OVERVIEW

Purpose of the Module

The purpose of this module is to give you a fundamental understanding on the

method of analysis used to characterize physical evidence including its description. It
focuses on the chemistry relating evidence type that will provide you with hands on
experience of current forensic chemistry methods.

Module Title and Description

Physical Evidence is the second module of the course Forensic Chemistry and
Toxicology. It will introduce you to the application of principles of chemistry to law
enforcement and criminal justice system through theoretical and practical concepts relating
to trace evidence and its basic description and analysis.

Module Guide

For you to enjoy the benefit of this module, just follow the given guide.

1. You are given two (6) weeks to accomplish this module.

2. Kindly read and answer the activities at your most convenient time and place
3. You can’t proceed to a new topic without completing the previous topic.
4. Manually mark the activities as complete by checking its corresponding box.
5. Do not hesitate to contact me through my messenger and email account
edgeniston@gmail.com anytime for queries, concerns and feed backing regarding
this module.

Module Outcome

At the end of this module you can perform alternative methods of analysis used to
characterize physical evidence in accordance with existing standards on the proper
collection, preservation and examination of evidence.

Module Requirement

At the end of this module you are required to submit a video as proof that you
perform the activities independently.

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PRETEST

Directions: Answer the following queries

1. What is physical evidence?

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2. Give an example of any object that can be found in the crime scene that can be
considered as physical evidence
Answer: hair, cloth, glass, fiber, soil and impression

3. Characterize this evidence according to its physical properties

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4. How will you determine the authenticity of this evidence?

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5. How can you link this evidence from the crime scene to the suspect?

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KEY TERMS

Fibers - are fine filaments that are twisted together to form yarn and made into fabric
through weaving, knitting, braiding and felting.

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Hair – a keratinized cell which grow out a hair follicle

Glass - a super cooled liquid consisting of a complex mixture of silicates.

Soil - a mixture of organic material (decayed plant and animal material, called as humus)
and inorganic material (sand, gravel, minerals).

Impression – a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface.

Tool Impression - a scratch or impression caused by a suspect while forcibly entering a

property using any types of tools

Medullary Index - the measurement of the diameter of the medulla relative to the diameter
of the hair used to differentiate human hair from animal hair.

LEARNING PLAN

Lesson 1

3
 Trace Evidence

Intended Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to conduct
alternative methods of analysis used to characterize trace evidence
found in the crime scene.

Activity

Look at the picture below. Try to answer the given questions.

1. What are your thoughts in picture above?

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2. What other possible evidence aside from blood that a man in forensic gear will be
able to collect?

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3. How will you characterize this evidence collected?

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4. How do you process the crime scene for this evidence?

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
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5. What makes this evidence important in crime investigation?

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Analysis

Trace evidences although they are very minute like hair samples, the cloths, and
fibers which maybe synthetic or natural, they actually are very small but they are very
important to follow the suspects. The most important thing regarding these elements is to
collect them and preserved them with great care.

Trace evidence refers to small samples of a substance in particular fibers, hairs,

glass fragments and soil. Dr. Edmund Loccard, founder of the Institute of Criminalistics at
University of Lyon in France, showed the importance for the first time. He gave the famous
principle known as Loccard’s Exchange Principle, which states that “Every contact leaves
a trace”. Which means that the criminal will definitely leave a trace evidence at the crime
scene. Most of the crime scenes do contain trace evidence left behind by the suspect
unconsciously.

These evidences show many rules during an investigation like identifying the remains
at the crime scene or reconstruct a crime. The presence of trace evidence is mainly
dependent on the type of material to be considered as trace evidence since some particles
and substances remain in the surface for a longer time, this depends on the size, shape and
the amount of particle deposited.

Abstraction

What is trace evidence?

 An evidence found in the crime scene that can be link to a suspect

 A term for small, often microscopic material that can be a significant part of an
investigation.
 A physical evidence found in small amounts at a crime scene
 It includes an endless variety of material but most often collected in the crime scene
is fiber, hair, glass, soil and impression.

