the frontal and
temporal lobes of the insula.
● Neocortex
→ Includes most of the frontal, parietal, temporal,
occipital and insular lobes and is involved in the
processing of sensory information, object
recognition, motor programming and control,
language, attention, decision making and control
behavior.
→ Forming most of the frontal, parietal temporal and
occipital lobes.
→ Most differentiated
→ Most of the lobes are on lateral surface
→ Includes Primary Sensory and motor areas
→ Unimodal association cortex – modality-specific
→ Heteromodal/ Multimodal association cortex:
receives and integrates input from several
sensory modalities.
Unimodal ito yung mga areas that surround each
primary. So may unimodal sensory at unimodal
motor. For example may modality sa pain, so
napaka specific niyan. When we talk about
heteromodal, this surrounds the unimodal
association areas. They receive and integrate input
from several sensory modalities.
As our brains are developing nadedevelop din yung
functional connections to your neocortex. It
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occupies the lateral surface. It forms the frontal and
parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.
• Frontal Lobe
→ contains primary, association, paralimbic, and
limbic areas. It includes the primary motor cortex
(M1) located in the precentral gyrus (area 4) and
the lateral premotor and supplementary motor
areas (lateral and medial area 6, respectively).
→ Most of the frontal lobe is occupied by the
prefrontal cortex, which is subdivided into the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the
orbitomedial prefrontal cortex, which is
paralimbic cortex
When we talk about primary motor it’s the gyri
infront of the central sulcus. Other functions of
frontal lobe like executive function, ex. when you
cook alam niyo yung pagkasunod sunod ng
pagluto ng adobo. This is responsible for
planning, judgement, decision making for the
premotor areas, ibig sabihin before ka pa
gumalaw you plan before you execute it. Ang
broca’s area ay nasa inferior frontal.
• Parietal Lobe
→ Contains the primary somatosensory cortex
(S1) in the postcentral gyrus (areas 3a, 3b, 1, and
2), which is surrounded by unimodal
somatosensory association areas.
→ Most of the parietal lobe consists of the posterior
parietal cortex, which is a heteromodal sensory
association area
→ It includes the superior parietal lobule and the
inferior parietal lobule separated by the
intraparietal sulcus.
→ The inferior parietal lobule includes the
supramarginal gyrus and angular gyrus.
• Temporal Lobe
→ The superior aspect contains the transverse
gyri of Heschl, which correspond to the primary
auditory cortex (area 41), surrounded by the
unimodal auditory association area (area 42).
→ The lateral aspect of the temporal lobe contains
the superior and medial temporal gyri, which are
heteromodal sensory association areas.
→ The posterior portion of the superior temporal
gyrus and adjacent supramarginal gyrus in
theleft hemisphere correspond to Wernicke
area.
→ The inferior aspect of the temporal lobe and
adjacent parts of the occipital cortex (inferior
occipitotemporal cortex) are a unimodal visual
association area and include the lingual gyrus
and fusiform gyrus.
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 3.05 Telencephalon
→ The medial portion of the temporal lobe contains
the amygdala and hippocampus. Immediately
adjacent to the hippocampus is the entorhinal
cortex, which is part of the parahippocampal
gyrus.
• Occipital lobe
→ Contains the primary visual cortex (V1, calcarine
or striate cortex, area 17) and the unimodal
visual association areas (extrastriate areas 18
and 19)
• The medial portion of the cerebral hemisphere con-
tains the cingulate gyrus (including and anterior and
posterior cingulate cortical areas) and the
parahippocampal gyrus, including the entorhinal
cortex. Although they are paralimbic areas, they are
classically referred to as the limbic lobe
● Layer IV, the internal (inner) granular layer, has
closely packed spiny stellate cells that receive input
from thalamocortical fibers and project to pyramidal
neurons. This layer is highly developed in primary
sensory cortical areas; the cortex in these regions is
called granular cortex.
● Layer V, the internal (inner) pyramidal layer, contains
the large pyramidal cells that project to the basal
ganglia, brainstem, and spinal cord. This layer is
prominent in motor areas at the expense of layer IV;
motor areas are referred to as agranular cortex. The
most prominent example is primary motor cortex
(area 4), which contains the giant pyramidal cells of
Betz that project to the spinal cord.
● Layer VI, or multiform layer, contains pyramidal
neurons that project to the thalamus.

