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General Chemistry I

Lesson 6-2
Quantum mechanical model of an atom

Atomic orbitals
The wave function from the Schrödinger equation suggests a 90% probability of finding an electron in a region around the nucleus. These
regions are called atomic orbitals, which may be s, p, d, or f.
An s orbital is spherical in shape. As the wave function suggests, there is a 90% probability of finding an electron within the sphere except at
its center where the nucleus is.
 A p orbital is "dumbbell-shaped." The three equivalent p orbitals are P»
Py, and Pr
There are five kinds of d orbitals: d.
yes dras days da- 2, dz, Except for the d2, these orbitals consist of
four lobes, in contrast to the two lobes of the p orbital.
There are seven f orbitals as shown in figure 6-12. These orbitals have the
most diffused shape compared to the other orbitals.
Quantum Numbers
A set of quantum numbers gives an information about the atomic orbital where an
electron may be found. Every electron in an atom is assigned a unique set of
quantum numbers, of which there are four classes: principal, azimuthal, magnetic,
and spin.
Principal Quantum Number
The principal quantum number (n) indicates the energy level Fig. 6-13. The
orbits in the Bohr model or shell where an atomic orbital can be found. It can
have integral are now referred to as principal energy levels.
values (7 = 1, 2, 3, and so on), which correspond to the "orbits" in
the Bohr model. This means that the Bohr model was not exactly wrong.
Azimuthal Quantum Number
The azimuthal quantum number (l) specifies the sublevel (or subshell)
within a particular principal energy level. It can have
values of 0 to n-1. The azimuthal quantum number represents the kind and
shape of the orbital (s,p, a, or f) that is being occupied by an electron.
Magnetic Quantum Number
The magnetic quantum number (m) indicates the specific orbital
within the sublevel where the electron is found. It can have values
of - to +. It also gives the number of orbitals in a sublevel and the
spatial orientation of these orbitals.
For example, in the first principal energy level (n =1), I can only
have a value of zero, which
corresponds to an s subshell. The magnetic quantum number can
thus have only one value, m, = 0,
indicating that there is only ones orbital. In the second principal
energy level (n = 2), I can have
values of O and 1. This means that in this energy level, there are
sand p subshells. Unlike the s subshell, the p subshell can have
magnetic quantum number values of - 1, 0, + 1, which correspond
to the three
porbitals.
Spin Quantum Number
According to the Pauli exclusion principle, only a maximum of two
electrons can occupy an orbital, and they must have opposite spins to
minimize repulsion between them. This principle is observed through
the spin quantum number, which can only have values of +½ or -½
(represented as 1 or h, respectively) for each electron. This quantum
number describes the intrinsic spin of the electron in the orbital.
As a rule, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of
quantum numbers. For example, in the Is orbital, each electron has
the same n, l, and m, but different m,:
 Practice exercise:
Give the set of quantum numbers for each of the 10 electrons that occupy
the 3d orbitals
Electron 1(Scandium): n=3, l=2, ml=-2, m_s=+1/2
Electron 2(Titanium): n=3, l=2, ml=-1, m_s=+1/2
Electron 3(Vanadium): n=3, l=2, ml=0, m_s=+1/2
Electron 4(Chromium): n=3, l=2, ml=+1, m_s=+1/2
Electron 5(Manganese): n=3, l=2, ml=+2, m_s=+1/2
Electron 6(Iron): n=3, l=2, ml=-2, m_s=-1/2
Electron 7(Cobalt): n=3, l=2, ml=-1, m_s=-1/2
Electron 8(Nickel): n=3, l=2, ml=0, m_s=-1/2
Electron 9(Copper): n=3, l=2, ml=+1, m_s=-1/2
Electron 10(Zinc): n=3, l=2, ml=+2, m_s=-1/2

Electron configuration and orbital diagram

Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers. How these
electrons are distributed among the orbitals in an atom is given by the electron
configuration. In writing electron configurations, each orbital and the electron(s)
it holds are represented as

Aufbau principle
The aufbau principle is a fundamental principle in quantum mechanics that
states that electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy, with lower-
energy orbitals being filled before higher-energy ones. In other words,
electrons occupy the lowest available energy levels before moving to higher
ones within an atom.
 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is a property of certain materials where groups of
atoms, called magnetic domains, spontaneously align their magnetic
moments in the same direction, creating a strong and permanent
magnetization in the material.
Examples:
Iron (Fe)
Cobalt (Co) These elements exhibit
Nickel (Ni) ferromagnetic properties due to the
Gadolinium (Gd) alignment of magnetic moments in
Dysprosium (Dy) their atomic structures.
Neodymium (Nd)
Samarium (Sm)
Cerium (Ce)

