GEN CHEM REVIEWER QRT2 ❖ representation on how each electron is

arranged among orbitals, levels and

Week 1 sublevels.
All matter is made of tiny particles. These 2 Ways to write Electron
particles are either individual atoms or groups Configuration
of atoms called molecules. 1. SPDF Notation
Subatomic Symbol Charge Mass Loc. in
particle atom
(in or out
of
nucleus)

Electron e- -1 0.0005 outside

Proton p+ +1 1.0073 inside

2. Orbital Box Notation
Neuron n^0 0 1.0087 inside

Energy level- refers to the shell or orbital in

which the electron is located relative to the
atom's nucleus.

Electron Configuration
❖ shows how electrons are distributed in
the atom.
❖ the arrangement of electrons in energy
levels around an atomic nucleus.
 Principles that govern Electron Writing the Noble Gas
Configuration Electron Configuration
Noble Gas Symbol Atomic
Aufbau Principle Number
(aufbau means “ building up in German)
Helium He 2
“Electrons fill up the available low energy
orbitals before they fill up the higher energy Neon Ne 10
ones.”
Argon Ar 18

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s Krypton Kr 36
3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s
Xenon Xe 54
4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p
Radon Rd 86
Quantum Numbers
Si Susie Pumunta Sa Park, Si Danny ❖ It determines the location and
Pumunta Sa Dorm, Paano Si Franky arrangement of electrons in an atom.
Daddy? Paano Si Franky Daddy Paano? ❖ It also describes the different atomic
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle orbitals.
“A given atomic orbital can only house a Principal Quantum Number (n)
maximum of two electrons with opposite ❖ refer to the energy level of an electron
spins.” ❖ denoted with symbol (n)
❖ has a value of any positive integer
Angular Momentum/ Azimuthal Quantum
Number (l)
❖ refers to the shape of the orbitals
s=0 p=1 d=2 f=3
Magnetic Quantum Number(ml)
❖ describes the spatial orientation or
specific orbital of an electron.
Hund’s Rule
❖ its value depends on the angular
“Electrons entering orbitals of equal energy
momentum value where it can be from
tend to fill out unoccupied orbitals first before
the range of a negative integer, zero to
pairing up in one orbital.”
a positive integer.

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

❖ its values can be +1/2 or -½
 Electronegativity
-tendency of an atom to attract electrons
toward itself
Fluorine- highest electronegative element
Francium- lowest electronegative element

Paramagnetic- unpaired electrons

Diamagnetic- paired electrons

Week 2
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonds form between two or more atoms
by the transfer of one or more electrons
between atoms.
-Transfer of electrons
-negative ions called anions - gain electron
-positive ions called cations- lose electron
metal = non-metal
Lewis Electron Dot Structure
-simplified representation of the valence shell
electrons in a molecule. Electronegativity Difference Classification
Gilbert N. Lewis – formulated the Lewis 0 – 0.4- Incomplete Transfer/ nonpolar
Electron Dots (LEDs) covalent bond
Valence Electron- electrons in the outermost 0.5 – 1.9- Incomplete Transfer/ polar covalent
shell. bond
Octet Rule- tendency of atoms to prefer to Greater than 1.9- Complete Transfer/ formed
have eight electrons in the valence shell. ionic bond
Noble Gases
● each noble gas, except for He, has eight
electrons on its outer shell
○ satisfies the octet rule.

Week 3
Covalent Bond- a bond where two or more
atoms share electrons
- Bonding of nonmetals
Molecule- bond between similar or different
atoms/elements
Compound- bond between 2 or more
different atoms/elements
 ● solid lines: in-plane
● wedge lines: out-of-plane
○ solid wedge: towards you
○ dashed wedge: away from you

shared pair or bonding pair represented by

a pair of dots or a line.
lone pair- unshared pair
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Model
● bonds orient themselves in a way that
minimizes repulsions between electron
domains

Properties of Covalent Bonds

Hardness and Brittleness
● covalent compounds are generally soft and
brittle
Electrical conductivity
● Covalent compounds do not conduct
electricity in any state.
Melting and Boiling Points
● Covalent compounds have lower melting
and boiling points than ionic compounds.