Common Trace Evidence

A. Fiber

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 Fibers are fine filaments that are twisted together to form yarn and made into
fabric through weaving, knitting, braiding and felting. It is considered the smallest unit
of a textile material that has a length many times greater than its diameter. Fabric
and fiber are not the same. Fabric is the type of material and fibers are the threads
that are woven to create the fabric.
During the commission of a crime, it is always possible that fibers from
clothes are transferred between two individual. Thus, fibers can be encountered from
the clothes of a homicide victim or can be found adhering on the bumper of a motor
vehicle which was used to hit and kill the victim. Because of their being minute in
size, criminals fail to destroy this particular piece of evidence.
Identification of fibers is accomplished by means of microscopic examination
and burning test. Microscopic test will determine the composition of the fiber
including the method of construction into a fabric. Burning test determine whether the
fiber is classified as natural or manmade fiber. All the test that are employed will
ascertain the origin of the fiber including its properties in relation to a reference
standard.

Classification of Fiber

1. Natural Fiber – derived from animal or plant

a. Plant : cotton, seed, nut, fruit, leaf, linen and hemp
b. Animal : wool, silk
c. Mineral : asbestos

Wool Silk

Cotton

2. Man-made Fiber – produced artificially

a. Regenerated – made from natural raw materials. example: rayon, acetate
b. Synthetic – produced solely from chemicals, example: nylon and polyester

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B. Hair

Hair is
keratinized cells which grow out a hair follicle. It is
one of the most frequently found pieces of
evidence at the scene of a violent crime. It is an
appendage of the skin and found in any part of
the human body. It can provide a link between the
suspect and the crime because it resists
decomposition and putrefaction.

Visible Structure

1. Shaft – visible portion

2. Root – formed by the cells embedded on the skin
3. Tip – the distal end portion of the hair

The shaft is composed of three layers:

1. Cuticle - the scale structure covering the exterior of the hair
2. Cortex - the center portion of the hair shaft which contains the pigment that make
hair black, brown, blond, or red
3. Medulla – a cellular column running along the center of the cortex.

Types of Medulla

1. Continuous

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 2. Interrupted

3. Fragmented

The Medullary Index

It is the measurement of the diameter of the medulla relative to the diameter

of the hair. This is used to differentiate human hair from animal hair.

 Narrow medulla – (less than 0.5 Medullary Index) belongs to human and certain
monkeys
 Medium medulla – (approximately 0.5 Medullary Index) belongs to the hair of cow
and horses
 Thick medulla – (larger than 0.5 Medullary Index) hair of almost all animal

Variation in the Structure of Human Hair

 Race - considered as race determinant

 Age - children have fine hair and have no medulla
 Gender – men’s hair is thicker, more wiry and darker than woman
 Parts of the body – there are considerable differences from different parts of
the body

Basic Inquiry in the Examination of Hair

 Is the material hair or something else?

 Is the hair from an animal or human?
 Can the sex, race and age of the person from whom it was removed be
established?
 How was it removed from the body?
 Has the hair received unusual treatment?

C. Glass

A glass is a super cooled liquid

consisting of a complex mixture of silicates.
It is viscous, rigid, brittle and slightly
flexible. It is usually transparent that
shatters easily and is used for
manufacturing windows, bottles, lenses
etc.

Types of Glass

 Obsidian – natural form of glass created by volcanoes

 Soda-lime – basic, common , inexpensive, used in windows, bottles and
electric light bulbs
 Leaded – contains lead oxide used in wine glassware, figurines and art glass
 Tempered – stronger than ordinary glass used in safety glass, car windows,
shower doors and plate glass windows in store

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  Laminated – bonding two ordinary sheets of glass together with a plastic film
used in the windshield of most cars
 Borosilicate glass- heat resistant like lab glassware and kitchen items (Pyrex)

When to consider glass as forensic evidence?

1. Fragments found at the crime scene can be matched or pieced together with
pieces found with the suspect
2. Matching physical properties of glass in question, that includes size, shape,
thickness, color, density, and refractive index
 Density is mass divided by volume. The density of glass can be
determined by flotation
 Refractive Index (RI) is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to it’s
velocity in a medium
o Refractive index of small pieces of glass can be determined using
commercially available liquids whose refractive indexes are known

A B C

Photo A shows a small piece of Pyrex glass not immersed in a liquid.

