Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and de

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d = O/ o = ± 15 V/2 × 105 = ± 75 V
i = d/ i = ± 75 V/2 × 106 = ± 37.5 × 10–12 A
O = ( + – –) = o S = 105 × 50 × 10–6 = 5 V
O = – o d =– v S = – 105 × 10 × 10–6 = –1 V
O = o ( + – –) = 2 × 105 (0 – 2 sin 377 )

Output saturates at ±14 V.
O = o ( + – –) = 2 × 105 (75 + 25)10–6 = +20 V; at saturation, O = +14 V
d = – 2 = (120 – 80) V = 40 V
1
1+ 2 200
c= = = 100 V
2 2
20 log CMMR = 90
log CMMR = 90/20 or | d/ c | = 31,622
2 × 105
| c |= | d |/31,622 = = ± 6.32
31,622
O = d d ± c c = 2 × 105 × 40 × 10–6 ± 6.32 × 80 × 10–6

= 8 ± 50.56 × 10–6 V
d = 2 – 1 = 60 V – 100 V = – 40 V
+ 21 60 + 100
c = = V = 80 V
2 2
20 log CMRR = 90 dB
log CMRR = 4.5
d
= 3.1622 × 104
c
d 2 × 105
c= = = 6.3247
3.1622 × 104 3.1622 × 104
29
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O = d d+ c c
= 2 × 105 (– 40 × 10–6) + 6.3247 × 80 × 10–6
= – 8 ± 5.05976 × 10–4 = – 7.9994 V or – 8.00050 V
Choose 1 k < 1 < 10 M ; let 1 = 10 k .

f = 100 = 1 + F/ 1, F = 900 k
O = S (1 + F/ 1) = 100 × 10–3 × 100 = 10 V
Problem 2.8
is Rs
+ id Ro
vo
= = d
, = O vs +
S d d – vd Ri +
i d –
–
Then
O
Rout
S = d = , i >> s
o i
Ri Rf
 
O = 1 +
f
Substituting for  S
 1
(1 + f 1 ) S o i
S = S, in = = (i)
o i S 1+ f 1
O from the circuit

−
O = O o d
+ O
(ii)
o i + f
30

Rf
iO
–
Ro
R1
+
vd Ri A o vd + vO
–
–
+
1
Also – d = O Assuming i >> 1 (iii)
1 + f
From (ii) and (iii),

1 1+ ( + ) 1
= O
= 1 o 1 f
+
out o o 1 + f
o
Assuming ( 1 + f) >> (iv)
1+ o 1 ( 1 + f )
o
out =
1+ o 1 ( 1 + f )
From (i)
o i 25 × 103 × 1012
in = = = 250 × 1012
1+ f 1 1 + 990 k 10 k
50 50
out = = = 0.2
3
1 + 25 × 10 × 10 (10 k + 990 k) 4
1 + 250
in = 5 × 105 × 1012/100 = 5 × 1015

50
out = = 0.01
1 + 5 × 10 × 104 1000 × 103
5
Let 1 = 10 k . Then
 F
= 10 = 1 + , = 90 k

v F
 1
O = 500 mV × 10 = 5 V
31

0
< t < sms
vo 15
0 1.5 7.1 8 9.5

t(ms)
S needed for O = ±15 V

 F  20  ,
±15 = S 1 +  = S
1 + 5  S =±3V
1
3
S = 2, = = 1.5 ms 0 < < 5 ms
2
10 80
3= − −3
+
3 × 10 3
71
= ms
10
O 1
– = (i)
1 + F
O = o d = d ( S – –)
O
– = S – (ii)
From (i) and (ii)

 1 
S = O  + 1

o 1 + f 
O o ( 1 + f )
f = = (iii)
S 1 + F + o 1
5 × 105 × 40 × 103
f = = 3.999968
40 × 103 × 5 k × 105 × 104
O = f S = 3.999968 S
 F 30 k
For o → ∞, f = 1 +  =1+ = 4, O =4 S Error insignificant
 1  10 k
 F
O = S 1 + 
=5 S
1
O = ±15 V
15
O = 50 sin 2000 π = ±15 V, θ = sin −1 , θ = 17.45°
50
32

vO
197.45° 342.55°
q
17.4° 162.5°
Assuming d to be negligible, O ≃ + = S. Hence,

O= S=5V
S = i = d/ i and
d = O/ o
O + S
S = i = ≃ , = s + o i
o i o i S
= 10 k + 5 × 105 × 105 × 2 × 106 ≃ 1012

−
O = O o d
+ O
(i)
o i + s
– +
Ro
vd Ri + A v
– o d vo
–
+
vS Rs
iS
Also
d = − O i
(ii)
i + s
(i) and (ii) give

+ ( + s)
O = O o O i i
+ O
o i + s
1 1+ ( + s) 1
= O
= o i i
+
out O o i + s
o
<< ( i + s)
1+ o i ( i + s)
Hence
o
out =
1+ o i ( i + s)
75
= ≃ 15 × 10–5
1 + 5 × 10 × 2 × 106 (2 × 106 + 104 )
5
33

–
iO
Ri
Ro
+
+ Ao v d + v
– – O
Rs
From Eq. (2.13)

= o b = 2 × 105 × 10 = 2 MHz
bw
From Eq. (2.31) we get
1 + F / R1
f ( ω) =
1 + (1 + F 1 ) bw
F = 50 k , = 15 k
1
1 + 50 k 15 k
∴ f ( ω) =
1+ (1 + 50 k 15 k ) 2 × 106
4.333
=
1 + 100 × 103 (4.333) 2 × 106
4.333
= = 4.235 ∠–12.23°
1 + 0.2167
From Eq. (2.32)
c = β o b = 1
o b
1 + F
15 k
= × 2 × 105 × 10 Hz
15 k + 50 k
= 461.54 kHz
2 +
4
+
3 –
vS
–
RF
R1
34

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1
-
1
!
-
-
2 3
- .
45 145
35

1 = F = 15 k
bw= o b = 2 × 105 × 10 = 2 MHz
From Eq. (2.31)
1+
f ( ω) = F 1
1+ (1 + F 1 ) bw
1+1 2
= =
1+ (1 + 1) 2 × 10 6
1 + 100 × 103 × 10−6
2
= = 1.998 ∠–5.71°
1 + 0.1
From Eq. (2.32)
15 k
c = β o b= × 2 × 105 × 10 = 1 MHz
15 k + 15 k
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1
-
1
!
-
-
2 3
- .
45 145
36

