JECT.
2012;44:139–144
The Journal of ExtraCorporeal Technology
Development of a New Arterial-Line Filter Design Using
Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis
Daniel P. Herbst, MSc, CCP, CPC; Hani K. Najm, MD, MS, FRCSC, FRCSC UK
King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, King Abdulaziz
Cardiac Center, Cardiac Science Department, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Abstract: Arterial-line filters used during extracorporeal circula-
tion continue to rely on the physical properties of a wetted micro-
pore and reductions in blood flow velocity to affect air separation
from the circulating blood volume. Although problems associated
with air embolism during cardiac surgery persist, a number of
investigators have concluded that further improvements in filtra-
tion are needed to enhance air removal during cardiopulmonary
bypass procedures. This article reviews theoretical principles of
micropore filter technology and outlines the development of a
new arterial-line filter concept using computational fluid dynamics
analysis. Manufacturer-supplied data of a micropore screen and
experimental results taken from an ex vivo test circuit were used
Since their introduction more than five decades ago,
arterial-line filters used for extracorporeal circulation
(ECC) have relied on principles related to the physical
properties of a wetted micropore and reductions in blood
flow velocity to aid air separation from the circulating
blood volume. Although current designs have undoubt-
edly affected patient outcomes positively (1,2), ECC filters
remain unable to remove all air bubbles effectively from
circulation (3). The relationship between cognitive dys-
function and cerebral embolic load during cardiac surgery
has been well studied, affecting as much as 60% of this
patient population (4–10). With annual open-heart proce-
dures reaching in excess of one million cases globally
(11,12), a sizable patient population could therefore
potentially benefit from improvements in perfusion inter-
ventions and techniques related to the development and
application of extracorporeal filter technology (13,14).
This article reviews theoretical principles of micropore
Received for publication September 17, 2011; accepted August 4, 2012.
Address correspondence to: Daniel P. Herbst, MSc, CCP, CPC, Department
of Cardiac Sciences, Mail Code 413, King Fahad National Guard
Hospital, PO Box 22490, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. E-mail:
d_hebrst@me.com
The senior author has stated that authors have reported no material,
financial, or other relationship with any healthcare-related business or
other entity whose products or services are discussed in this paper.
139
to define the inputs needed for numerical modeling of a new filter
design. Flow patterns, pressure distributions, and velocity profiles
predicted with computational fluid dynamics software were used to
inform decisions on model refinements and how to achieve initial
design goals of £225 mL prime volume and £500 cm2 of screen
surface area. Predictions for optimal model geometry included a
screen angle of 56
from the horizontal plane with a total surface
area of 293.9 cm2 and a priming volume of 192.4 mL. This article
describes in brief the developmental process used to advance a
new filter design and supports the value of numerical modeling
in this undertaking. Keywords: arterial-line filter, filtration, CPB
equipment, patient safety. JECT. 2012;44:139–144
filtration and describes in brief the development of a new
arterial-line filter design aimed at improving filtration effi-
ciency using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analy-
sis. The use of CFD analysis for ECC component design
has been widely accepted as a development tool for this
field in a broad range of applications (15–18).
Theoretical Background of Extracorporeal
Circulation Filtration
Because microembolic events continue to plague com-
plications associated with ECC, the call to advance filter
technology is growing. A recurring theme to this call for
improvement is the conclusion that although micropore
diameter remains an important factor in filter mechanics,
by itself it does not correlate well with filtration efficiency
suggesting that other factors such as the blood flow
path may also impact the air-handling ability of these
devices (19–23). Industry leaders continue to address these
challenges with varied results, having introduced several
innovations that either alter the configuration of common
features or go beyond the theoretical principles guiding
conventional filter designs (24–26).
In recognizing common principles underpinning the use
of micropore filters, most commercially available designs
incorporate a large-volume chamber to decrease flow
velocity and allow more time for any air bubbles to rise
140 D.P. HERBST AND H.K. NAJM
