UNIT-3

Special-Purpose Diodes
Mohammad Asif Iqbal
Assistant Professor,
Deptt of ECE,
LPU, Punjab
Semiconductor Basics
Note nthat
Both there
-type andispnow
-typeanmaterials
insufficient
arenumber
formedofby The
Note that thep four
-typecovalent
material is formed
bonds bypresent.
are still
electronsa topredetermined
adding complete the covalent
numberbonds of the
of impurity There is,doping
however, a pure germanium
an additional fifth or silicondue to
electron
newly formed
atoms lattice. base.
to a silicon The resulting vacancy
An n -type is calledis
material crystal withwhich
impurity
the impurity atom, is unassociated with any
a hole and is represented by a small circle or a plus
created by introducing impurity elements that atoms
particular having
covalent three
bond. valence
This electrons.
remaining electron,
sign, indicating the absence of a negative charge.
have five valence electrons ( pentavalent ), such
Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free
loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is
as antimony , arsenic , and phosphorus. relatively free to move within the newly formed n -
electron:
type material. Since the inserted impurity atom has
The diffused impurities with three valence
donated a relatively “free” electron to the structure:
electrons are called acceptor atoms.
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are
called donor atoms.
Semiconductor Basics
Observe that each si atom as four electron in its outer
shell. Each electron in outer shell will make a covalent
bond with the electron of neighboring atoms.

Note that the four covalent bonds are still present. There
is, however, an additional fifth electron due to the
impurity atom, which is unassociated with any
particular covalent bond. This remaining electron,
loosely
Now if we
bound
add penta-valent
to its parent impurities,
(antimony)
in the
atom,
silicon
is
relatively antimony
material, free to move
(in this
within
case),
thehas
newly formed n -type
material. Since the inserted impurity atom has donated
a relatively “free” electron to the structure:
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are
called donor atoms.
Semiconductor Basics

When the fifth electron of a

donor atom leaves the parent
atom, the atom remaining
acquires a net positive charge:
hence the plus sign in the
donor-ion representation. For
similar reasons, the minus
sign appears in the acceptor
n-type ion. p-type
As we have discussed earlier In an n -type material, For the p -type material the number of holes far
the number of free electrons has changed significantly, outweighs the number of electrons,
but the number of holes has not changed significantly Thus In a p-type material the hole is the majority
from this intrinsic level. The net result, therefore, is carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.
that the number of electrons far outweighs the
number of holes. For this reason: In an n-type
material the electron is called the majority carrier
and the hole the minority carrier.
Now let's join both of them
P N At the instant the two
materials are “joined” the
electrons and the holes in the
region of the junction will
combine, resulting in a lack of
free carriers in the region
near the junction, Note the
only particles displayed in
this region are the positive
and the negative ions
remaining after the
absorption of free carriers.
This region of uncovered
positive and negative ions is
called the depletion region
due to the “depletion” of free
carriers in the region.
Depletion Region
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
• AsEven
the though the light
name implies, theis light-emitting
not visible, Through
diode isother
a diode that gives
combinations off visible
of elements or invisible
a coherent visible
infrared light
(infrared) LEDs
when have
energized. numerous light can be generated as shown in the table below
• Inapplications where visible
any forward-biased p – n light is not
junction there is, a recombination of holes and electrons within
a structure
the desirableand effect. These
primarily closeinclude
to the junction.
security
• This systems,
recombination requires industrial
that the energy possessed by the unbound free electrons be
processing,to optical
transferred another coupling,
state. safety
• Incontrols such as pon– ngarage
all semiconductor junctions door
some of this energy is given off in the form of heat and
openers,
some in theand
forminofhome entertainment
photons.
• Incenters,
Si and Gewhere
diodesthetheinfrared
greater light of
percentage of the energy converted during recombination at
thejunction
the remote is control is theincontrolling
dissipated the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted light is
element.
insignificant.
• For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED devices. On
the other hand
• Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the
recombination process at the p–n junction.
Process of electroluminescence in the LED
Emitted
visible
light

P N
Recombination Metallic
contact
Recombination

Recombination
Recombination

Recombination
Characteristic and symbol
Application of diode
• We know that a Diode allows the current flow only in one direction and hence it acts as a one-way switch.
Diode is made of P and N type materials and has two terminals namely anode and cathode. This device
can be operated by controlling the voltage applied to these terminals.
• When the voltage applied to the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is said to be in
Forward Bias. If the voltage applied to the diode is greater than the threshold level (generally, it is of
≈0.6V for Silicon Diodes), then diode acts as a short circuit and allows the current flow.
• If the polarity of the voltage is changed i.e., the cathode is made positive with respect to anode, then it is
said to be in Reverse Bias and acts as open circuit. As a result, no current flows through it.