From Eq. (2.35)

  
O = 1 + F

A
a + A
b + A
c
 B  a b c 
20
A = a || b || c = k
3
 40 k   20 × 2 20( −3) 20(−2) 

= 1 + + +
20 k   3 × 20 3 × 20 3 × 20 
O

= 3  −1−  = – 3 V
2 2
3 3
S 50 mV
S = = = 10 A ( 1 = s)
s 5k
5V
O = – f S, = 100 = f
50 mV
F
= 100, F = 100 × 5 k = 500 k
1
x = 1 || F = 5 k || 500 k = 4.95 k
37

iS if
vS
Rs = R 1 – RF
Ro
Ri vd +v
O
+
+
Ao v d
Rx –
–
rf
Assume i >> x
S
in = = 1 + i || f (i)
S
d
where f = –
f
– d = f F + o f + o d
− d − d
or f = , (1 + o) = F + o
f f
F + o
f = (ii)
1+ o
The expression for out is the same as in Problem 2.14.
12 500 × 103 × 50
in = 5 k + 10 ||
1 + 25 × 103
≃ 5 k + 1012 || 20 ≃ 5020
o 50
out = =
1+ o i ( i + s) 1 + 25 × 10 × 1012 (1012 + 5 k)
3
50 × 10−3
≅ ≃ 2 × 10–3
25
From Eq. (2.45)
f = − F 1
1 + (1 + F 1 ) o
− 500 k 5 k
= = – 99.60
1 + (1 + 500 k 5 k ) 25 × 103
O = – 50 × 10–3 × 99.6 = – 4.98 V
38

500 × 103 + 50
in = 5 k + 1012 ||
1 + 5 × 105
= 5 k + 1012 || 1 ≃ 5001
o 50
out = =
1+ o i ( i + s) 1 + 5 × 10 × 1012 (1012 + 5 k)
5
≃ 100 × 10–6 = 10–4

From Eq. (2.45)
f = − F 1
1 + (1 + E 1 ) o
− 500 k 5 k
= ≅ – 99.98
1 + (1 + 500 k 5 k ) 5 × 105
Problem 2.19
2 .
2 .
2 .
f = − F
= ∞, O = f S = ∞ → Saturation
1
O = – 14 V
From Eq. (2.46)

1  F 1  50 k 
= 1 +  =
 5

1+
10 k 
= 3 × 10–5
o 1 2 × 10
From Eq. (2.45)
50 k
f = − F
= − = – 4.9998
1 (1 + ) 10 k (1 + 3 × 10−5 )
O = f S = – 4.9998 × 100 × 10–3 = – 0.4998 V

39

From Eq. (2.47)
F
o = = 3 × 10–5 × 5 = 15 × 10–5
1
= 0.15 mV = 0.03%
From Eq. (2.13)

bw = o b = 2 × 105 × 10 = 2 MHz
From Eq. (2.56)
− 50 k 15 k
f = − F 1
=
1+ (1 + F 1 ) bw 1+ (1 + 150 k 15 k ) 2 × 106
− 3.333
=
1 + (100 × 103 ) (1 + 3.333) 2 × 106
− 3.333
= = – 3.258 ∠–12.19°
1 + 0.216
15 k
β= 1
= = 0.230
1 + F 15 k + 50 k
c = β bw = 0.23 × 2 × 106 = 460 kHz

Problem 2.22
- .
- .
1
-
1
-
-
2 3
- .
145
40

1 = F = 15 k
bw = o b = 2 × 105 × 10 = 2 MHz
From Eq. (2.56)
−1
f= − F 1
=
1+ (1 + F 1 ) bw 1 + 100 × 103 (1 + 1) 2 × 106
1
= − = – 0.99 ∠– 5.71°
1 + 0.1
c = β bw, β = 0.5
∴ c = 0.5 × 2 × 106 = 1 MHz
R1 R2 v1 R3
vi vO
Li
iS iF
Rx i
Ignoring d (virtual ground)
S = i
= F, 1 =– F 2 = − i
2 = − i
2
1 1 1
= − 1
=+ 1
2
x 1 x
1 = F + = i
+ i
2
1 1 x
 1 
Also O = 1 – 1 3 =– 2
− 3 + 2
 i
i
1
 1 1 x
 
1 + +
3 3
O
= − 2

i 1 2 x
20 k  20 k 20 k 
– 10 = − 1 + 20 k + 
50 k x 
41

2 20 k  20 k
10 =  2 +  , 25 = 2 +
5 x x
20 k
x = = 869.5
23
SR
SR = 6 V/ s, s(max) =
2π m
6 × 106
s(max) = = 95 kHz
2π × 10
- .
- .
1
-
1
-
-
2 3
- .
145
From Eq. (2.60)

 
O = − F
1 + F
2 + F
3
 1 2 3 
 40 k × 2 + 40 k (−3) + 40 k (−2)
= −
 20 k 20 k 20 k 
= – (4 – 6 – 4) = + 6 V
42

R2 vi R3
i R4
iF il
iS R1
–
–
+ +
vS vd
+ + vo
–
S = F = S
, 1 =– F 2 = − S
2
1 1
∴ = − 1
=+ S
2
4 1 4
S 2
1 = F + = + S
1 1 4
Also O = 1 – 3 = − S
2 – S
2
3 + S
3
1 1 4 1
1 
 +
2 2
= – S – 3  S
1  1 1 4 
 1 
 +
O 2 2
= – – 3 
S 1  1 1 4 
  − 12
1 + +
2 3 3 O
= – , Given = = – 240
1  2 4  S 0.05
Taking 2 =6 1 and 3 =9 4
   
∴ 240 = 6  1 + 9 + 3
 = 6 10 +
3

 2   2 
3
= 30
2
Let 2 = 10 k and 3 = 300 k . Then

300 k 100
4 = = k = 33.33 k
9 3
10
1 = k
6
43

From Eq. (2.67)

