Atomic Theory

John Dalton (1805)

- Matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms
- Model: Indivisible billiard ball

J.J. Thomson (1897)

- Showed that atoms contain charges
- Atoms are positive spheres, with negative particles (electrons) embedded in them
- Model: Raisin bun

Rutherford (1911)
- Gold Foil Experiment:
- Alpha radiations (positive) were shot at a piece of gold foil.
- Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil = most of matter is empty space!
- Some particles were deflected back at angles; they had come in contact with something very dense! (the nucleus)

The Photoelectric Effect

- Electrons are ejected from metals when exposed to light...
- Classical theory of light says that greater intensity = greater Ek of ejected e-s….
- In REALITY, higher FREQUENCY light gave more Ek to e-s, and below a “threshold frequency”, no e-s would be ejected no matter how
intense the light was.

Quantum Atomic Theory

- physicists could not explain wavelength distribution of light emitted from heated objects
- At higher temp, intensity increases, and max intensity shifts to shorter wavelengths
- 1900 – Max Planck- could explain this distribution only by assuming that there was a “smallest” unit of energy that matter could
absorb or emit (a QUANTUM).
- Thus, energy is quantized (not continuous)
- Energy of a quantum is proportional to the frequency of emitted light. (E=hf)
- Matter, at the atomic level, can absorb or emit only discrete quantities of energy; a whole # multiple of hf (h is Planck's constant… f =
frequency)

Einstein
- Concluded that light is also quantized
- It comes in “bursts,” not a continuous steam of energy
Blah
- Particle of light = Photon, packet of energy = QUANTUM!
- A quantum of LIGHT energy is called a photon.
- The energy a photon has depends on the frequency of the light.
- Ejection of electrons from a metal explained in terms of a photon-electron collision

Photon-electron collision
- Energy from the photon is transferred to the electron and used by the electron to;
- Break free from the atom, Remainder of energy is the kinetic energy of the ejected electron
- A minimum quantity of energy is required for the electron to break free
- (increase intensity = increase # of photons, not the energy of individual photons)

Spectroscopy
- Visible line spectra called emission spectra of discrete coloured lines - specific wavelengths = specific energies, not a continuous
spectrum
- Atoms absorbing energy - discrete black lines - absorption spectrum.

Bohr's Postulates
- The atom has only specific allowable energy levels (stationary states) & each stat.state corresponds to the e-s occupying fixed
circular orbits around nucleus.
- While in stat.state, atoms do not emit energy.
- An e- changes stat. state by emitting or absorbing a specific quantity of energy that is exactly equal to the difference in energy btw
the two stat. states.
- Higher energy level  lower: loss of energy in the form of light
- Lower energy level  higher: energy is absorbed
- Only certain quanta of light can be emitted or absorbed by an atom, so the energy of the electrons inside the atom is also quantized.
In other words, an electron can only have certain allowable energies. (Staircase analogy).
Quantum ness
Packet of energy = Quantum, Particle of Light = Photon

Experiment
Low res line spectra
High-res line spectra
Principle Quantum Number (main Any number except 0
shell)
- If e- falls from n=3 to n=2 a
photon of light is given off.
Secondary Quantum number
(subshells within the main principle Different energies under
shell) 0 to n-1 normal circumstances
- The number of values for l
= the volume of the
principle quantum number

Spectra in magnetic field Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

Ferro and Para magnetism
- Direction of electron -L to +L
ORBIT!
- Values of ml = number of
possible orbit orientations Different energies under
Spin Quantum number (ms) special circumstances (ie.
- Added b/c of additional -1/2 or + ½ Magnetism)
spectral lines in magnetic
field and different kinds of
magnetism

Quantized means values are restricted to certain discrete values NOT continuum.

Orbit Orbital ELD rules (show relative

2D 3D region in energy of EMPTY! Orbitals.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
space - No 2 electrons can
Fixed distance Varied have same 4 quantum
from nucleus distance from numbers
nucleus - Only 2 electrons with
Circular or No path opposite spin can
elliptical path Varied shape occupy same orbital
Aufbau Principle (cloud) - Fill sublevel first
2n2 e- per 2 e- per before higher energy
orbit orbital level
Hunds Rule - Spread out electrons

Electron Configurations
4s3d4p
Isoelectronic = same number of electrons
Analomous is always with Subleve Series of elements
l
S and p representative
d transitions
f Lanthanides and actinides

4s23d4 to 4s13d5 (would rather have half-filled 3d than a full 4s orbital)

COPPER!
Or
4s23d9 to 4s13d10 (would rather have completely full 3d orbital than a full 4s orbital)
CHROMIUM!!!

SO 4 to 5 or 9 to 10
Stability order = Filled -> half-filled -> partially filled

Ferromagnetic (strongly magnetic) Paramagnetic (weakly magnetic)

 - Unpaired electrons - ONLY unpaired electrons!!
- Ability to form domains - Magnetism of individual atom
- Domains = atoms orient poles in same
direction
- Examples: bar magnet, Iron, cobalt, - Examples: frog, human, ruthenium,
nickel rhodium,
Quantum Mechanics
1. De Broglie – waves!
2. Schrodinger – quantized energies, lambda, electron waves MATHEMATICHAL DESCRIPTION THAT TREATS ELECTRONS AS STANDING
WAVES !!
3. Heisenberg- Uncertainty Principle
Lewis Bond theory
- Atoms and ions are more stable if they have a noble gas like electron structure (inert = unreactive)
- Electrons most stable if paired
- Atoms for chemical bond to achieve stable octet

EXCEPTIONS!! To octet rule

- Elements hydrogen to Boron do not achieve an octet of electrons when combing to form molecules
- POLYATOMIC IONS! (NO3- has a resonance structure with Oxygen!!) AND sulphur trioxide
- Some elements can expand their octet to have not 8 but 10 valence electrons HOLY SHIT!
For Example, SULFUR!!! Can have 10 valence electrons
PCl5, SF6
Or an octet w/ fewer than 8 e- is BF3
Boron does not need to have a full outer shell, its happy with just three

Resonance (how to make the middle atom happy)

Coordinate Covalent Bond

- As atoms bcome larger the main energy levels become closer together.
-