E. Cortical Neurons: Histology

● Pyramidal Cells
→ Excitatory
→ Contain L-glutamate
→ Originate from the ventricular zone – radial
migration
→ Dendritic Spines
Glutamergic- active. They do radial migration
papunta dun sa outermost part. When they migrate
to reach the different layers of the cerebral cortex
they have an apical dendrite that extends the pial
surface and basal dendrites. All these dendrites of
the pyramidal cells they contain dendritic spines and
these pyramidal neurons is excitatory and contain L-
glutamate.
• Interneurons
→ Inhibitory
→ GABA
→ Arise from the ganglionic eminence – tangential
migration
→ Multipolar; lack dendritic spines
• In primary cortical sensory areas:
→ Spiny Stellate neurons – receive from the G. Columnar Organization
thalamus • Primary sensory cortices
→ Glutamatergic cells → all neurons in a given column have a similar
→ Receive input from the thalamus and activate peripheral receptive field and response
pyramidal neurons characteristics.
→ They receive input from a particular set of
F. 6 Layers of the Cerebral Cortex thalamic neurons and are interconnected by the
● Layer I, the superficial layer, contains the apical local excitatory spiny stellate neurons in layer IV.
dendrites of pyramidal cells as well as local → Within a column, there are recurrent excitatory
interneurons and receives projections from thalamic interactions between pyramidal cells of deep
and brainstem neurons. layers V and VI and superficial layers II and III.
● Layer II, the external (outer) granular layer, contains • The activation of a column is associated with
local interneurons and pyramidal cells that project to inhibition of the surrounding columns.
contralateral cerebral cortex (commissural fibers). • This lateral inhibitory mechanism is important for
● Layer III, external (outer) pyramidal layer, contains sensory discrimination and fine motor control.
pyramidal cells that give rise to commissural or
association fibers.