F F
O = ( a– b) , 5 = (220 – 200) mV ×
1 1
F
= 250
1
Let a = 1 = 2 k ; then
F = 0.5 M = x
O = – o ( + – –) (i)
i = 1012
Ignoring current through i
+ = a x
and – = F
⋅ b + 1
⋅ O
a + x 1 + F 1 + F
Substitution in (i) gives
O = − o a x
+ o F b
+ o 1 O
a + x 1 + F 1 + F
For a = 1 and F = x
O = − o a F
+ o
F b
+ o 1 O
1 + F 1 + F 1 + F
F 1 O
= – o ( a– b) + o (ii)
1 + F 1 + F
o F ( + F)
1
or O = ( b – a)
1− o 1 ( 1 + F)
o F ( b − a)
=
1 (1 − o + F
)
25 × 103 × 0.5 × 106 (200 − 220) × 10−3 −250 × 106

O= = ≃ 5.05 V
2 × 103 (1 − 25 × 103 ) + 0.5 × 106 2 × 103 − 50 × 106 + 0.5 × 106
− 5 × 105 × 0.5 × 106 × 20 × 10−3

O = ≃ 5V
2 × 103 (1 − 5 × 105 ) + 0.5 × 106
o → ∞, Eq. (ii) from the last problem reduces to

F F
| f |= O/ b – a = , 200 =
1 1
Let 1 = 2.5 k . Then F = 0.5 M .
44

For o = 5 ×105
o F
O = ( b – a)
1 − 1 o + F
5 × 105 × 0.5 × 106 × 20 × 10−3

= =4V
2.5 × 103 − 2.5 × 103 × 5 × 105 + 0.5 × 106
f = 200 × 20 × 10–3 = 4 V
∞
Hardly any error.
From Problem 2.28
O = − o a x
+ o F b
+ o 1 b
a + x 1+ F 1 + F
−3
+5 × 10 × 15 × 10 5
× 20 × 103 5 × 105 × 50 × 103 × 5 × 10−3
∴ O = +
2 × 103 + 20 × 103 5 × 103 + 50 × 103
5 × 105 × 5 × 103
+ O
5 × 103 + 50 × 103
= 6.818 × 103 + 2.777 × 103 + 4545 × 103 O
O ≃ – 0.2 V
i6
v1 i4 i5 i7
R4 R5 R6
R7
–
v2 R1 R3 vO
+ +
–
R2
2 1 – – – – 1
+ = 2, 4 = , 5 =
1 + 2 4 5
3 3 – O
7 = , 6 =
7 6
4 = 5
1 – – – – 3
= (i)
4 5
− −
5 = 6 + 7, – 3
= 3 O
+ 3
5 6 7
∴ − 3
– 3
– 3
=– –
– O
5 6 7 5 6
45

 1 1 1
– 3 + +  =–
–
– O
(ii)
 5 6 7 5 6
From (i)
1 – – 3
– = –
4 4 5 5
 1 1
1
– –  +  = – 3
4 4 5 5
1  4 + 5 3
–  = – (iii)

–
4 4 5 5
From (ii)
 5 6 + 6 7 + 5 7 – O
–  = – – (iv)

3
5 6 7 5 6
From (iii) using (iv)

( + ) 1  
1
– –
4 5
= 5 6 7
× – –
– O

4 4 5 5 5 6 + 6 7 + 5 7  5 6
5 6 7
Let =
5 6 + 6 7 + 5 7
+ 1 1
1
– –
4 5
= – Χ –
– Χ O
4 4 5 5 5 5 6
+ 1 1
∴ – –
4 5
+ –
=– 1
– Χ O
4 5 5 5 4 5 6
 + 1 1  1
– – 
4 5
+  = –
1
– Χ O
 4 5 5 5 4 5 6
 1
+  Χ ( )
1 4
 5 O 6
– =
 1
( + ) –   Χ (1 )
4 5 4 5
 5 5
Also ( + – –) o = O. Substituting for + and –
 1  
+  Χ  O
1
2 4
 5  6 O
– =
( 4 + 5)
2
+  1  1
1 2 –  Χ  o
4 5
 5  5
 1   O
  Χ  
1
2 4 5 6 O
– – =
( 5) ( )
2
+ +  1  1 +    1
1 2 4
–  Χ  4 5
–   ⋅  o
4 5
    5 5 4 5
 5  5
46

1
2
– 1
= ⋅ o/ 6 +
O
+
2
( + 5)  1  1  ( + 5)    1
  ⋅  
1 2 4 5 4 o
1 –      –
 4 5 5 5  4 5 5 5
 2 
⋅ – 1
 ( + )  ( 5)
2
1 2 4 +
 1   1
4     – 
 4 5 5  5 
O =
 1  1 1
  ( ⋅  +
5  + )    1   6 

4 5
–   ⋅  o
 4 5
 5  5
Assume o is large
 2  1
–
 ( + 
2) ( 5)
2
1 4 +  1  1 
–  
4
 4 5 5  5  
O =
 1
  ( + )  1
5  4 5  1 
 –     
 4 5 5 5 
Given 4 = 5 = 6 = 7 = 50 k
 2  1
–
 ( + 
2) ( + )
2
1 4 5 
 – 
=  4 5
O
( 4 + 5 – )
50 k × 50 k × 50 k 50 k
= =
3 ( 50 k × 50 k ) 3
(150 k 250 k ) – 1
(100 k 50 k – 50 k 3 × 50 k )
2
∴ O =
50 k 3 (100 k – 50 k 3)
0.6 2 – 0.6 1
= ≈ 3( 2 – 1 )
50 k 250 k
v_ iF
i1 i3 RF
R1 R3
3 –
1 vi
i2
R2 R4 4 vO
+
2
47

i – – –
1 = , 3 = , F = 1 + 3
1 3
i – –
F = – –
1 1 3
– – O i – –
Also F = = – –
F 1 1 3
1 1 1
 + + 
O i
– = – – (i)
F 1 1 3 F
i – + + i + +
2 = = , – =
2 4 2 2 4
 1 1
i
= +  + 
2 2 4
( 2 + 4 ) 4
i = + , + = i
4 2 + 4
Also O = o ( + – –)
O O
= + – –, – = + –
o o
i 4 O
– = – (ii)
2 + 4 o
Substituting in (i)
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
 + +  + +
O i 4 O
– = – i  + 
F 1 2 + 4 1 3 F o 1 3 F
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
 + +  + +
O O i 4
–  = – i 
F o 1 3 F 1 2 + 4 1 3 F
O 1 1 – 4 ( 2 + 4 ) (1 +1 3 +1 1 F )
= –
i 1 F +1 o (1 1 +1 3 +1 F)
For large o
O 1 1 – 4 2 + 4 (1 1 +1 3 +1 F )
= –
i 1 F
 1 1 1 
= – F
+ F 4
 + + 
1 2 + 4 1 3 F
– 500 k 500 k × 100 k  1 1 1 