up and out of circulation through an appropriately located
purge port. Additionally, the wetted pores of a micron
screen interposed between the inlet and outlet of the filter
are used to form a physical barrier to prevent the passage
of bubbles and further enhance air separation. In theory
there are at least two ways that free gases in a liquid can
pass through a wetted micropore, first by exceeding the
bubble-point pressure (BPP) of the micropore itself or
alternatively by crossing the screen barrier as dissolved
gases (27–29).
Bubble-Point Pressure
The BPP can be defined as the amount of pressure
required to eject air across a wetted pore and is described
by the following formula:
P = 4g  cosq=d ð1Þ
where P is equal to the BPP (mmHg), g is equal to the
surface tension (dynes/cm), q is equal to the contact or
wetting angle (
), and d is equal to the micropore diameter
(cm). The surface tension (g) of a given liquid is a measure
of the strength of attractive forces between the molecules
that make up that liquid, whereas the wetting angle (q) is
defined by the degree of attraction between the molecules
of a given liquid–solid interface (27–29). Together, the
surface tension and wetting angle can be used to describe
the force needed to raise a column of liquid in a capillary
tube (capillary force) or, similarly in this case, to fill the
micropore of a screen filter (27–29). It is the anchoring
effects of these surface active forces that are breached
when the BPP is exceeded. Although it is clear that bub-
bles smaller than the diameter of a micropore are able to
pass through a wetted filter, bubbles larger than the micro-
pores of the filter screen will accumulate on its proximal
surface and partially obstruct fluid flow, causing a rise in
the prescreen pressure. As bubble accumulation con-
tinues, the prescreen pressure builds until a sufficient
force exists to overcome the opposing capillary forces
maintaining the wetted pore, allowing air to be ejected
through (27–29).
Gas Diffusion in a Liquid
The amount and rate of gas diffusion into a liquid is
dependent on the principles described by Henry’s law and
Fick’s law of diffusion (30).
Henry’s law states that the amount of gas dissolved
in a liquid is directly proportional to its partial pres-
sure in equilibrium with that liquid and can be des-
cribed as:
P=K  C ð2Þ
where P is equal to the partial pressure of the gas (atm), K
is equal to Henry’s law constant (Latm/mol), and C
is equal to the molar concentration of the gas in solu-
tion (mol/L).
JECT. 2012;44:139–144
Fick’s law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion
for a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure
gradient in the direction of diffusion and is described by
the following formula:
J = D  dp=dx ð3Þ
where J is equal to the rate of diffusion (mol/m2s), –D is
equal to the diffusion coefficient of the gas down its con-
centration gradient from high to low pressure (m2/s), dp is
equal to the partial pressure gradient of the gas (mol/m3),
and dx is equal to the distance through which the gas must
diffuse (m).
In theory, as bubbles become trapped on the proximal
surface of a screen filter, the gases they contain can diffuse
into solution according to the principles described. Dis-
solved gases traversing the micropore are exposed to a
pressure drop at the distal surface of the screen that would
allow them to re-emerge again in accordance with Henry’s
law (27). As a result, free gas bubbles may exist distal to
the micropore screen filter capable of entering the fluid
stream returning to the patient.
These theoretical principles hold obvious implications
for perfusion practice and standard of care closely tied to
the setup and use of micropore filter devices. Extra efforts
and attention given to ensure that priming of the micro-
pore screen is complete afford optimal filter performance
and patient safety at the start of the ECC procedure. Per-
fusion strategies that incorporate use of the filter purge
port should also be routine because the effective filtration
of free gases can only be realized when they are perma-
nently removed from circulation. Avoiding use of the filter
purge port limits the device to function simply as a bubble
trap where under certain circumstances the filter itself
can become a source of air. Inline monitoring equipment
used to help maintain an adequate oxygen content while
avoiding excessive amounts of dissolved gas may also be
considered a part of routine perfusion practice and stan-
dard of care to limit the diffusion flow of gas across the
filter screen as a source of free gas transfer to the patient.
Limitations in Extracorporeal Circulation Filter Design
Common methods used in ECC filters call for designs
that require a pleated micropore screen to be placed
nearly perpendicular to the fluid path. Pleating of the
