Series 00 1

Infinite sequences
S Sial
Dept of Mathematics
LUMS
Fall 2022
S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Outline
Outline

Linear approximation

Linear approximation Recall
Recall from Calculus I
The linear (tangent line) approximation of f (x)

close to x0 is
f (x) ≈ L(x) = f (x0) + f 0(x0)(x − x0)

Linear approximation Note agreement of value and first deriv at x = x0
Note at x = x0
f (x0) = L(x0), f 0(x0) = L0(x0)

Linear approximation Can we do better?
Polynomial approximation?
f (x0) = P(x0), f 0(x0) = P 0(x0)
f 00(x0) = P 00(x0), · · ·

Linear approximation Goal
Develop approximation by infinite

degree polynomials
Approximate a function at a point by an infinite

degree polynomial whose function and derivative
values all agree with the original function at the
point.

Linear approximation Goal

Infinite sequence of reals
Infinite sequences of real numbers
Infinite sequences of real numbers

Infinite sequence of reals Definition
Definition
A sequence is an infinite ordered list of real

numbers
{an } = a1, a2, ..., an , ...
an is called the nth element.

Infinite sequence of reals Note
Note
There is a first element of the sequence
There is no last element of the sequence

Infinite sequence of reals Examples
Example
Harmonic sequence
{1, 1/2, 1/3, ...., an = 1/n, ...}

Example
Alternating harmonic sequence

1 1 1
1, − , , ...., an = (−1)n+1 , ...
2 3 n

Example
Fibonacci sequence
{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...}
is constructed from the rule
a1 = 1, a2 = 1, an = an−1 + an−2 for n > 2

Infinite sequence of reals Another definition
Sequence
Formal definition as a function

f : Z+ → R
f (n) is the nth term

Infinite sequence of reals Notation
Notation
Notation
{f (n)}
or
{f (n)}∞
n=1

Example
What are the first few terms of this sequence?

∞
n
n + 1 n=1


Limit of a sequence
Limit of a sequence
Limit of a sequence

Limit of a sequence Informal definition
Limit of a sequence
Informal definition
{f (n)} has a limit L if as n becomes arbitrarily
large, the value f (n) becomes arbitrarily close to
L.

Limit of a sequence Informal definition
Example

n
n+1
has a limit 1 because
n 1
=
n+1 1 + 1/n
becomes arbitrarily close to 1 as n becomes
arbitrarily large.
Limit of a sequence Formal definition
Limit of a sequence
Formal definition
{f (n)} has a limit L if for all > 0, there exists
an N() such that
n > N → |f (n) − L| <

Limit of a sequence Notation
Notation
We write
lim {f (n)} = L
n→∞

Limit of a sequence Convergence and divergence
Convergence
Definition
{f (n)} convergent if limn→∞{f (n)} exists.

Divergence
Definition
Else divergent.


Calculating limits
Calculating limits
Calculating limits

Calculating limits Rules for limits
Rules for limits
Rules
sums/differences/products/quotients analogous
to the rules for limits of a
sum/diff/product/quotient of functions from
Calculus I.

Rules for limits
Sum/diff
Suppose
lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M

n→∞ n→∞

Rules for limits
Sum/diff
then
lim {f (n) ± g (n)} = L ± M

n→∞

Rules for limits
Product
Suppose
lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M

n→∞ n→∞

Rules for limits
Product
then
lim {f (n) · g (n)} = L · M

n→∞

Rules for limits
Quotient
Suppose
lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M 6= 0

n→∞ n→∞

Rules for limits
Quotient
then

f (n) L
lim =
n→∞ g (n) M

Rules for limits
Powers
Suppose
lim {f (n)} = L
n→∞

Rules for limits
Powers
then
lim {f (n)p } = Lp
n→∞

Rules for limits

Bounding sequences
Suppose
lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M

n→∞ n→∞
and also
f (n) ≤ g (n)
for all n greater than some integer,
Rules for limits
Bounding sequences
then
L≤M