O
= +  40 k + 50 k + 500 k 
i 40 k 80 k + 100 k
= – 12.5 + 277 k (20 × 10–6 + 20 × 10–6 + 2 × 10–6)

= – 12.5 + 13.0 = 0.5
48

Frequency response
o
(jω) = , where u = bω = o b
1+ b
1 – ( + ) (1 +1 3 +1 F)
O
( ω) = – 1 4 2 4 1
i 1 F +1 o ( ω ) (1 1 +1 3 +1 F)
1 1– 4 ( 2 + 4 ) (1 +1 1 3 +1 F )
= –
1 F + (1 1 +1 3 + 1 F ) ( (1 + b ) o )
1  1 1 1
 + + 
4
–
1 2 + 4 1 3 F
= –
1  1 1 1  1 + 1 1 1
+ + +   +
 + 
F  1 3 F o 1 3 F o b
For large o, the second term in the denominator tends to zero. Therefore,
1 – ( + 4 ) (1 1 + 1 +1 )
O
( ω) = – 1 4 2 3 F
i 1 F + (1 1 +1 3 +1 F) ⋅( bω )
– F 1 – 4 ( 2 + 4 ) (1 1 + 1 3 + 1 F )
=
1+ F (1 1 + 1 3 + 1 F ) bω
500 k 40 k – 500 k × 100 k 80 k × 100 k (1 40 k + 1 50 k + 1 500 k )

=
1+ 500 k 106 (1 40 k + 1 50 k + 1 500 k )
12.5 – 13.05 0.55

O
( ω) = − –6
=+
i 1+ 23.5 × 10 1+ 23.5 × 10 –6
i2 R2
–
i1 R1
–
1
vo1
2 +
3
v1 + vO
2
+ vo2 R3
R4
v2
( (+)1 – (–)1) o = o1, (+)1 = 1, (–)1 = o1
49

o1
( 1 – o1) = =0
o
For large o, 1 = o1, and similarly o2 = 2.
Now 1 = 2; then
o1 – (–)3
1 =
1
(–)3 – o
2 =
2
o1 – (–)3 (–)3 – O
∴ =
1 2
o1 (–)3 (–)3 O
– = –
1 1 2 2
(–)3 (–)3 –  1 1
 +  = +
o1 O o1 o
– – = – , (–)3
2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
+
∴ (–)3
1 2
= o1
+ o
1 2 1 2
2 1
(–)3 = 1 + O
1 + 2 1 + 2
4
(+)3 = o2 , [ (+)3 =– (–)3] o = O
3 + 4
O
or (+)3 – (–)3 =
o
Substituting for (–)3 and (+)3
4 2 1 O
2 1 – O=
3 + 4 1 + 2 1 + 2 o
For large o
4 2 1
2= – 1 = O
3 + 4 1 + 2 1 + 2
1 2 4
O = – 1 + 2
1 + 2 1 + 2 3 + 4
+
O = – 1
2
+ 2 ⋅ 4
⋅ 1 2
1 1 3 + 4
For 1 = 3 = 10 k and 2 = 4 =1M ,
106 106 10 k + 1 M
O = – 1 ⋅ + 2 ⋅ ⋅
104 104 10 k + 1 M
50

= – 1 100 + 2 100
= (– 100) 1 – (– 100) 2
∴ 1 = – 100, 2 = – 100
Assume 2 = 0; then o = 1 1.
SR 6 V / Js
max = = = 95.5 kHz
2π O 2π × 10
Problem 2.33
- 6
1
6 1
2 7
- - 2 7
6 2 7
2 7
-
-
2 3
2 7
145
51

+
v1 R1 iF RF
1
i1
–
vo1
–
R2 ix
3
+ vO
Rx ix
ix R3
–
R4
2
+ vo2
v2 R5
Assume there is virtual short circuit at the input of opKamps 1 and 2. Then
(–)1 = 1, (–)2 = 2
Current x through x is given by
1 − 2
x =
x
−
∴ o1 = 1 + x 2 = 1 + 1 2
2 (i)
x
1 − 2
o2 = 2 – x 3 = 2 – 3 (ii)
x
52

o1 − (–) 3  ( − )3 − O
= F, = , = 

1 1 F
1  F
1 = F
o1 − (–)3 (–)3 − O
=
1 F
( − )3 ( − )3
o1
− = − O
1 1 F F
(–)3 (–)3
− − = − o1
− O
1 F 1 F
 1 1  +
 +
1 F
(–)3  =
1 F 1 F
+
(–)3
1 F
= o1
+ O
1 F 1 F
(–)3 = 1 F o1
+ 1 F
⋅ O
1 + F 1 1 + F F
F 1
= o1 + O
1 + F 1 + F
5
(+)3 = o2, [ (+)3 – (–)3] o = O
4 + 5
∴ 5
o2 – F
o1 – 1
⋅ O = O
4 + 5 1 + F 1 + F o
Substituting for o1 and o2 from (i) and (ii)
   
5
 −( − 2) 3
−
F
 +( − ) 2
−
1
O = O
+ + 1 +
2 1 1 1 2
4 5  x  1 F  x  F
1 O
= 5
2 – 5
⋅ 3
1 + 5
⋅ 3
2
1 + F 4 + 5 4 + 5 4 + 5 x
– F
1 – F 2
1 + F 2
⋅ 2
1 + F 1 + F x 1 + F x
Given 2 = 3, 1 = 4 and F = 5,
∴ 1 O
= F 2
− F
⋅ 2
1 + F
⋅ 2
2
1 + F 1+ F 1 + F x 1 + F x
− F
1 – F
⋅ 2
1 + F
⋅ 2
⋅ 2
1 + F 1 + F x 1 + F x
2 F 2 F
= F
( 2 – 1) – 2
1 + ⋅ 2
2
1 + F 1 + F x 1 + F x
53

2 F
= F
( 2 – 1) + ⋅ 2
( 2 – 1)
1 + F 1 + F x
 2 
1 +
F 2
= ( 2 – 1) 
1 + F  x 
 2 
∴ 1 O
= ( 2 – 1)
F
1 +
2

1 + F 1 + F  x 
 2 
O = ( 2 – 1) ⋅ F
1 +
2

1  x 
From Eq. (2.73)