screen allows the filter housing to be packed more densely,
increasing surface area and the number of pores available
to limit flow-through resistance and avoid exceeding the
BPP. This nearly perpendicular orientation however
may hinder filter performance by promoting both trap-
ping and fragmentation because bubbles can be held
against the screen by the force of fluid flowing through
it and more easily break apart as a result of the abrupt
angle of collision. Both of these events could increase
the risk of free gas transfer to the patient as a result of
 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ARTERIAL-LINE FILTER DESIGN
Figure 1. New arterial-line filter design with sequential filter
screen arrangement.
an increasing pressure drop across the screen resulting
from bubble accumulation, an increase in the diffusion
flow of gas, or an increased incidence in microembolic
showers as larger bubbles impacting on the screen break
apart. Pleating of the screen itself may also be counter-
productive to filtration efficiency because it provides an
added physical structure between which gas bubbles can
become lodged to further promote trapping and the pos-
sible re-emergence of bubbles beyond the intended pro-
tection of the micropore barrier. Moreover, the densely
packed pleats may make priming the filter device more
difficult, reducing its practical value, especially in emer-
gent situations.
To address these limitations, a new filter design was
developed to include multiple screens placed in a sequen-
tial arrangement (31,32). The new design shown in
Figure 1 was adapted so that fluid passes from the inlet
through multiple screens to the outlet following a unique
up-and-down flow path, whereas the nonpleated filter
screen angle better uses the fluid flows rising momentum
to ease priming and help direct any air bubbles up and
away from the fluid stream returning to the patient.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Defining Boundary Conditions for Computational Fluid
Dynamics Analysis
Before starting with CFD analysis, porosity and perme-
ability values for the micropore surfaces contained in the
new filter model first needed to be defined to establish
141
confidence in CFD model predictions. Used in this con-
text, porosity represents a measure of the screens open
area, whereas permeability defines the ease at which a
given fluid can pass through.
Porosity Setting
To define a porosity value, manufacturer-supplied data
of a 38-mm polyester screen, which included the screen
fabric density (1350 kg/m3), thickness (70 mm)m and mass
(4.5E-2 kg/m2)m were first taken to calculate the void
volume (7.33E-8 m3) of a known sample area (2.0E-3 m2)
using the following formula:
M=r  v ð4Þ
where M is equal to mass (kg), r is equal to density (kg/m3),
and v is equal to volume (m3).
Once the void volume and solid volume of the filter
screen was known (Appendix A), a porosity value could
then be determined and set as a model parameter using:
porosity (e) = void volume (vv )=void volume (vv ) ð5Þ
+ solid volume (vs )
Porosity is a dimensionless term representing a ratio
between variables with the same units of measure.
Permeability Setting
To define a permeability value, a simple filter model
ex vivo test circuit was used to assess pressure loss
across a known micropore screen. The test circuit consisted
of a BP50 centrifugal pump with DP38 flow probe
(Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN), 3/8-inch polyvinylchloride
(PVC) tubing (total length 220 cm), 1/4-inch PVC tubing
(total length 20 cm), a sample of 38-mm screen fabric (Sefar
AG, Heiden, Switzerland), two 3/8-inch 3/8-inch luered
+
polycarbonate connectors, two 3/8-inch 1/4-inch polycar-
+
bonate connectors, a dual-port Digitron 2088p pressure
manometer (Digitron, Torquay, England, UK), and a saline-
filled container used to prime and recirculate the system.
A sample of 38-mm screen fabric was placed evenly over
one end of a 3/8-inch luered connector and then inserted
into a 5-cm piece of 3/8-inch PVC tubing. Once seated,
the screen was visually inspected to ensure a smooth flat
placement and the connection was then secured with a tie-
band to avoid screen displacement and fluid leakage. A
second 3/8-inch luered connector was inserted into the
opposite end of the 5-cm piece of tubing, which together
comprised a simple filter model with pre- and postscreen
pressure sampling ports as depicted in Figure 2.
Height differences between the pump and circuitry were
minimized to reduce the effects of hydrostatic pressure,
while filter model placement was set 150 cm from the
pump outlet to aid the development of laminar flow at the
screen. The test circuit as shown in Figure 3 was then primed
with saline .9% solution at room temperature (23.1
C) and
pump output was zeroed according to the manufacturer’s
JECT. 2012;44:139–144
142 D.P. HERBST AND H.K. NAJM