Photo B shows the same piece of glass immersed in water.
Photo C shows the piece immersed in vegetable oil. Pyrex and vegetable oil
have similar indices of refraction as shown by the disappearance of the glass
in the oil.

3. Fractured glass can reveal information related to force and direction of impact.
 At high velocities, a projectile leaves a round, crater-shaped hole, wider
on the exit side.
 At low velocities, a projectile leaves an irregular shaped hole, and the
glass will most likely shatter.

High Velocity Low Velocity

4. When a bullet enters glass it leaves tell tale signs of Radial and Concentric
Fractures
 Radial fractures appear as straight lines
coming from the center of the bullet hole.

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  Concentric fractures appear as circles around the center of the bullet
hole.
 Radial and Concentric Fractures tell us which hole formed first.
 All fractures will propagate through the glass and terminate when it
encounters an existing fracture.
Analysis of Broken Glass
Broken glass analysis is forensically important to the reconstruction of events
in a criminal act. Analysis can include:
1. The sequence of the fractures – order of events
 Radial lines always end in existing radial lines
 Order in photo: A->B->C

A A
B
C

2. The direction of the force which caused the fracture – did the break occur from
the inside or outside
 Small projectiles entry-exit
o Entry: smaller hole, smooth surface

o Exit: wider hole, crater shape, rough surface

3. The identity (type) of a small piece of glass

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D. Soil

It is a mixture of organic material

(decayed plant and animal material, called
as humus) and inorganic material (sand,
gravel, minerals). It can be found on the
suspect’s shoes, clothing and personal
items, footprints or tire prints that are
suspected to have connection with the
crime. It is most likely to be obtained when
the crime was committed outdoors.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL

 Color – match the color of the collected soil from crime scene with about 1,100
soil color available for classification
 Organic components – includes plant lives and organisms
 Inorganic component – includes nitrogen and phosphorous
 Bulk analysis – measure of a soil’s mass per unit volume of soil
 Density gradient – density range that allows for the separation of a soil
specimen’s heavy mineral components
 Particle size distribution (sieving) – separation of soil into different size

Soil as Evidence

The value of soil as evidence depends on if there is a link between the crime
scene and the suspect. The soil transferred and frequently found on clothing, shoes,
or tools and in the wheel wells of vehicles in particular crimes as;

 Hit and run – under the fender soil will be deposited at impact on the victim,
matching the grease on the victim with the grease under the car
 Rape – soil on clothing or knees of a suspected rapist could place suspect at a
crime scene
 Murder – soil found on a murder victim can be used to determine the location of
homicides, especially when the murder occurs in one location and the body is
then moved
 Assault – identifying the type of rocks used as weapons lead to the source of the
rocks and helped locate the suspect

E. Impression

A strong mark produced by pressure that

goes below the surface. It is a trace left by a
criminal in the form of shoe or foot impression,
tool impression, and tire impression in cases of
theft, robbery, sexual assault and murder. The

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evidential value of an impression made by shoe, hand, tool or other articles is based
in the theory that no two physical objects are alike and hence that impression made
by such object often is marked by uniquely identifying characteristics.
Kinds of Impression

1. Tool Impression

These are scratches or impressions caused by a suspect while forcibly

entering a property using any types of tools. These are produced once a harder
object comes into contact with softer surface. It appears in the form of indented
impressions.

Classification of Tool Impression

a. Negative Impression – made when a tool is pressed against a receiving

surface
b. Friction Mark – made when a tool slides a surface

2. Shoe or Foot Impression

Impression left at crime scene that can link to a suspect.

Types of Shoe Impression

a. Three dimensional impression

 Shoeprint made in soft material (dirt,
snow)
 Requires making a cast of the print
 Composition of dirt or snow will
determine the detail of the
impression.

b. Visible two dimensional print

 Dirt or other material picked up by
shoe and deposited onto flat, hard
surface
 Variety of surfaces and materials
deposited makes recovery of these
prints complex.

c. Latent two dimensional print

 Can leave behind barely visible dust
 Can leave impression in
polish/wax/dust

What information can shoe prints provide?