 2  F
O
= − 1 + 
s1 − s2  g  1 
Take F = 500 k , 1 = 10 k and = 1 k . Then
O 2 × 1000 2000
= 1+ × 50 ≃ × 50
s1 − s2 g g
g can be varied from 100 to 200 .
v = O
= F
s2 − s1 1
For 1 = 1 k , F = 750 k .
Problem 2.36
-
- -
54

1
O = co –
2 F 0
∫ S
For 0 ≤ ≤ 1 ms
1
O = 0–
10−5
∫ (+1) = – 105 ( )
0
For = 1 ms, O = – 105 × 10–3 = – 100 V. The amplifier goes in saturation at O = – 14 V

and co = – 14 V.
For 1 ≤ ≤ 2 ms
−1
O= – 14 – 105 ∫ (−1) = – 14 + 105 ( – 1)terms
0
For = 2 ms, O = – 14 + 105 (10–3). The amplifier goes in saturation at O = + 14 V and

co = 14 V.
For 2 ≤ ≤ 3 ms
−2
O = 14 – 105 ∫ (+1) = 14 – 105 ( – 2)terms
0
At = 3 ms
O = sat = – 14 V
co = – 14 V
For 3 ≤ ≤ 4
−3
O = – 14 – 105 ∫ (–1) = – 14 + 105 ( – 3)
0
At = 4 ms
O = sat = + 14 V
co = 14 V
Waveform is shown below.
v
vO
vS
t (ms)
1 2 3 4
55

10
S = 0 ≤ ≤ 1 ms
10−3
10
S = − + 20 1 ms ≤ ≤ 2 ms
10−3
For 0 ≤ ≤ 1 ms, co = 0.
1 10 1 10 2
O = 0–
1
∫ −3
F 10
= −
10−3 10−3 2
0
At = 1 ms
2
o = – 5 V = – 107
2
1 || F= 1 for F >> 1
F (1 + O) = 0.01 F (1 + 5 × 10 ) ≅ 5000 F
5
X=
 1
Y = F 1 +  ≃ F = 0.01 F
 o
From Example 2.11
o
( )=
1+ 1 x
3KdB frequency
1 1 1
ωb = = 4 −6
= rad/s
1 x 10 × 5000 × 10 50
b = 3.18 × 10–3 Hz
1
Since = 10 at = = 0.16 Hz
2π
b = 10 × 0.16 = 1.6 Hz
Let 1 = 1 F. Then
1
τi = = 99.5 ms
2π × 1.6
99.5 × 10−3
1 = ≅ 100 k
10−6
10 6.25
τF = = 6.25 s, F = = 6.25 M
1.6 1 JF
56

Problem 2.40
-
! " ! " #
2 2
45 45
Given values ABP := 20* R1 := 1 ⋅ 10 3 RL := 20 ⋅ 10 3 fH := 1000
Using Eq. (2.86), dc gain (for an ideal opKamp and neglecting the effect of RL)
RF := ABP⋅ R1 RF = 2 × 10 4
From Eq. 2.87
1
CF := CF = 7.958 × 10 − 9
2π RF ⋅ fH
∴ F = 8 nF
For SPICE verification,
57

Problem 2.41
8
8
6,
*9
. !
, 0
2 8
# -
/& )*& 84:
Plot
vm(3)
20
15
Voltage magnitude (mV)
10
1m 10 m 100 m 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Frequency (Hz)
From Eq. (2.108)

1 1
b = , 104 =
2π 1 1 2π 1 1
For 1 = 0.1 F, 1 = 159 .

From Eq. (2.110),
F
f(max) = , F = 20 × 159
1
F = 3180
Problem 2.42
-
-
6
58

-
2 2
4: 145
τd = = 2 × 103 × 10–8 = 20 s
1 1
1 1
b= = ≃ 7958 Hz
2π 1 1 2π × 2 × 103 × 10−8
10 k
f(max) = F
= =5
1 2k
Using Eq. (2.110)
F
PB =
1
Assume 1 =5k and PB = 20.

∴ F = 5 × 20 = 100 k
1 1
L = , 1 = = 6.4 nF
2π C1 1 2π × 5 k × 5 k
1 1
H = = = 250
2π F 1 2π × 10 × 103 × 6.4 × 10−9
For SPICE verification: using opKamp model of Fig. 2.3(a) as
Problem 2.44
R1 3 2 5k
RF 4 3 100k
C1 2 1 6.4nF
Ri 3 0 2Meg
59

E1 N002 0 3 0 K2E+5
Vin 1 0 AC 1mV 0
RL 4 0 20k
Ro 4 N002 75
.ac dec 101 0.1 100kHz
. PROBE
. END
Plot
R1 i1 R2 i2
– R4 R5 i4
R3 A1
vi vo1 i4
+
–
R6 A2 vo
+
Assume i = 0
0– – (1) – (1) − o1
1 = = 2 = (i)
1 2
o1 − – (2) – (2) − o
= (ii)
4 5
60

From (i)
− (1) − (1) – o1
– =
1 2
− (1) − (1) o1
– = –
1 2 2
 – (1) – (1) 
–  +  =–
o1
 1 2  2
 1 1 
– (1)  +  =
o1
 1 2 2
1 + 2 o1
– (1) =
1 2 2
1 + 2 1
– (1) × = o1, – (1) = o1 .
1 1 + 2
 1 
= o1( + (1) – – (1)) = o i –
+ 2 
o1 o1
 1
1
∴ o1 = o ( i) – o o1 .
1 + 2
1
o1 + o o1 = o i
1 + 2
o
= .
( )
o1 i
1+ o 1 1 + 2
Now +2 = i
o1 – – (2) – (2) – O
∴ =
4 5
o1 – (2) – (2) O
– = –
4 4 5 5
O
O = o ( + (2) – – (2)), = + (2) – – (2)
o
∴ O
= i – – (2), – (2) = i
O
o o
o1 O
 4 + 5
+ = – (2)  
4 5  4 5 
61

o1 O  O ( 4 + 5)
+ =  i – 
4 5  o 4 5
o 1 O 4 + 5 4 + 5
. + = –
( 2)
i O
1+ o 1 1 + 4 5 4 5 4 5
O O
( 4 + 5) 4 + 5 o i
+ = – .
( 2)
i
5 o 4 5 4 5 1+ o 1 1 + 4
 1 4 + 5  4 + 5 
O +  =  – o