Table 1. Experimental results for pressure drop measurements

across a 38-mm screen fabric.
Pump Flow Rate (L/min) Pressure Drop (Pa) Pressure Drop (mmHg)

.01 50 .4
.02 110 .8
.03 170 1.3
.04 240 1.8
.05 310 2.3

Kpa, kilopascals.

(ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA) and prepared for analysis

using a mesh of approximately 2.0 106 cells. Meshing

Figure 2. Simple filter model assembly (3/8-inch).
+
refers to the process of splitting the model surfaces and
volume into smaller discrete blocks of cells or areas and
assigning attributes to those areas to mathematically
define the models behavior under CFD processing. Flow,
velocity, and pressure characteristics of the computational
geometry were then predicted and analyzed using ANSYS
CFX software Version 11 (ANSYS, USA).

RESULTS

Along with manufacturer-supplied technical specifica-

Figure 3. Test circuit diagram with simple filter model.
tions of a screen fabric, experimental results taken from an
ex vivo test circuit were used to theoretically define a poros-
ity (e = .34) and permeability (k = 4.16E-12 m2) value for
CFD modeling methods. Results from numerical modeling
of the new filter device were used to examine flow patterns,
pressure distributions, velocity profiles as well as inform
decisions on how to achieve initial design goals of £225 mL
prime volume and £500 cm2 screen surface area while
maintaining an acceptable flow-through resistance and
pressure drop. The consecutive model refinements derived
from several CFD analyses resulted in the predicted dimen-
sions and performance values shown in Table 2.

operating instructions. Special attention was given to ensure

deairing of the filter screen and entire circuit was complete, Table 2. Computational fluid dynamics predicted model dimen-
sions and performance values.
and both pressure ports of the Digitron 2088p manometer
were fluid-filled and calibrated to measure gauge pressure. CAD Model
To simulate the expected flow range for the new filter design Dimension Predicted Performance Variable Predicted
in L/min/cm2 of screen surface area based on 7 L/min Internal 192.4 mL Mean inlet velocity 1.4 m/sec
(smallest single stage filter = 134.2 cm2), pump flow rate in volume (based on 6 LPM
flow rate)
the test circuit was initially set at .01 L/min and adjusted in Outer screen 159.7 cm2 Mean outlet velocity 1.2 m/sec
increments of .01 L/min to a maximum flow rate of .05 L/min area (based on 6 LPM
with pressure drops (Dp) recorded at each flow setting as flow rate)
shown in Table 1. An average of the recorded pressure Inner screen 134.2 cm2 Mean velocity range .15–.65 m/sec
angle/area (across both
drops was then taken to determine the permeability con- filter screens)
stant used as an input for the CFD analysis. Total screen 293.9 cm2 Total pressure drop 32.5 mmHg
A complete three-dimensional CAD model of the new area (.9% saline, 23.1
C,
6 LPM)
filter design was then imported into ANSYS software