 Can link suspect or victim to scenes

 Can lead to more evidence and refute alibis
 Can gait or track information

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Recovery of Footwear evidence
 Scene should be controlled to prevent destruction of evidence
 Some prints can be visualized by darkening a room and using a bright
light at a low angle.
 Footprints should be documented:
 Objects with footprints should be removed if possible (paper, glass)
 If can’t be removed, an examination quality photo should be taken
 Three dimension impression can be highlighted by spraying with
colored wax spray

 Three dimension impression should be cast using dental stone

 If footprint is made of blood, a color changing reagents can help

visualize

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Assessment
Directions: Answer the following queries

1. How will you classify asbestos as a type of fiber?

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2. What is trace evidence?

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3. Differentiate negative impression from friction mark.

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4. Linen is what type of fiber?

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5. These are impressions caused by a criminal while forcibly entering a

property

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6. A basic, common , inexpensive type of glass used in windows and bottles

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7. A natural form of glass created by volcanoes

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8. A type of glass bonded by two ordinary sheets of glass together with a

plastic film

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9. What is a concentric fracture?

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10. What is a radial fracture?

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11. What will happen when the tensile strength of the glass is exceeded?

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...........................................................................................................

12. What part of the hair that is a race determinant?

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13. How to collect hair sample if found on a murder weapon?

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14. What is the difference between human and animal hair?

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15. Differentiate the three types of shoe impression.

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Application

A.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a most common sample of a fiber that includes wool, cotton, and
nylon.
2. Describe its physical properties like color, odor, texture and appearance
3. Lit a piece of candle then place a piece of your sample for at least 5
seconds. Note the odor of the fumes
4. Heat some more to burn the fibers and observe how the fibers burn.
Observe the residue.

Summary of Observation

Kind of Fiber Odor of Fumes Burning

1. wool

2. cotton

3. nylon

Questions

1. How do animal fibers differ from plant fibers?

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2. How do synthetic fibers differ from natural fibers?

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3. Where do you search for fiber evidence?

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4. What is the value of fiber evidence in crime investigation?

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B.

Procedure:

1. Prepare an empty box half-filled with sand.

2. Make an impression of your shoe or barefoot by stepping slowly and
pressed on the prepared box.
3. Spray the impression with plastic varnish to strengthen the surface of the
impression and let it stand for 10 minutes. When spraying the spray must
be held at a distance of about 2 to 3 feet away from the impression so as
not to deform the impression.
4. Spray the impression with soil so that the soil will not stick on the
impression when lifted.
5. Mix a 1 kilogram of white cement and water on a bowl. Add more water if
the mixture is too concentrated; whereas add more white cement if the
mixture is too dilute.
6. Pour the mixture on the top of the impression using your hand as guide.
Cover the impression about ½ inches in thickness.
7. Put at least 3 pieces of bamboo stick on top of the impression to reinforce
the cast and pour the remaining mixture on the impression until you obtain
the desired thickness.
8. Let the freshly prepared cast set for 24 hours.
9. Carefully lift the dried cast out of the impression and gently wash it with
water. Do not allow the fine details of the cast to break off while cleaning.

Questions

1. What is a cast of three dimensional impressions?

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2. Why is there a need to photograph first the impression before making a

cast?

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3. When do you say that you have prepared a good cast of the impression?

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4. What happens to the cast obtained if the foot or shoe impression was not
properly preserved during casting?

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5. How can this particular type of trace evidence help in the successful
prosecution of the suspect?

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LEARNING PLAN

Lesson 2
Gunpowder Residue

Intended Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to conduct
alternative methods of analysis used to characterize gunpowder
residue found in the crime scene.

Activity

Look at the picture below. Try to answer the given questions.

1. What are your thoughts in picture above?

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2. What possible evidences will be able to collect in a shooting incident?

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3. How do you process the crime scene for this evidence?

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4. What makes these evidences important in crime investigation?

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5. How will you connect the suspect/s to the evidences collected?