Week 4
Two Types of Covalent Bond
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
• involves the equal sharing of electrons
between atoms
• when two atoms have the same
electronegativity or the tendency of an atom
to attract a bonding pair of electrons
Polar Covalent Bond
● involves the unequal sharing of electrons
between atoms of different elements
● the degree of polarity between atoms varies
widely
Molecular Shape
● 3D structure of a molecule
● defined by bond angles
Week 5
Organic Compounds: Functional
Groups
Organic Compounds
•carbon-containing compounds that are
covalently bonded to other carbon and
hydrogen atoms
Carbon Hydrogen Bond= Organic
Carbon “The Element of Life”
•Atomic number is 6.
•It is a tetravalent atom since 4 of its
electrons
are found in the valence orbital.
•Can form isomers.
Functional Groups
● Organic compounds are organized
according to their functional groups
● the reaction of an organic compound
takes place at the functional group.
● Organic compounds with the same
functional group have similar properties and
reactions.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only
single bonds. Alkanes have a general formula
of CnH2n+2, where n is a positive integer.
Alkenes hydrocarbons that contain at least
one carbon to carbon double bond (C=C)
• two H atoms will be removed from this
molecule to give way to double bond
•the general formula is C2H2n, where n is a
positive integer
•classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
Alkynes
•aliphatic hydrocarbons contains at least one
C☰C bond
•general formula: CnH2n–2
•each C can only bond with only one other
atom
•have higher boiling points compared to
alkanes and alkenes
ISOMERISM
Isomers- two or more compounds having the
same molecular formula but different
arrangements of atoms
Constitutional Isomers (structural
isomers)
-same molecular formula but different in the
structure
-Alkanes have constitutional isomers.
Geometrical Isomerism(cis-trans
isomerism)
•occurs when molecules differ in their
arrangement of atoms on either side of a C=C
double bond.
Cis- same side / trans- opposite side
Week 6
Reaction on Simple Compound
Addition Reaction
a type of organic reaction wherein an
unsaturated reactant becomes a saturated
product.
•Alkenes often undergo an addition reaction
Hydrogenation
- adding of hydrogen molecules
•H2 attaches to the carbons in a double bond
of an alkene to form an alkane
•a catalyst such as Pt(Platinum), Ni(Nickel),
or Pd(Palladium) is added.
Catalyst- increase the rate of chemical reaction
without itself being consumed
Halogenation
- Halogen replacement
•halogen atom replaces the hydrogen atom in
the molecule
•the most common: bromination (Br2) or
chlorination (Cl2)
Condensation Reactions
• two molecules combine to form a single
molecule.
•A molecule of water is then removed as a
second product
Saponification
• describes the alkaline hydrolysis reaction of
an ester.
• produce soap molecules, which are the salts
of fatty acids.
• adding of water to separate compounds
(hydrolysis)
Week 5
Polymers
● Large molecules, or macromolecules,
which are composed of a repeating unit
called a monomer.
● Different structural motifs of polymers:
linear, branched, cross-linked, network.
Polymerization
Polymerization - The reaction of monomers
to form larger polymer units.
Addition Polymerization
● occurs by using only one type of monomer
● occurs in three steps:
Initiation Step
● an activated species reacts with a
monomer to form a new activated species
Propagation Step
● step where the polymer increases its chain
length
● propagation step only happens if there is a
free radical and a double bond in the
reaction.
Termination Step
● occurs when reaction between the
activated species and the monomer produces
no new radicals.
Step-Growth Addition
● commonly involves two different molecules
that react with each other
■ carboxylic acids + alcohol = polyesters
■ carboxylic acids + amines = polyamides
Polymer Structure and Properties
● Structure of polymers can be highly varied
depending on the conditions they are
synthesized
Thermoplastics
● Polymers consisting of simple structures
such as linear and branched chains
● Physical and chemical properties do not
change upon heating and cooling.
● Liquid is formed consisting of linear or
branched molecules when completely melted.
● Viable for recycling
● Polyethylene is an example of
thermoplastic
○ found in water bottles, plastic bags, and
sealing waxes.
Polymer Crystallinity
● Some polymers can form ordered,
crystalline-like structures in a 3-D matrix.
(HDPE vs. LDPE)
● High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
molecules - longer chains and less degree