(1 + ( ))
i
 5 o 4 5
  4 5 1 o 1 + 2 4

( + ) – o
O
4 5 4 5
1 + 1 ( 1 + 2 ) 
o 4
=
i 1 5 +( 4 + 5) o 4 5
o
Now let o =
1+ / b
( + ) – o
(1 + / b ) 1 + ( ( ) ) .(
4 5
o
4 5
1 1 + 2 o 1+ / b )  4
=
i 1 5 +( 4 + 5 4 5 ) .[ (1 + / b ) o ]
( 4 + 5 )– o
 
(1 + ) 1
4 5
/ + 4 o
= 
b 4
( 1 + 2 ) 
1
+
( 4 + 5 ) + ( 4 + 5 )  
  .  
5 4 5 o  4 5 o  b
( 4 + 5 )– o
 1 4 o 
4 5
 + + 
= 
4
b
4
( 1 + 2)
1 ( 4 + 5 ) ( 4 + 5 )
+ + .
5 4 5 o  4 5 o  b
( 4 + 5 )– 1
 4  1 4
4 5
 + 
=  b o ( 1 + 2)
1
+
( 4 + 5 ) . 
 
5 4 5 o b
( 4 + 5 )– 1
 4 1 4 
4 5
 + 
=  o b ( 1 + 2)
1+
( 4 + 5 ) . 
 
4 5 o b
62

( 4 + 5 )– 1
4 5  1 4   4 ( 1 + 2 ) 
  1 + + 
 ( 1 + 2 )   o b 1 4 
=
1+
( 4 + 5 ) . 
 
4 o b
check o →α
1 4 – 2 5
1 4
Further
o b 1
c1 = = 90.9 × 103
1 + 2
4 106 × 50 106 × 50
c2 = o b = =
4 + 5 50 + 500 550
SR
max <
2π o
SR 6
max = = –6
2π o 10 × 2π × 10
= 95.49 kHz
i3 R3
R2
i2
vi R1
3 – 4
R4
6
R5 vO
i1 v(–1)1 + i4 i5 7
2
–
v(–)2
5 +
i – (–) 1 (–) 1 – o1 (–) 1 – O

1 = , 2 = , 3 =
1 2 3
1 = 2 + 3
Substituting for 1, 2, and 3
(–)1 (–)1 (–)1

i
– = – o1
+ – O
1 1 2 2 3 3
63

(–)1 (–)1 (–)1

i
= + + – o1
– O
(i)
1 1 2 3 2 3
Also 4 = 5
o1 – (–)2 (–)2 – O
=
4 5
o1 (–)2 (–)2 O
– = – (ii)
4 4 5 5
Further (0 – (–)1) o = o1, (0 – (–)2) o = O
or
o1 O
– (–)1 = ,– (–)2 =
o o
or
(–)1 = − o1
, (–)2 = − O
o o
 1 1 1
 + + –
i o1 O
= (–)1 –
1 1 2 3 1 3
 1 1 1
= − o1
 + + – o1
– O
o 1 2 3 2 3
1  1 1 1 1 
= – o1   + + + –
O
(iii)
 o 1 2 3 2 3
From (ii)
 1 1
o1
= (–)2  + – O
4 4 5 5
 1 1
= − O
 + – O
o 4 5 5
 1 1
o1 = – 4
O  + – 4
O
o 4 5 5
Substituting in (iii) we have

  1 1   1 1 1 1 1 
i
= + 4
+  + 4
+ + +
1  o

4 5
o
5
O
  o  1 2 3

2
O
For large D–
3
1  1
i
= 4
O ⋅ – o
=  4
–  O
1 5 2 3  2 5 3
3 4 – 2 5
= O
2 3 5
64

Substituting the values

O 2 3 5 100 k × 150 k × 160 k
= =
i 1 ( 3 4 – 2 5 ) 20 k (150 k × 20 k – 100 k × 160 k )
= – 9.23
Problem 2.46
- .
- - .
- 7
1
-
1
-
-
2 3
1
;-
R1 i1 i2 R2
i5 R5
– RF
3 i4 R4
–
1
2 + 4 6
2
vi + 7 vO
R3 5
v2 R6
0– (–)1 (–)1 – o1
1 = 2, 1 = , 2 =
1 2
(–)1 (–)1 (–)1 (–)1

– = – o1
, − – =– o1
1 2 2 1 2 2
65

 1 1
∴ (–)1  +  = o1
(i)
 1 2 2
 1 + 2 o1 1
or  = or =

(–)1 (–)1 o1
1 2 2 1 + 2
o1 – (–)2 (–)2 – O
4 = 5, 4 = , 5 =
4 5
− o1 – (–)2 (–)2 – O
= −
4 5
− (–)2 (–)2 o1 O
– = –
4 5 4 5
 1 1 
– (–)2  +  = −
o1
– O
 4 5 4 5
+
(–)2
4 5
= o1
+ O
(ii)
4 5 4 5
Also ( 1 – (–)1) o = o1 (iii)

And ( 2 – (–)2) o = O (iv)
From (iii)
 1 
 1 – o1  o = o1
1 + 2
o1 o 1
1 o – = o1
1 + 2
 
1 +
o 1
=
+ 2 
o1 1 o
1
o
o1 = 1
1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2 )
From (ii)
+ 1
(–)2
4 5
= 1
o
× + O
4 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2) 4 5
+ 1
(–)2 = 4 5
⋅ o 1
× + 4 5
⋅ O
4 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2) 4 4 + 5 5
= 5
⋅ O
+ 4
4 + 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2 ) 1
4 + 5
O
From (iv) 2 – 5
⋅ o 1
– 4
= O
4 + 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2 ) 4 + 5
O
o
2 – 5
⋅ o 1
= O
+ 4
O
4 + 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2) o 4 + 5
66

 1 
O + 4
 = 2 – 5
⋅ o
1
 o 4 + 5 4 + 5 1+ o 1 ( 1 + 2 )
×1 ( + )
O = 2
– 1
⋅ 5 4 5
1 o + 4 ( 4 + 5 ) 1 o + 1 ( 1 + 2 ) 1 o + 4 ( 4 + 5 )
For large o
O = 2
– 1
⋅ 5
4 ( o + 5) 1 + 2 4
Given 1 = 5 = 10 k and 2 = 4 = 500 k k ; then