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Analysis

Gunpowder residues are unburned or partially burned particles, gases, and known
volatile substances coming from primer, propellant, bullet and firearm. These are produced
when a gun is fired and they got spread on the crime scene. These are visible and invisible
depending on various factors. Their location, testing and identification play a very important
part in the investigative trials while absence of gunpowder residues can also give significant
information.

Gunpowder residues can be located on the following;

1. On the hands – mainly present on thumb, trigger finger and web of hands
2. On the cloths of the victim, if the human being is the target
3. Intermediate targets
4. Inside a cartridge cases, breech of the gun and barrel of the gun
5. Fired projectiles

The presence of gunpowder residues are the expected region of hands, arms, face and
cloths of the suspect also helps to ascertain whether he or she had actually fired the
projectile or not. The firing of a weapon not only propels residues towards the target but also
blows gunpowder and primer residues towards the shooter.

Abstraction

What is gunpowder?

Gunpowder, also known as blackpowder is the earliest known explosive and

the oldest propellant invented by Chinese around 10th century. It is composed of 75%
potassium nitrate, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur. The sulfur and charcoal act as a fuels, and
the potassium nitrate is an oxidizer.bcause of its burning properties and the amount of heat
and gas volume that it generates, gunpowder has been widely used as a propellant in
firearms and as a phyrotechnic composition in fireworks. It is classified as a low explosive
because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance.

Kinds of gunpowder

1. Black powder – the first and the oldest propellant invented in China around 10 th
century.
2. Smokeless powder – developed in the late 19th century to replace blaqckpowder as a
propellant in weapons that can either be a single base or double base propellant.

Types of gunpowder
1. Single based – basic ingredient is nitrocellulose

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 2. Double based – contains nitrocellulose and (1-40%) nitroglycerin
3. Triple based – contains nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and nitroguanadine

What is gunpowder residue?

It comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from cartridge cases and
gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these components are burned, certain products of
combustion are formed which includes partially burned and unburned particles.

Factors that affect the presence and amount of gunpowder residues

1. Wearing of gloves of the person discharging the firearm
2. Type of caliber
3. Length of the barrel of he gun
4. Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target
5. Wind direction and velocity
6. Direction of firing
7. Humidity (percentage moisture in air)
8. Type of ammunition
9. When 72 hours have already elapsed

Methods of Examination for Gunpowder Residues

A. Paraffin – Diphenylamine Test

 The test is used to determine whether a person has discharged a firearm. The
basis of he test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue.
 When a warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the alleged
shooter, it will cause the pores of the skin to open and exude the particles of
gunpowder residue
 These particles of gunpowder residue are being extracted by the paraffin cast
and will aqppear as blue specks when diphenylamine (DPA) reagent is
added on the cast.
 Note : The blue color that appears indicates the reaction with diphenylamine
reagent. Paraffin casting shall only be done within 72 hours from the time of
the shooting incident.

B. Gunpowder Residue Test on Firearm

 The diphenylamine reagent is also applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel

and chamber of he gun to determine if the firearm was discharged.
 The deep blue color resulting from the reaction of nitrates with the reagent
indicates presence of gunpowder residue

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 C. Determination of the probable gunshot range

 When a firearm is discharged, gunpowder residue may also be deposited on

the clothing of the victim.
 The size and density of the pattern of he gunpowder residue found on the
clothing are the main factors considered in determining the approximate
distance of the person firing the gun to the victim
 As the distance to the victim increases, the size of the pattern expands while
density decreases.

Three zones of distances from which a firearm was discharged

1. The muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with body

Observations:
 Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
 Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
 Presence of burned powder residue around the entrance hole
 Types of discoloration observed were smudging, powder tattooing and
singeing
 Presence of gunpowder nitrates is observed

2. The muzzle of the gun was held from 2 inches to 36 inches from the target

Observations:
 2 – 8 inches: presence of gunpowder nitrates, powder tattooing and
smudging
 8 – 36 inches: presence of nitrates and small amount of smudging

3. The muzzle of the gun was held beyond 36 inches

Observations:
 Negative, only the hole

Types of discoloration:

1. Smudging – the smoke and soot from the burned pores deposited around the hole of
the entrance producing a dirty appearance
2. Powder Tatooing – a black coarsely peppered pattern specks around the hole
3. Singeing or Scorching - a reaction caused by flame that emerges from the muzzle
and travels only a short distance from it

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What is explosive?
Explosive is a substance or device that can be made to produce a volume of
rapidity expanding gas in an extremely brief period. An explosive material, also called
explosive, is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can
produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light,
heat, sound and pressure.