Ionic bonding

Noble gas configuration

A noble gas configuration describes an electron arrangement in an atom
that mirrors the stable electron configuration of noble gases, which have
full valence electron shells. For example, the noble gas configuration of
helium (He) is 1s², and for neon (Ne), it is 1s² 2s² 2p⁶, reflecting the
completely filled electron shells of the corresponding noble gases.
Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism: In paramagnetic materials, the atoms or molecules have
unpaired electrons. When exposed to a magnetic field, these unpaired
electrons align their spins with the magnetic field, creating a weak attraction.
This alignment enhances the overall magnetic behavior of the material.
Example: Oxygen (O2) is paramagnetic because it has unpaired electrons.
Diamagnetism: Diamagnetic materials have all their electrons paired, and they
exhibit a weak repulsion when placed in a magnetic field. The magnetic field
induces a small, opposing magnetic moment in the opposite direction to the
applied field.
Example: Bismuth (Bi) is diamagnetic since all its electrons are paired.
In simple terms, paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted to magnetic
fields due to unpaired electrons, while diamagnetic materials are weakly
repelled because all their electrons are paired.
Notice that the number of dots around an element symbol is equal to
the element's group number. For instance, there is one dot for lithium,
which belongs to Group 1A; two dots for beryllium in Group 2A, three
for boron in Group 3A, and so on. The same pattern is true for the
elements in the other periods. The paired dots in the structures are
referred to as lone electron pairs, or simply lone pairs; a single dot is
called an unpaired electron.
In writing Lewis structures, a dot is placed in each of the four sides of
the element symbol before pairing it with another as needed to
represent all valence electrons of the element. There are no strict rules
on which sides to pair up first so the dot symbol for oxygen may be
written in several equivalent forms.
Examples:
one sodium, atom with one valence electron is enough to
complete the octet of one chlorine atom and form a formula
unit of sodium chloride (NaCI).
In forming a compound between magnesium and chlorine, the
magnesium atom needs to lose its two valence electrons to form an
octet. Thus, it needs two chlorine atoms, each accomodating only one
additional electron to complete an octet, to form a formula unit of
magnesium chloride (MCly). The subscript "2" in the formula
represents the two atoms of chlorine.
 Each bond accounts for two electrons. To find the remaining electrons
Consider the ionic bond between potassium and sulfur. Potassium has one
available for distribution, subtract those used for bonding from the total
valence electron, while ulfur has six. To complete an octet, a sulfur atom will
electrons computed in item 1.
need two potassium atoms to supply two elections. The resulting ionic
compound will have the formula K2S.

3. The remaining electrons (from item 2) are distributed to the atoms such
that there are two electrons for hydrogen and eight electrons for the other
atoms. There are three possible ways to distribute the remaining electrons
in COz
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when two nonmetal atoms share electrons to achieve
a stable electron configuration. In a molecule like water (H₂O), each hydrogen
atom shares its electron with the oxygen atom, forming a covalent bond and 4. If there are not enough electrons for the atoms to have eight electrons
completing the outer electron shells of both atoms. each (e.g., COy), the single bonds are changed to double or triple bonds
by shifting nonbonding pairs of electrons as needed.
Types of covalent bonds Consider structure (1) for CO2.
Single bond
Double bonds
Triple bonds
Note that carbon can form single, double, or triple covalent bonds.
Nitrogen can form single or triple bonds.

5. If there are more than one Lewis structure that result in item 4, the one
that is symmetrical is usually chosen. The concept of formal charge, which
will be discussed later, also helps determine the acceptable Lewis
structure. For CO, the preferred structure is the one at the left.

6. The structure of a polyatomic ion is enclosed in brackets and the charge

is placed at the upper right corner of the bracket.

Lewis structure of molecules and polyatomic ions

1. Finding the number of electrons available for distribution is done by
adding the valence electrons of all the atoms in the molecule or Sample problem
polyatomic ion. For positively charged polyatomic ion, the numerical
charge is deducted from the total valence electrons. For negatively
charged ions, the numerical charge is added.

2. In arranging the atoms, the least electronegative atom is assigned as

the central atom. Hydrogen can form only one covalent bond so it is
automatically designated as the terminal atom. Halogens are also usually
assigned as terminal atoms; but in some cases, they serve as central
atoms. When atoms are arranged, they are each connected by a single
covalent bond first.