JECT. 2012;44:139–144
 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ARTERIAL-LINE FILTER DESIGN
Empirically testing a physical prototype of the new filter
design based on this numerical model is needed to confirm
these findings and further determine whether any perfor-
mance gain in filtration efficiency can actually be realized
with its use. Additional research would also be required to
determine the blood handling capabilities of a sequential
screen arrangement with smaller surface area.
DISCUSSION
This article describes in brief the developmental process
used to advance a new arterial-line filter concept and
supports the value of numerical modeling in this under-
taking. Numerical modeling was used to greatly simplify
the means to solve turbulent flow patterns, excessive
pressure loss, and areas of stasis while at the same time
inform decisions on how to balance the achievement of
design goals against the maintenance of an acceptable
predicted flow-through resistance and pressure drop.
Micropore surfaces contained within the model were
defined by calculating a porosity value using manufacturer
specifications of a micropore screen fabric and a perme-
ability value derived from controlled experimental results
using a laminar flow model to isolate pressure loss across a
known screen. This newly proposed filter concept offers an
alternate approach to ECC filter design and presents theo-
retical refinements in filtration efficiency meant to enhance
patient safety.
Given the clinical significance of perfusionist interven-
tions and their impact on the outcome of cardiac surgery
procedures, we need to constantly be critical about our
practice and how we use the devices and technology at
our disposal. Considering the degree to which current inef-
ficiencies in filtration remain a stumbling block to the level
of patient safety being offered, issues surrounding the
appropriate use of filter devices and the safety margin they
provide should form the foundation of principles to air
handling where they can better serve to guide practice.
Understanding micropore filters and the limitations they
represent will help set precedents for perfusionist inter-
ventions, offering a sound approach and heightened
awareness to the significance of events such as air entry in
the venous line, sampling manifold manipulations, reduc-
tions in venous reservoir level, or changes in gas solubility
with changes in circulating blood temperature. Whether
the perfusionist intervention required involves simply
communicating the incident to the surgical field, altering
arterial pump flow, or adjusting oxygen content of the
perfusate returning to the patient, the importance of such
events is likely to grow. As the push to innovate continues
to shrink the patient circuit and air settling time allowed,
clinician attention to potential embolic events and the air
handling capabilities of ECC filter devices are bound to be
placed under increasing rigor.
143
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Official approval and financial support for this research was
obtained from the Research Committee and Institutional Review
Board at the King Abdullah International Medical Research
Center (KAIMRC) in collaboration with the King Saud bin
Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAUHS) and the
King Abdulaziz Cardiac Center (KACC).
REFERENCES
1. Sellman M, Ivert T, Stensved P, Högberg M. Doppler ultrasound
estimation of microbubbles in the arterial line during extracorporeal
circulation. Perfusion. 1990;5:23–32.
2. Padayachee TS, Parsons S, Theobold R, Gosling RG, Deverall PB.
The effect of arterial filtration on reduction of gaseous microemboli
in the middle cerebral artery during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann
Thorac Surg. 1988;45:647–9.
3. Jones TJ, Deal DD, Vernon JC, Blackburn N, Stump DA. How effec-
tive are cardiopulmonary bypass circuits at removing gaseous
microemboli? J Extra Corpor Technol. 2002;34:34–9.
4. Newman MF, Kirchner JL, Phillips-Bute B, et al. Longitudinal
assessment of neurocognitive function after coronary-artery bypass
surgery. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:395– 402.
5. Arrowsmith JE, Grocott HP, Reves JG, Newman MF. Central ner-
vous system complications of cardiac surgery. Br J Anaesth.
2000;84:378–93.
6. Pugsley W, Klinger L, Paschalis C, et al. The impact of microemboli
during cardiopulmonary bypass on neuropsychological functioning.
Stroke. 1994;25:1393–9.
7. Stump D, Rogers A, Hammon J, et al. Cerebral emboli and cogni-
tive outcome after cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
1996;10:113–9.
8. Barbut D, Yao FS, Hager DN, et al. Comparisons of transcranial
Doppler ultrasonography and transesophageal echocardiography
to monitor emboli during coronary artery bypass surgery. Stroke.
1996;27:87–90.
9. Van Dijk D, Keizer AM, Diephuis JC, et al. Neurocognitive dysfunction
after coronary artery bypass surgery: A systematic review. J Thorac
Cardiovasc Surg. 2000;120:632–9.
10. Shroyer AL, Coombs LP, Peterson ED, et al. The Society of Tho-
racic Surgeons: 30-day operative mortality and morbidity risk
models. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75:1856–64.
11. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K, et al. American Heart Association.
Heart disease and stroke statistics—2008 update. Circulation.
2008;117:e25–146.
12. Unger F. Open heart surgery in Europe 1993. Eur J Cardiothorac
Surg. 1996;10:120–8.
13. Kurusz M, Butler BD. Bubbles and bypass: An update. Perfusion.
2004;19:S49–55.
14. Demierre D, Maass D, Garcia E, Turina M. ECC sources of gaseous
microemboli. J Extra Corpor Technol. 1985;17:20 –6.
15. Goodin MS, Thor EJ, Haworth WS. Use of computational fluid
dynamics in the design of the Avecor Affinity oxygenator. Perfusion.
1994;9:217–22.
16. Wang JH. Application of CFD in the design of a membrane oxygen-
ator. J Mech Med Biol. 2001;1:11– 6.
17. van Driel MR. Cardioplegia heat exchanger design modelling using
computational fluid dynamics. Perfusion. 2000;6:541–8.
18. Chan WK, Wong YW. Development of an axial blood pump. In:
Ghista DN, Ng EY, eds. Cardiac Perfusion and Pump Engineering.
Clinically-Oriented Biomedical Engineering. Vol 1. Singapore:
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.; 2007:383– 418.
19. Riley JB. Arterial line filters ranked for gaseous micro-emboli sepa-
ration performance: An in vitro study. J Extra Corpor Technol.
2008;40:21–6.
20. Massimino RJ, Gough JD, Stearns GT, Martin J Jr. Gaseous emboli
removal efficiency in arterial screen filters: A comparative study.
J Extra Corpor Technol. 1983;15:25–34.
JECT. 2012;44:139–144
144 D.P. HERBST AND H.K. NAJM