There are three fundamental types: mechanical, nuclear and chemical. A mechanical
explosive is one that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading a container with
compressed air. A nuclear explosive is one in which a sustained nuclear reaction can be
made to take to take place with almost instant rapidity, releasing large amount of energy. A
chemical explosive is one which account for virtually all explosive application in engineering.

Classification of explosive material by sensitivity

1. Primary explosive
An explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such as impact, friction or
heat. It detonate without burning
Example: acetone peroxide, ammonium permanganate

2. Secondary explosive
Less sensitive than primary explosive and require substantially more energy
to be initiated
Example: TNT (tri-nitrotoluene), RDX (research department explosive), and
C-4 (composition 4)

3. Tertiary explosive (blasting agent)

It is sensitive to shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical
quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate explosive
booster of secondary explosive
Example: ANFO (ammonium nitrate / fuel oil)

Classification of explosive material by velocity

1. Low explosive
A compound or mixture that burn rather than explodes. It burn at a rate of
3300 ft/sec
Example: pyrotechnics, black and smokeless powder
2. High explosive
A compound or mixture that quickly detonate throughout every part of its
mass. It detonates at a rate ranging from 3000 to 9000 m/s. It is normally employed
in mining, demolition and military application.

23
 Subdivision of high explosive

2.1 Primary explosive – sensitive and unstable, maybe detonated easily by the
application of heat, mechanical shock. It detonate without burning
Example: lead azide, mercury fulminate,

2.2 Secondary explosive – more stable than primary explosive it explodes when
detonated by another explosive such as blasting cap.
Example: dynamite, TNT, RDX, ANFO, PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate)

Classification of explosive according to their application or design

1. Military explosive
1.1. Grenades
1.2. Fuses – use to initiate explosive in any warheads
1.3. Ammunitions
1.4. Rockets and missiles
1.5. Mines

2. Industrial explosive
2.1. Dynamite – invented by Alfred Nobel
2.2. ANFO
2.3. Water explosive
2.4. IED – improvise explosive device
2.5. Blasting caps

24
 Assessment

Directions: Answer the following queries

1. What is gunpowder?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. A type gunpowder that contains nitrocellulose and (1-40%) nitroglycerin

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. A compound that serves as bases if a person discharged a firearm

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. If a person discharging a firearm wears glove, how does it affect the presence of
gunpowder residue?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5. How will you prove that distance between the muzzle of the gun is directly in contact
with body of the victim?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. How will you prove if the distance between the suspect and the victim is about a
meter in a shooting incident?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. How will you determine if the firearm was fired?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

8. The smoke and soot from the burned pores deposited around the hole of the
entrance producing a dirty appearance

25
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. What is the positive result when the reagent reacts with gunpowder residue
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

10. An explosive that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading a container

with compressed air.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

11. A reaction caused by flame that emerges from the muzzle and travels only a short
distance from it
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

12. A black coarsely peppered pattern specks around the hole

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

13. Differentiate between high and low explosive.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

14. Why is it necessary for a bomb expert to enter first the bomb scene before anyone is
allowed to enter and collect explosive residues?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

15. Diferrentiate black powder from smokeless powder.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

26
Application

As a presumptive test to determine if a person fires a gun, the following procedure

will present how to perform the proper techniques of extracting gunpowder residue from the
hands of the person who fired a firearm.