of branching. ○ Plastic drums and tubes
● Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
molecules - shorter chains and higher
degree of branching. ○ Plastic bags
Liquid-Crystal Polymers
● Cools at some temperature range where
linear chains line up in a non-crystalline,
parallel fashion.
● An example of this type of polymer is
Kevlar that is used in bulletproof vests.
Thermosets
● Polymers with a structure of intricate 3D
networks
● Made from a prepolymer or resin that
undergoes curing process
○ Curing process - subjects the prepolymer
to high temperatures, pressures, or a catalyst
to form the covalent cross-links.
● Resistant to physical and chemical changes
● decomposition temperature - temperature
where the structure collapses, and the
chemical composition is altered.
● An example of this type of polymer is
Bakelite, the first synthetic plastic,
and epoxy resins.
Elastomers
● Also known as rubbers
● Polymers which possess a high degree of
elasticity and can easily be reversibly
stretched
● Vulcanization - process to further
strengthened elastomers
Polypropylene
● Made using addition polymerization of
propylene
● Highly resistant to fatigue and heat even
after being exposed repeatedly to physical
stress or loads
● Example of uses: living hinges and medical
equipment
Nylon
● Commonly used thermoplastic polymers.
● Example of uses: fibers (abrasion resistant)
● The name is based on the carbon chains of
its constituents.
(strongest)Nylon-6,6 - two molecules involved
in its monomer have six carbons in their
structure shown below.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
● Used as an alternative to glass due to its
impact resistance
● Synthesized through addition
polymerization using free radicals or ions
● Commonly copolymerized with other
molecules.
Resins
● Thermoset polymers are the majority of
resins used today due to their hardness and
resistance to physical and chemical change.
● Example of uses: Epoxy resins, urea
resins, and phenolic resins
Biological Polymers
● The class of monomers involved does not
necessarily dictate their functions.
○ Glycogen and chitin are both composed
of
carbohydrate monomers
○ Glycogen are used for energy storage
○ Chitin are structural biomolecules
Week 8
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are any molecules that are
produced by a living organism.
Carbohydrates
commonly called energy-giving molecules
- most abundant biomolecules on earth.
can be represented by the chemical formula
(CH2O)n
3 Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides - these are carbohydrates
that are made up of only one sugar monomer.
Glucose Fructose Galactose
Disaccharides- also called double sugars,
disaccharides are composed of two sugar
monomers.
Sucrose Maltose Lactose
Polysaccharides - These are carbohydrates
that are composed of more than two sugar
monomers.
Starch Chitin
Protein
GEN CHEM REVIEWER QRT2
body-building molecules that help us grow
perform many functions and serve as major Quantum Mechanical Model
structural components of living things ❖ Quantum model is an atomic model that
-Its building blocks are amino acids is considered as the modern atomic
model to explain the structure of an
atom.
❖ It determines the allowed energies an
electron can have and how likely it is to
find the electron in various locations
around the nucleus.
Louis de Broglie- hypothesized that particles,
including electrons, could also have wavelike
behaviors.
Photon- Packets of light particles
Nucleic Acids
Electromagnetic Waves- a form of energy
-the biomolecular components of hereditary
waves that have both an electric and
materials.
magnetic field.
-Its building blocks are nucleotides
Werner Heisenberg- proposed Heisenberg
-two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic
Uncertainty Principle – states that no one
acid and ribonucleic acid.
can exactly measure everything about an
-allow organisms to store and transfer genetic
electron's movement and location.
information from one generation to the next.
Erwin Schrodinger- developed that electron
move in waves and predicted the probable
location of an electron around the nucleus
called the atomic orbital or “electron cloud”.
Orbital - a region, space, or cloud outside the
nucleus where electrons can be found.
Neil Bohr’s Model
❖ Electrons are located at specific energy
levels surrounding the nucleus.
❖ An orbit was a circular path that the
electron followed around the nucleus.
❖ Each orbit has an energy associated with

Lipids
the stored-energy molecules. made up of
large molecules of fats. The building blocks of
lipids are called fatty acids.
organic compounds that have the general
formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH
.