03/27/2023 10
Diode as a Rectifier
The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC power to DC power. Using
diodes, we can construct different types of rectifier circuits. The basic types of these rectifier circuits are half
wave, full wave center tapped and full bridge rectifiers. A single or combination of four diodes is used in most
of the power conversion applications. Below figure shows diode operation in a rectifier.

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Diodes in Clipping Circuits
Clipping Circuits are used in FM transmitters, where noise peaks are limited to a particular value so that
excessive peaks are removed from them. The clipper circuit is used to put off the voltage beyond the preset
value without disturbing the remaining part of the input waveform.

03/27/2023 12
Transistor
A transistor is a type of a semiconductor device that can be used to both conduct and insulate electric
current or voltage. A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a
transistor is a miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.

Transistors are one of the key components in most of the electronic devices that are present today.
Developed in the year 1947 by three American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley, the transistor is considered as one of the most important inventions in the history of science.

03/27/2023 13
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
The three terminals of BJT are base, emitter and collector. A very small current flowing between base and
emitter can control a larger flow of current between the collector and emitter terminal.

Furthermore, there are two types of BJT. These include;

• P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed between two p-type
materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current. PNP transistor consists of 2
crystal diodes which are connected in series. The right side and left side of the diodes are known as the
collector-base diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.
• N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong signals. In NPN transistor,
the electrons move from the emitter to collector region resulting in the formation of current in the
transistor. This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Transistor As A Switch
Using a transistor as a switch is the simplest application of the device. A transistor can be extensively used for switching
operation either for opening or closing of a circuit. Meanwhile, the basic concept behind the operation of a transistor as a
switch relies on its mode of operation. Generally, the low voltage DC is turned on or off by transistors in this mode.
Both PNP and NPN transistors can be utilized as switches. A basic terminal transistor can be handled differently from a signal
amplifier by biasing both NPN and PNP bipolar transistors by an “ON / OFF” static switch. One of the main uses of the
transistor to transform a DC signal “On” or “OFF” is solid-state switches.
Transistor as a switch
Discussion and calculation of parameter
𝑉 𝐶𝐸 ¿𝑉 𝐶 =𝑉 𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅 𝐶 𝐼 𝐶
𝑉 𝐶𝐶 0.7
𝐼 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑥 =𝐼 𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = =7 . 1 mA
𝑅𝐶 kΩ
𝐼 𝐶𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐼 𝐵= =56 . 8 µ A
β 50kΩ
β= 125
And condition for saturation is
𝐼 𝐶𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐼 𝐵>
β
𝐼 𝐵 >56 . 8 µ A
So, in order to make this transistor work under saturation region we
have to choose input resistance so as the and it must be known to
you that in saturation
Transistor as a switch
Now lets apply a voltage of 5V at input, we get
𝑉 𝑖 −𝑉 𝐵𝐸 5 −0 .7
𝐼 𝐵= = =86 µ A >56 .8 µ A
𝑅𝐵 50 0.7
It mean when we are applying a 5V potential at input of the transistor it will be kΩ
working in saturation region giving an output voltage equal to zero

Now lets take input voltage equals to 0 V It means Base

50kΩ C
is at zero β= 125
That will result in = 0, potential B
Thus E
Resulting 𝑉 𝐶 =5𝑉 And the emitter is
already at zero potential,
so the base emitter
junction cant be forward
bias and hence transistor
will be in cutoff region
Lets summarize
Under saturation region Under cutoff region

C C
B It means that It means that
the switch is the switch is
on off
E E

𝑉 𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡 0 𝑉 𝐶𝐶 𝑉 𝐶𝐶
𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝐼 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐼 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝐶 0
⇒ 𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 =0 ⇒ 𝑅 𝑠𝑎𝑡 =∞
Transistor Switch’s Working Regions or Operating Modes

Meanwhile, the saturation zone and cut-off area are known as the transistor switch’s working regions.