Note: In the absence of face to face demonstration due to the present situation, please refer
to this link as a reference to perform the said application.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gTQjSBSNFY

Procedure:

1. Materials needed are paraffin wax, absorbent cotton, white bond paper, burner,
beaker or casserole, crucible thong, brown envelop or box.
2. Let the paraffin wax in a beaker or casserole melt and cool for a few minutes
3. Let the subject (person) wash a hand with running water without using any soap or
detergent. Wipe the hands of the subject with clean absorbent cotton or allow it to dry
in an open air.
4. Prepare the bond paper. On it, write the name of the subject, date and time the cast
was taken, name of the technician and witness.
5. Allow the subject to place his right and left hand on the labeled bond paper, palms
facing downward, and fingers close together.
6. Using a crucible thong with cotton, apply the melted paraffin wax on the hands of the
subject from the thumb and index finger to the rest of the fingers in the dorsal portion
to the little fingers side of the hand.
7. When the hands are thoroughly coated with melted paraffin wax, place a thin layer of
absorbent cotton to reinforce the cast.
8. Apply another layer of melted paraffin wax until the absorbent cotton is totally
covered with the melted wax.
9. Allow the paraffin cast to set and cool.
10. Direct the subject to remove his hands slowly out of the cast.
11. Cover the paraffin cast with a piece of bond paper. Staple all sides and place the
prepared cast in a big brown envelop or in a box. Seal it for proper handling and
preservation of evidence.

Questions:

1. What is paraffin casting?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Why does the subject have to wash his hands under running water without using
soap or detergent?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

27
 3. Why should all parts of he hands, including the sides, be coated with melted paraffin
wax?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. What happens when the melted paraffin wax begins to solidify before casting the
subject?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. When does the gunpowder residue become embedded on the hands of the person
firing the gun?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. How the gunpowder residue is removed from the hands of the subject when the
melted paraffin wax is applied?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. Why an embalmed cadaver is no longer be subjected to paraffin casting?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Suggested Readings

Chapter 5, 7, & 8 pp.43-52, pp. 65-69, pp. 71-75. Urbano, A.A. (2008). Forensic
Chemistry and Toxicology (Lecture Guide and Laboratory Manual), 1st Edition.
Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

28
 Chapter 12, pp.83-102. Cañete, A.M. (2012). Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology.
Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

POSTTEST

Directions: Answer the given questions.

1. What is the value of fiber evidence in crime investigation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What makes hair important trace evidence in the crime scene?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. How will you link a suspect to a crime scene using hair as evidence?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. How will you determine that a hair sample is of human origin and not from
animal?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. How will you differentiate the types of glass fractures produced after a bullet hits
the glass surface?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. When does a glass surface break?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. What is the significance of a glass as trace evidence?

29
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. What is the value of soil evidence in crime investigation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Site and discuss a particular situation where soil is used as evidence in a crime of
sexual assault.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

10. What is the importance of tool marks as trace evidence in crime investigation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

11. How will you prove if the person fires a gun?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….

12. How will you prove if the distance between the subject and the muzzle of the gun
is about 7 inches in a shooting incident?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….

13. What are the possible factors that will give a negative gunpowder residue result?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
14. How will you determine if a particular firearm was used in shooting incident?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….

30
 15. If a person is positive of gunpowder residue, is it conclusive that he/she fires a
gun? Why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
16. Is there a possibility that a person will be tested positive of gunpowder residue
without discharging a gun? How?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

17. What is the importance of gunshot range determination in a shooting incident?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Self-Assessment Checklist

Criteria POINTS
5 3 1
Clarity of Details I Presented my I Presented my I Presented my
thoughts thoughts clearly thoughts vaguely
comprehensively
Organization My concepts or ideasMy concepts or My concepts or
are properly organized
ideas are almost ideas are not
organized properly organized
Neatness of Work My work is neat and My work contains My work contains
clean some erasures many erasures
Total

REFERENCES / RESOURCES

Sangil, C.B., et al. (2012). Laboratory Manual for Forensic Chemistry and
Toxicology (with Lecture Guide), Revised Edition. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

Cañete, A.M. (2012). Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology. Wiseman’s Books Trading,
Inc.

Salangad, M.M. (2011). Laboratory Manual in Forensic Chemistry. Raindrops

Enterprises

31
Urbano, A.A. (2008). Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology (Lecture Guide and
Laboratory Manual), 1st Edition. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

32
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