Rules for limits

Squeeze theorem
Suppose
f (n) ≤ g (n) ≤ h(n)

for all n greater than some N, and
lim {f (n)} = L = lim {h(n)}

n→∞ n→∞

Rules for limits
Squeeze theorem
then
lim {g (n)} = L
n→∞

Rules for limits
Composition
Suppose g is a continuous real function and
lim {f (n)} = L
n→∞

Rules for limits
Composition
then
lim {g (f (n))} = g (L)

n→∞

Calculating limits Exercises
Exercise
Evaluate

1 n
lim +
n→∞ n n+1

Exercise
Evaluate

1 n
lim ·
n→∞ n n+1

Exercise
Evaluate

(1/n)
lim
n→∞ n/(n + 1)

Exercise
Evaluate
(1/n)3

lim
n→∞

Exercise
Evaluate
lim {sin(1/n)}
n→∞

Exercise
Evaluate
1
lim
n→∞ n a
for a > 0.

Exercise
Evaluate
lim x n
n→∞
for |x| < 1.

Exercise
Evaluate
(log n)a
lim
n→∞ nb
for a, b > 0.

Exercise contd
You may recall doing something like this in

Calculus I using l’Hopital’s rule.

Exercise
Show
lim n1/n = 1
n→∞
Can be done using l’Hopital.

Exercise
Show
lim (1 + a/n)n = e a
n→∞
Can be done using l’Hopital.


Increasing and decreasing sequences
Increasing and decreasing

sequences
Increasing and decreasing sequences

Increasing and decreasing sequences Increasing sequence
Increasing sequences
{f (n)} increasing if
f (n + 1) ≥ f (n)
for all n.

Examples
{an = 1}∞
n=1
{n}∞
n=1

Decreasing sequences
{f (n)} decreasing if
f (n + 1) ≤ f (n)
for all n.

Examples
{an = 1}∞
n=1
{1/n}∞
n=1

Increasing and decreasing sequences Montonic sequences
Monotonic sequences
A sequence is monotonic if it is ...

either increasing or decreasing.

Increasing and decreasing sequences Montonic sequences
Example
Example
1,1,1,.... is increasing/decreasing/monotonic.

Increasing and decreasing sequences Bounded sequences
Bounded sequences
Definition
{f (n)} bounded if there is an M > 0 such that
|f (n)| ≤ M
for all n.

Bounded sequences
Exercise
Give an example of a bounded sequence.

Convergence result
Theorem
A monotonic sequence is convergent if and only
if it is bounded.

Problem 1
Show that the sequence is convergent

1
n2 + n + 1

Problem 2
Show that the series is convergent

n
n+1

Problem 3
Evaluate

πn
lim
n→∞ n+1

Problem 4
Evaluate
2

3n 3n
lim − 2
n→∞ n+1 n +1

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Infinite sequences

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Recall from Calculus I

The linear (tangent line) approximation of f (x)

f (x) ≈ L(x) = f (x0) + f 0(x0)(x − x0)

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

f (x0) = L(x0), f 0(x0) = L0(x0)

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

f (x0) = P(x0), f 0(x0) = P 0(x0)

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Develop approximation by infinite

Approximate a function at a point by an infinite

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Infinite sequences of real numbers

Infinite sequences of real numbers

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

A sequence is an infinite ordered list of real

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

There is a first element of the sequence

There is no last element of the sequence

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Alternating harmonic sequence

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

a1 = 1, a2 = 1, an = an−1 + an−2 for n > 2

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Formal definition as a function

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

What are the first few terms of this sequence?

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

n > N → |f (n) − L| < 

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

lim {f (n) ± g (n)} = L ± M

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

lim {f (n) · g (n)} = L · M

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

lim {f (n)} = L, lim {g (n)} = M 6= 0

S Sial (LUMS) Sequences MATH 102 Fall semester 2022-202

Rules for limits

n > N → |f (n) − L| <