Cut-Off Region

Saturation Region
Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction,
makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below
figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an appreciable change in the output. The
emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current, which when flows through the load resistor R L,
results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.
Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction,
makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below
figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an appreciable change in the output. The
emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current, which when flows through the load resistor R L,
results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.
Transistor different configuration
What is a MOSFET?
Metal Oxide Silicon/semiconductor Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are
electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled device
and is constructed by three terminals. The terminals of MOSFET are named as follows:
•Source
•Gate
•Drain
•Body

24
What is a MOSFET?
Metal Oxide Silicon/semiconductor Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are
electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled device and
is constructed by three terminals. The terminals of MOSFET are named as follows:
•Source
•Gate
•Drain
•Body
•The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the MOSFET.
•The two types of the base are highly doped with an n-type
impurity which is marked as n+ in the diagram.
•From the heavily doped regions of the base, the terminals
source and drain originate.
•The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of silicon
dioxide for insulation.
•A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of the silicon
dioxide and it acts as a capacitor.
•The gate terminal is brought out from the thin metallic
plate.
•A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a voltage source
between these two n-type regions. 25
Type of MOSFET

03/27/2023 26
IMPORTANT
 One of the reasons for the
popularity of the op amp is its
Have you seen them versatility.
Why they are known Why to study about As we will shortly see,
in any circuit? as OpAmp?? them?? one can do almost anything
with op amps! Equally important
is the fact that the IC op amp
has characteristics that closely
approach the assumed
ideal. This implies that it is
quite easy to design circuits
using the IC op amp. Also, op-
amp circuits work at
performance levels that are
quite close to those predicted
theoretically. It is for this reason
that we are studying op amps at
this early stage
How would you draw them in circuits
𝑉 𝐶𝐶

𝟏 𝟒
̶ 𝟑
𝟐
+¿ 𝟓
̶ 𝑉 𝐸𝐸
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage signals applied at its two input
terminals (i.e., the quantity v2 − v1), multiply this by a number A(very large), and cause the resulting
voltage A(v2 − v1) to appear at output terminal 3.

𝑉1
𝟏 ̶ A(v − v )
2 1

𝑉2 𝟑
𝟐 +¿
Continue….
The ideal op amp is not supposed to draw any input current; that is, the signal current into terminal 1 and the
signal current into terminal 2 are both zero. In other words, the input impedance of an ideal op amp is supposed
to be infinite.

Infinite Input
Impedance

𝟏 ̶
Current I
𝟑
𝟐 +¿
As we have already discussed that the op amp responds only to the difference signal v2 − v1 and hence ignores
any signal common to both inputs. That is, if v1 = v2 = 1 V, then the output will (ideally) be zero. We call this
property common-mode rejection, and we conclude that an ideal op amp has zero common-mode gain or,
equivalently, infinite common-mode rejection.

Combining all the important properties of op-amp

1. Infinite input impedance
2. Zero output impedance
3. Zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite common-mode rejection
4. Infinite open-loop gain A
5. Infinite bandwidth
The Closed-Loop Gain
We now wish to analyze the circuit in Fig to determine
the closed-loop gain G, defined as

The gain A is very large (ideally infinite). If we assume

that the circuit is “working” and producing a finite
output voltage at terminal 3, then the voltage between
the op-amp input terminals should be negligibly small
and ideally zero. Specifically, if we call the output
voltage vO, then, by definition,
• It follows that the voltage at the inverting input terminal (v1) is given by v1 = v2.
• That is, because the gain A approaches infinity, the voltage v1 approaches and ideally equals
v2.
• We speak of this as the two input terminals “tracking each other in potential.”
• We also speak of a “virtual short circuit” that exists between the two input terminals.
• Here the word virtual should be emphasized, and one should not make the mistake of
physically shorting terminals 1 and 2 together while analyzing a circuit.
• A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage is at 2 will automatically appear at 1
because of the infinite gain A.
• But terminal 2 happens to be connected to ground; thus v2 = 0 and v1 = 0. We speak of
terminal 1 as being a virtual ground—that is, having zero voltage but not physically
connected to ground.
#The Inverting Configuration
Important discussion..

• We thus see that the closed-loop gain is simply the ratio of the two resistances R2 and R1.
• The minus sign means that the closed-loop amplifier provides signal inversion. Thus if R / R = 10
2 1

and we apply at the input (v ) a sine-wave signal of 1 V peak-to-peak, then the output v will be a
I O

sine wave of 10 V peak-to-peak and phase-shifted 180° with respect to the input sine wave
• Because of the minus sign associated with the closed-loop gain, this configuration is called the
inverting configuration
• The fact that the closed-loop gain depends entirely on external passive components (resistors R1
and R2) is very significant
• It means that we can make the closed-loop gain as accurate as we want by selecting passive
components of appropriate accuracy
• This is a dramatic illustration of negative feedback: We started out with an amplifier having very
large gain A, and through applying negative feedback we have obtained a closed-loop gain that is
much smaller than A but is stable and predictable. That is, we are trading gain for accuracy.
#The Non-inverting Configuration
THANK YOU!