+ +
O = 4 5
2 – 1 2
1 × 5
4 1 4
 +   + 5
= – 1 2
⋅ 5
 – – 4

1 2
 1 4  4
= 1 1 – 1 2
where
+ +
1 = − 1 2
⋅ 5
, 1 = − 4 5
1 4 4
10 k + 500 k 10 k
1 = − × = – 1.02
10 k 500 k
+ 500 k + 10 k
1 = − 4 5
= = – 1.02
4 500 k
∴ O = (– 1.02) 1 – (– 1.02) 2
Note 1 is same as 2.
SR SR 6 V / Js
max = = = = 95.5 kHz
2π . out 2π × 10 V 2 π × 10 V
Same as Problem 2.47.
1 = 5, 2 = 7, 3 = 3, 1 = 2, 2 = 1, 3 =6
= 5 + 7 + 3 = 15, = 2 + 1 + 6 = 9, = – – 1 = 15 – 9 – 1 = 5
> 0, x = ∞, y = F
= F
= F
5
For A = 20 k , F = A = 15 × 20 k = 300 k .
300 k F 300 k
y = = 60 k , a = = = 60 k
5 1 5
F 1300
b = = k = 42.86 k
2 7
67

300
c = k = 100 k
3
F 300
1 = = k = 150 k
1 2
F 300 F 300 k
2 = = k = 300 k , 3 = = = 50 k
2 1 3 6
From Eq. (2.117)
B = 1 || 2 || 3 || y = (150 || 300 || 50 || 60) k = 33.33 k
B || F= 33.33 || 300 = 30 k
1 = 5, 2 = 9, 3 = 3, 1 = 8, 2 = 2, 3 =6
= 5 + 9 + 3 = 17, = 8 + 2 + 6 = 16, = – – 1 = 17 – 16 – 1 = 0
x = ∞, y = ∞; = 17
Assume A = 20 k ; then F = A = 340 k .
F 340 F 340
a = = k = 68 k , b = = = 37.77 k
1 5 2 9
F 340 F 340
c = = = 113.33 k , 1 = = = 42.5 k
3 3 1 8
F F 340
2 = = 340/2 = 170 k , 3 = = = 56.66 k
2 3 6
From Eq. (2.117)
B = ( 1 || 2 || 3 || y) = 1 || 2 || 3
= 
340 340 
k = 21.25 k
 8 ||170 || 6 
B || F = (21.25 || 340) k = 20 k
Referring to Fig. (2.34) and Eq. (2.119)

= (5 +7 + 3 ) − (2 1 + 2 + 6 3)
= 1 + 2 + 3 − 1 1 − 2 2 − 3 3
where
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 5 + 7 + 3 = 15
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 2 +1+ 6 = 9
= − − 1 = 15 − 9 − 1 = 5
Since > 0, = ∞, = =
5
For = 20
= , where is the largest value of . Thus in this problem, = 15
68

= = 15 20 = 300
300
= = = 60
5
300
= = = 60
1 5
300
= = = 42.86
2 7
300
= = = 100
3 3
300
1 = = = 150
1 2
300
2 = = = 300
2 1
300
3 = = = 50
3 6
=∞
Check:
From Eq. (2.116)
= || || = 60 || 42.86 ||100 = 20
From Eq. (2.117)
150
= 1 || 2 || 3 || = 150 ||300 ||50 ||60 =
7
From Eq. (2.118)
150
|| =
||300 = 20
7
Therefore, = ( || ) is satisfied.
Given
= (5 +9 + 3 ) − (8 1 − 2 2 − 6 3)
min = 20
= 1 + 2 + 3 − 1 1 − 2 2 − 3 3
where
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 5 + 9 + 3 = 17
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 8 + 2 + 6 = 16
= − − = 17 − 16 − 1 = 0
Since =0 , = 0, =0
= min and =9
= 9 20 = 180
69

180
= = = 36
1 5
180
= = = 20
2 9
180
= = = 60
3 3
180
1 = = = 22.5
1 8
180
2 = = = 90
2 2
180
3 = = = 30
3 6
From Eq. (2.116)
= || || = 36 || 20 ||60 = 10.58
From Eq. (2.117)
= 1 || 2 || 3 = 22.5 || 90 || 30 = 11.25
From Eq. (2.118)
|| = 11.25 || 80 = 10.58
Therefore,
=( || ) is satisfied
1 106
Closed loop gain = = = 100
1 1 104
From Eq. (2.120)
(min) (max)
≤ ≤
13 13
− ≤ ≤
100 100
Maximum input signal = ±130
1 106
Closed loop gain = 100 =
10
13
Peak input signal = ± = ±130
100
Undistorted output voltage = ±12
Limiting OpKamp current = ±18
70

12
Allowable load current = 18 − = 18 − = 18 − 12 = 6
1
12
Minimum load resistance > = =2
6
= 10
From Eq. (2.126)

= 6.286
10
= = −6 −3
= 1.59 108
6.286 1 10 6.286 10 10
From Eq. (2.128)
10
= = −6
= 159.2
2π 2 π 10
(max)
10
From Eq. (2.123)

= 0.3
= 2.2τ
τ= = 136.36 10−9
2.2
From Eq. (2.125)
1 1
= = = 1.16
2π τ 2π 136.36 10 −9
max
= 10 , = 10
From Eq. (2.128)

10 1 10−6
τ= = = 10 −6
10
1 1
= = −6
= 1.59 105
2π τ 2π 10
max
From Eq. (2.128)

10 106
= = = = 159
2π 2π 10 2π
(max)
= 10 , = 250
71

From Eq. (2.127)