21. Dickinson TA, Riley JB, Crowley JC, Zabetakis PM. In vitro eval- volume (v) = area  length (thickness)
uation of the air separation ability of four cardiovascular manufac-
turer extracorporeal circuit designs. J Extra Corpor Technol. volume of solidtotal = 2:0E-3 m2 (area)
2006;38:206–13.
22. Gourlay T, Gibbons M, Tylor KM. Evaluation of a range of arterial ´ 7:0E-5 m (thickness)
line filters: Part I. Perfusion. 1987;2:297–302.
23. Gourlay T, Gibbons M, Tylor KM. Evaluation of a range of arterial = 1:40E-7m3
line filters: Part II. Perfusion. 1988;3:29–35. (Note: volume of solidtotal represents the total volume of
24. Melchior RW, Rosenthal T, Glatz AC. An in vitro comparison of the
ability of three commonly used pediatric cardiopulmonary bypass material contained in the sample if it were solid and with-
circuits to filter microemboli. Perfusion. 2010;4:255–63. out pores.)
25. Salavitabar A, Qiu F, Kunselman A, Undar A. Evaluation of the
Quadrox-I neonatal oxygenator with an integrated arterial filter.
Perfusion. 2010;6:409–15. Mass (M) = volume (v)  density (r)
26. Goritz S, Schelkle H, Rein JG, Urbanek S. Dynamic bubble trap can
replace an arterial filter during cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. (Note: actual mass of a 2.0E-3 m2 sample = 9.0E-5 kg
Perfusion. 2006;21:367–71. based on manufacturer supplied mass of .045 kg/m2.)
27. Metlzer TH, Jornitz MW. Filtration in the biopharmaceutical indus-
try, first edition. New York: Informa Healthcare; 1997:307–44.
28. Kurusz M, Conti VR, Speer D, Butler BD. Surface tension changes Mass of solidtotal = 1:4E-7 m3 (volume) ´ 1350 kg=m3
of perfusate: Implications for gaseous microemboli during cardiopul-
monary bypass. J Extra Corpor Technol. 1985;4:138–42. = 1:89E-4 kg
29. Hunter PD. Parker Hannifin Corporation; 2011. Available at:
http://www.parker.com /literature/Domnick%20Hunter%20Process (Note: mass of solidtotal represents the total mass of the
%20Filtration%20Division /PAFD_literature/Life%20Sciences%20 sample if it were a solid and without pores,)
Literature/INTEGRITY%20TESTING.pdf. Accessed August 28, 2012.
30. Powell FL Jr. Structure and function of the respiratory system. In:
Johnson LR, ed. Essential Medical Physiology, 3rd ed. San Diego, Mass of void spacesolid = 1:89E-4 kg  9:0E-5 kg
CA: Elsevier; 2003:262–4.
31. Herbst DP. Extracorporeal blood filter system. US Patent 7,572,377 = 9:9E-5 kg
B2. 2009.
32. Herbst DP. Extracorporeal blood filter system. US Patent 7,621,407 (Note: mass of void spacesolid is the mass of solidtotal –
B2. 2009. actual mass to give the total mass of the void spaces in the
sample as a solid.)
APPENDIX A: NOTES ON CALCULATING THE
VOID VOLUME AND SOLID VOLUME OF A 38-m volume (v) = Mass (M)=density (r)
MSCREEN FABRIC HAVING A 2.0E-3 M2
volume of void spacesolid = 9:9E-5 kg=1350 kg=m3
SURFACE AREA
= 7:33E-8 m3
Manufacturer-supplied data: fabric density (1350 kg/m3), (Note: volume of void spacesolid is the mass of void
thickness (70 mm), and mass (.045 kg/m2) (Sefar AG, spacesolid/density to give the total volume occupied by the
Heiden, Switzerland). pores in the sample.)

JECT. 2012;44:139–144