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3.05 Telencephalon
Pinaka makapal sa primary sensory cortex is the layer
IV. Pagdating sa primary motor cortex makapal naman
ang V & VI layer.
H. Hierarchical Processing of Sensory Information
• Sensory information reaching the primary sensory
areas is processed first
• Primary cortical areas respond to specific features
of a sensory stimulus (e.g. Shape)
• Neurons in unimodal areas respond to
combinations of features, allowing representation
of the whole object
→ For example: neurons of the primary visual
cortex respond to points or bars of light, whereas
neurons in progressively more hierarchical
areas of unimodal visual association cortex
respond selectively to specific combinations of
features that characterize an object or a face.
• Different unimodal sensory areas project to
heteromodal sensory association areas in the
posterior parietal cortex and lateral temporal cortex,
they contain neurons that respond to specific
combination of visual, somatosensory, and auditory
stimuli.
• Neurons in posterior parietal cortex are involved in
visuospatial orientation and those in lateral
temporal cortex are important in object recognition
and identification required for naming.
• Neurons in the prefrontal cortex are involved in
executive function and control of behavior and
project to the premotor and supplementary motor
areas that controls the activity of primary motor
cortex.
• The paralimbic areas, including the orbitofrontal,
cingulate, and parahippocampal cortices, are
reciprocally connected with both heteromodal
association neocortex and limbic cortex, including
the hippocampus (involved in memory) and
amygdala (involved in emotion).
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NOTE: Hierarchical processing of information in the
cerebral cortex. Sensory information is processed
serially from primary sensory, to unimodal sensory,
to heteromodal sensory association areas in the
posterior parietal and lateral temporal cortices.
These areas project to both heteromodal association
areas of the frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) and
paralimbic areas, which provide input to the
hippocampus and amygdala. The prefrontal cortex
projects to premotor areas (unimodal motor
association areas), which activate primary motor
cortex. Note the feedback connections between the
paralimbic, heteromodal, and unimodal areas.
In sensory information, it is processed hierarchy.
From primary sensory to unimodal sensory to
heteromodal association areas and these are on the
posterior parietal and lateral temporal. These areas
project from heteromodal to premotor and paralimbic
and limbic. Si paralimbic din nagsesend ng signals
sa premotor cortex and si limbic nagsesend sa
hypothalamus kaya minsan may autonomic tayo na
nararamdaman (kinakabahan, tumataas ang BP).
The prefrontal naman nagproproject din sa premotor
then pupunta na sa primary motor cortex so may
feedback mechanism.
G. Parallel Processing of Visual Information
● Input from primary visual cortex is processed in a
dorsal stream and ventral stream
• Dorsal stream
→ Neurons in the unimodal visual association
cortex or the posterior parietal lobe
→ respond to object location and motion (e.g.,
“WHERE is the object?”
• Ventral stream
→ Neurons in the unimodal visual association
cortex of the inferior occipitotemporal region
→ Respond to object shape and color and allow
object identification (e.g., “WHAT is the object?”)
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3.05 Telencephalon
● Projection Fibers
→ Internal Capsule
− broad band flanked medially by the thalamus
and caudate nucleus and laterally by the
globus pallidus and putamen
→ Thalamic Radiations
− Afferent projection fibers arise largely from the
thalamus
→ Corona Radiata
− Optic radiations are in the retrolenticular
portion of the internal capsule, and the auditory
radiation are in the sublenticular portion, as the
axons spread out and reach the areas if the
cortex, it forms the Corona Radiata
• Commissural Fibers
→ Corpus Callosum
− Large bundle of fibers that form the roof of the
lateral ventricles.
→ Anterior Commissure
− Anterior to the third ventricle and interconnects
anterior temporal areas.
→ Hippocampal Commissure
− Interconnects the hippocampal formation of
the two sides
• Association Fibers
→ Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
→ Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus
→ Uncinate Fasciculus
− Interconnects the medial surface of the frontal,
parietal and temporal lobes.
→ Cingulum
In parallel processing of visual info. For example
tinawag ka ng classmate mo so alam mo kung san
siya makikita kasi may pathway responsible for it the
dorsal stream for detection of objects in a given
space. The visual info mula sa mata, they go to
primary visual cortex and this is processed further in
dorsal and ventral. The posterior parietal cortex
which involves in the analysis of the position and
movement of the object. This information guides
movement of the limb, eyes towards the object so
mapapatingin ka dun. The ventral naman which is
the inferior occipitotemporal cortex may mga fusiform
ang lingual gyri diyan it involve in the color and shape
of the object, recognition ng features ng object.
− caudate consists of a head, body, and tail and
is intimately related to the walls of the lateral
ventricle.
▪ Nucleus Accumbens or limbic striatum
− located in the ventral portion of the striatum
and forms part of the basal forebrain.
● Globus Pallidus or Paleostriatum
→ Medial or Internal Globus Pallidus (Gpi)
→ Lateral of External Globus Pallidus (Gpe)
→ separated from both the thalamus and the
substantia nigra by the internal capsule.
→ globus pallidus and putamen together are
referred to as the lenticular nucleus
• The basal ganglia circuits include two functionally
related structures:
→ Substantia Nigra
▪ Pars Compacta
▪ Pars Reticularis
→ Subthalamic Nucleus of Luy’s
• The components of the basal ganglia circuits and
their main connections:
→ The basal ganglia include the striatum (caudate
nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens [not
shown]) and globus pallidus (including an external
segment [GPe] and internal segment [GPi]). The
cerebral cortex, particularly the frontal lobe, sends
excitatory projections to the striatum, which
contains GABAergic inhibitory neurons that
project to both GPe and GPi. GPi sends a
GABAergic inhibitory projection to thalamic nuclei
that project to different areas of the frontal lobe.
Excitatory neurons in the subthalamic nucleus
project to GPi and GPe. The subthalamic nucleus
receives direct excitatory projections from the
cerebral cortex and reciprocal inhibitory
projections from GPe. SMA, supplementary motor
area.