10
= = −6
= 6.37
2π 1 10 2π 250 103
From Eq. (2.127)
10 106
= = = 159.1
2π 2π 10
(max)
From Eq. (2.130)
= ± (1 + )
1
= ±6
50
= ± (1 + )6
15
= ± 26
= = ±6
= ±6
= ± 12
Referring to Fig. (2.40) and using the expression given below
= + = (1 + )
±12 = ±6 (1 + )
≃ 2 103
= 2 103 0.1 10−6 10 103 = 2
If B is the biasing current

ob = = 50 × 103 × 500 × 10–9
F B
= 25 mV
Offset minimizing resistance
x = 1 || F (15 || 50) k = 11.538 k
Using Eq. (2.138)
 F  F
= 1 +  = 1 +

oi x io x io
 1  1
72


= 1 +

F
 (
1
1 || F) io (
= 1+
50
15 )
(15 || 50)k io
65 15 × 50
= ± × × 103 × 200 × 10–9 = ± 10–2 V
15 65
oi = F io = ± 150 × 103 × 300 × 10–9 = ± 45 mV

ob = 150 × 103 × 500 × 10–9 = 75 mV
1 || F = (15 || 50) k = 11.54 k = x
ob = 0
oi = F io = ± 50 × 103 × 300 × 10–9
= ± 15 mV
For x = 0, Eq. (2.2.134) gives
ob = F B = 50 × 103 × 500 × 10–9 = 25 mV
From Eq. (2.142) for C(t = 0)

io io
+ of = – + io – x B1
F 1 F
6 × 10−3 300 × 10−9

12 = – + 6 × 10–3 – 10 × 103 × 500 × 10–9
10−7 × 15 × 103 10−7
6
= – 3 + 6 × 10–3 – 5 × 10–3
1.5
= 4 –3, ≃ 12 s
x = 0, hardly makes any difference. The value remains the same.
From Fig.P2.66
≃
= 1+
= − 1
Since = 1 2
= −1= −
2
Since = 1 ≃ 1
= −
1 2
73

=−
= + = + = (1 + )
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
= (1 + ) (1)
1 2
Given =1 , 2 =1 , = 500 , = 10
From Eq. (1) above
10 103
500 = (1 + )
1 1
1 ≃ 20
Power produced by the photodiode

! = "p = 10–6 × 40 × 10–2 = 400 nW
S = !"i = 400 × 10–9 × 1 = 400 nA
1 107
F = |– O/ S |= = = 2.5 M
400 nA 4
For F >> 2,
1 2
S = M
F
Let F = 100 k ; then 2 = 100 .
S F 200 × 10−3 × 100 × 103

1 = = =2M
M 2 100 × 10−6 × 102
in = – ( 1/ F)
Assume 1 = F = 10 k and = 15 k . Then
in = – 15 k
V V
74

O = – 50 e +5
= – 50 ( ref – S) + 5 = 50 S – 50 ref +5
Let 1 = 10 k and 2 = 10 k . F = 50 × 10 = 500 k = 3.
–12V
R3=RF
–5V
RF
12V
+12V
Rx=R2
vref –
–
3
+ R1 +
+ vO
vS
–
There is no unique solution. Hint: Use an opKamp comparator to compare the dc voltage with
the sifted sine wave to produce a squareKwave output and then pass the signal to a RKC
circuit, this is to differentiate.
Same as Problem 2.70.
o = 1+ F/ 1 = 100
From Eq. (2.31)
1+
f( ω) = F 1
1+ (1 + F 1 ) bw
From Eq. (2.32)

1
c = bw × , bw = 4 × 106 Hz
1+ F 1
bw = 4 × 106 Hz
1
c = 4 × 106 × = 40 kHz
100
Let 1 = 2.5 k . Then
F
= 99, F = 2.5 × 99 k
1
= 247.5 k
= 250 k
Voltage swing:
75

We know
SR SR
s = = = 25 × 103 Hz
2π O 2 π × 11
SR = 25 × 103 × 2π × 11 = 1.73 V/ s
Problem 2.73
2 7
2 7
1 1 2 0
-
-
2 3
2 7
145
76

Use the circuit of Problem 2.33 to design the desired differential amplifier circuit with f =5
kV/V and i ≥ 500 k .
– R1 R2
v1 + vo1
–
+
+ vO
– R3
–
v2 + vo2
R4
From Problem 2.33

1 = 3 = 10 k , 2 = 4 =1M
v1 = – 100 1 + 100 2 = – 100 ( 1 – 2)
Now add one stage of noninverting opKamp of gain 50.

f = v1 × v2 = 100 × 50 = 5000 = 5 kV/V
Problem 2.74
- 6
1
6 1
-
6
2 7
- - 2 7
6 2 7
2 7
2 7
-
-
2 3
2 7
77

14
78

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O = o ( + – –) = 2 × 105 (0 – 2 sin 377 )

O = o ( + – –) = 2 × 105 (75 + 25)10–6 = +20 V; at saturation, O = +14 V

O = d d ± c c = 2 × 105 × 40 × 10–6 ± 6.32 × 80 × 10–6

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Choose 1 k < 1 < 10 M ; let 1 = 10 k .

O from the circuit

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From (ii) and (iii),

in = 5 × 105 × 1012/100 = 5 × 1015

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0 1.5 7.1 8 9.5

S needed for O = ±15 V

From (i) and (ii)

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Assuming d to be negligible, O ≃ + = S. Hence,

= 10 k + 5 × 105 × 105 × 2 × 106 ≃ 1012

(i) and (ii) give

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From Eq. (2.13)

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From Eq. (2.35)

 40 k   20 × 2 20( −3) 20(−2) 

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The expression for out is the same as in Problem 2.14.

O = – 50 × 10–3 × 99.6 = – 4.98 V

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≃ 100 × 10–6 = 10–4

From Eq. (2.46)

O = f S = – 4.9998 × 100 × 10–3 = – 0.4998 V

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From Eq. (2.47)

From Eq. (2.13)

c = β bw = 0.23 × 2 × 106 = 460 kHz

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Ignoring d (virtual ground)

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From Eq. (2.60)

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Let 2 = 10 k and 3 = 300 k . Then

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From Eq. (2.67)

25 × 103 × 0.5 × 106 (200 − 220) × 10−3 −250 × 106

− 5 × 105 × 0.5 × 106 × 20 × 10−3

o → ∞, Eq. (ii) from the last problem reduces to

Let 1 = 2.5 k . Then F = 0.5 M .

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5 × 105 × 0.5 × 106 × 20 × 10−3

Hardly any error.

From Problem 2.28

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From (iii) using (iv)

Also ( + – –) o = O. Substituting for + and –

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– 500 k 500 k × 100 k  1 1 1 

= – 12.5 + 277 k (20 × 10–6 + 20 × 10–6 + 2 × 10–6)

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500 k 40 k – 500 k × 100 k 80 k × 100 k (1 40 k + 1 50 k + 1 500 k )

12.5 – 13.05 0.55

( (+)1 – (–)1) o = o1, (+)1 = 1, (–)1 = o1