III. FUNCTIONAL NEUROANATOMY OF THE

BASAL GANGLIA
A. Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
● Corpus Striatum
→ Striatum Proper or neostriatum
▪ Putamen
▪ Caudate Nucleus
− caudate and the putamen are separated by
the internal capsule

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3.05 Telencephalon
• Ventral Tegmental Area [Refer to Figure 2 for the Interrelationship of thalamus,
lentiform nucleus, caudate nucleus, and amygdaloid
body (ischemia): Left lateral view]

B. Roles of the Basal Ganglia

• Planning, initiation, and execution of movements.
- Watts, RL., Koller WC. Movement Disorders, 2004
• Control of posture and movement
• Automatic execution of learned motor plans
→ Mediate movements that have been laid down by
practice and that are subconscious
▪ Shifting in bed, walking

Caudate
● Patterns relating to Behavior and motivation,
cognitive inputs
The ventral stream or pathway involves progressive Putamen
processing steps in the inferior occipito-temporal cortex.
• Processes the motor component
May mga fisiform and lingual gyri jan which are involve
IV. BASAL GANGLIA CIRCUITS
in the color and shape of the object.
A. The Cortico-Striato-Pallido-Thalamic Pathway

The basal ganglia work together to bring you

modulation of movement.

● FUNCTION: to facilitate the initiation of a behaviorally

[Refer to Appendix Figure 1 for the Cross section of the relevant motor program while inhibiting that of all
Organization of the Basal Ganglia] other competing motor programs.
● The initiation of a specific motor program involves an
excitatory projection from the cerebral cortex to a
subgroup of neurons of the striatum that inhibit the
internal segment of the globus pallidus, transiently
interrupting the tonic inhibition that this structure
exerts on the thalamic and brainstem targets involved
in the initiation of motor programs

B. Two Important Pathways through which

Striatal Information Reached GP (Internal)
● Direct Pathway
The cerebral cortical input to the striatum causes
activation of the inhibitory neurons in the striatum.
Nagpapabilis siya ng motor movement like tremors.

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3.05 Telencephalon
→ Turns UP motor activity VI. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
→ Hyperkinesia A. SEIZURES
● a seizure is a transient disturbance that occurs as a
• Indirect pathway result of an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized
→ Turns DOWN motor activity (Mabagal ka naman discharged of a population of cortical neurons.
gumalaw like parkinson’s) ● Mechanisms that may cause these processes include
→ Hypokinesia alteration of intrinsic membrane properties of
Importante yung modulation ng dalawang pathway na pyramidal neurons, impairment of local GABAergic
ito, kailangan tama at coordinated ang pathways para inhibitory mechanisms, local changes in neuronal
naman coordinated din ang galaw ng pasyente. Both environment, and recurrent synchronized excitation
direct and indirect are important in initiating motor of neuronal populations through reciprocal
activity. thalamocortical interactions.

[Refer to Figure 3 in Appendix for Functional

Organization (Left, normal; Right, Parkinson Disease)]

The input center of direct and indirect is the striatum –

eto lahat ang pasukan ng lahat ng signals from direct
and indirect pathways. Lahat ng signals/inputs coming
from the cortex to the striatum are all excitatory.

All signals or output coming from the basal ganglia are

all inhibitory. Lahat ng pathway in both direct and
indirect are all inhibitory except for the once coming
from the cortex to the striatum and from the subthalamic
V. BASAL GANGLIA INPUT AND OUTPUT ZONES to the middle globus pallidus. Thalamus to cortex is
● Input Zone always excitatory.
→ Striatum
▪ Putamen The direct pathway, cerebral cortex input to the striatum
▪ Cuadate Nucleus causes activation of the inhibitory neurons in the
striatum. So, if you activate the inhibitory neuron, it will
• Output Zone: cause an increase inhibitory effect which inhibit the
→ To the thalamus, premotor, and frontal lobe medial globus pallidus which is also inhibitory. DIRECT
structures PATHWAY disinhibit the medial globus pallidus.
▪ Medial Globus Pallidus
▪ Substantia Nigra Pars Reticularis The indirect pathway is inhibitory to movement when an
excitatory projection from the cerebral cortex to the
striatum facilitates inhibitory projection neurons in the
globus pallidus externa or the lateral globus pallidus.

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3.05 Telencephalon
This inhibitory signal inhibits the inhibitory output • Bilateral Globus Pallidus
neurons which decreases naman the tonic inhibition of → Dystonia, Parkisonism
the subthalamic nucleus. INDIRECT PATHWAY, → Abulia, or Akinesia
excites the medial globus pallidus. • Substantia Nigra
→ Parkinsonism
● Seizure may be PARTIAL OR GENERALIZED: • Unilateral Basal Ganglia (Pallidal-Putaminal)
→ Partial seizure Hemorrhages or lacunar Infarcts may present with
▪ Occur with focal lesions such as vascular sudden falling to the contralateral side while sitting,
disorder, neoplasm, abscess, or trauma and are standing, or walking
manifested in different ways with involvement of → Falls are distinctly slow, tilting motions in a
different cortical areas. stereotyped lateral or diagonal trajectory
▪ May become generalized seizure as a result of → Occur with the eyes open but are exacerbated by
synchronizing mechanism between two eye closure
hemisphere, recruitment of synchronizing
thalamocortical circuits, or involvement of Ballism
subcortical structures.s
→ Lesion: Subthalamic Nucleus Sudden onset
→ Generalized seizure
→ Paroxysmal, large amplitude flinging, throwing
▪ Have a genetic basis or be a consequence of a
movements of the arm and leg
metabolic, toxic, degenerative, traumatic
disorder, , they may also develop from focal → The movements are continuous and often
exhausting but cease
seizures.
during sleep
→ Associated with
B. Damage to the Basal Ganglia
decreased muscle tone
● Two different Classes of Syndromes (motor effects):
in the involved
1. Hyperkinetic
extremities
→ May be due to excessive dopaminergic
→ Sometimes fatal
transmission, loss of selective neuronal
due to exhaustion
populations in the striatum, or lesions of the
subthalamic nucleus → Could be
controlled by
→ Hemiballism
phenothiazines and
→ Chorea
stereotaxis surgery
→ Dystonia
Athetosis
2. Hypokinetic
→ Lesion: Widespread cerebral structures,
→ Result of impaired dopaminergic input to the
including the globus pallidus, subthalamus, red
striatum, which leads to relative hyperactivity of
nucleus, and midbrain tegmentum
the “indirect” striatopallidal circuit and
→ Slow, uncoordinated, twisting, writhing, involuntary
subthalamic nucleus and thus inhibition of the
movements of wide amplitude
thalamus and brainstem targets by the internal
→ Predominantly involve the distal appendicular
segment of the Globus pallidus.
musculature, especially the upper extremities.
→ Parkinson’s Disease
→ Facial and axial
muscles may also be
• Disorder to the basal ganglia affect not only involved
motor function but also ocular motor, cognitive, → Noted with
and affective functions degenerative disorders
(e.g., Wilson’s disease,
C. Lesions of the Basal Ganglia kernicterus, status
• Subthalamic Nucleus marmoratus, perinatal
→ Contralateral Hemiballism anoxia)

• Anteroventral Portion of the Caudate

→ Contralateral Choreoathetosis

• Unilateral Globus Pallidus

→ Contralateral Hemidystonia
→ Hemiparkinsonism, or tremor

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3.05 Telencephalon
Sydenham’s Chorea
→ Lesion: Corpus Striatum REFERENCES
→ Complication of ● Dr. Trinidad’s PPT
Rheumatic Fever ● Mayo Clinic Medical Neurosciences 5th Ed
→ Fine,
disorganized, and
random
movements of
extremities, face
and tongue
→ Distal
appendicular
→ Accompanied by muscular hypotonia
→ Typical exaggeration of associated movements
during voluntary activity
→ Usually recovers spontaneously in 1-4 months

Huntington’s Chorea
→ Lesion: Corpus Striatum
(Caudate Nucleus) and Cerebral
Cortex
Predominantly autosomal dominant
inherited chronic fetal disease
(Chromosome 4)
→ Insidious Onset (40-50)
→ Truncal involvement
→ Associated with emotional
disturbances

→ Ultimately, grotesque gait and severe dysarthria,

progressive dementia ensues
→ May be hypokinetic, dystonic

Dystonia
→ Lesion: Striatopallidal
Complex or Thalamus,
or a combination of
these
→ Slow, long-sustained,
contorting, involuntary
movements and
postures
→ Involving proximal appendicular and axial muscles

Parkinson’s Disease – Paralysis Agitans

→ Lesions: Substantia Nigra, Pars Compacta
(SNc), DOPAminergic Neuron
→ Slowness of Movement
→ Difficulty in initiation and cessation of movement
→ Bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremor, freezing,
flexed posture (of the neck, trunk, and limbs), and
disorders of postural reflexes

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3.05 Telencephalon
APPENDIX
Figure 1

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3.05 Telencephalon
Figure 2

Figure 3

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