1

GENERAL PHYSICS 2
➢ Number of protons = atomic number of
elements
➢ If proton increases in number, neutron
Lesson 1 ELECTROSTATICS also increases.
➢ Electron is lighter than proton
Electrostatic – electricity at rest
➢ The atom is ordinarily neutral – means
that the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons in the atom – it
Electric Current
implies that there are only two kinds of
- Flowing electricity charges: positive and negative.
- Measured in Ampere (A)

Total positive charge → resides in nucleus

ATOM
Total negative charge → carried by
Electron (-)
surrounding electrons
- Elektron
(Greek) means
“amber” John Dalton (1803)

- Released 4 postulates illustrating the

Proton (+) detailed atomic hypotheses of
Democritus.

1. Atoms are the smallest particle of

Neutron matter.
2. All atoms of an element are identical.
- Neutral; no charge 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of
2 or more elements.
4. Atoms retain their identity during
chemical reactions.
• Diameter = 10-8cm
• Smallest unit of matter Even an atom is electrically neutral, it has a
• Nucleus certain amount of affinity (attraction) for
- Heavy central part where the additional electrons.
mass of the atom is
concentrated
- Diameter = 10-12cm Examples:
- Consists of protons and neutrons 1. Rubber rod is rubbed with fur
- Electrons orbit around the nucleus
▪ Electrons are often called Before rubbing: Both are neutral
electronic charge (the discrete
Rubber has greater attraction than fur
unit of negative electricity)
▪ Electrons are all alike Transfer of electrons: fur → rubber rod

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2. Glass rod is rubbed with silk
Silk needs additional electrons than glass
rod
Transfer of electrons: glass → silk
3. Two plastic rods rubbed with fur
Two plastic rods: repels from each other
Rod to fur: attraction
➢ Opposite charges ATTRACTS
➢ Similar charges REPEL
➢ Charges are not created or destroyed in
the rubbing process; they are only
separated.
Electrification – process of charging
When a body possesses an excess positive
charge or an excess negative charge, it is said to
be charged or electrified.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
- An attribute that is as fundamental as
mass, electric current, and amount of
substance.
- Causes an attractive or repulsive force
interaction with other electrically
charged matter
- Measured in Coulomb (C)
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2
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
1. Two types:
• Positive
• Negative
All ordinary objects contain large and
usually equal numbers of positive and
negative charges.
2. Charge is conserved.
3. Like charges repel, unlike charges
attract
William Gilbert
- Court physician to Queen Elizabeth I
- published a book in which he
systematically classified substances into
“electrics” and “nonelectrics,” electrics
being those which could be electrified
by rubbing, and nonelectrics being
those which could not.
- Nonelectrics → conductors
- Electrics → insulators
CONDUCTORS
- Allows movement of electrons
- Metals are good conductors
- Silver → best conductor
- Can be electrified when placed on an
insulating stand.
- Electric charges move more readily than
in insulators.
Metallic Conductors – positively charged
nuclei are fixed while some electrons are
free to move about in the metal.
Liquid Conductors – both the positively
charged particles and the negatively
charged particles (ions) are free to move.
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Fairly good conductors: Quantization of Charge

1. Copper - The magnitude of charge of an electron

2. Nickel or a proton is a natural unit of charge
3. Iron equivalent to 1.609 x 10-29 C.
4. Aluminum

CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
INSULATOR
- Requires contact
- Resists movement of electrons • Contact between two objects
- Also called dielectrics allow the movement of charged
particles from one object to
another.
Familiar non-conductors:

1. Mica CHARGING BY INDUCTION

2. Glass - Most complex charging mechanism

- Considers the process of placing an
3. Rubber
initially charged material near an
4. Porcelain initially neutral material.

5. Amber

6. Paraffin
A negatively-charged
7. Silk
rod and a metal sphere.
8. Sulfur

Semiconductors – between conductors and

insulators
Positive charges of
sphere are attracted to
CHARGING MECHANISMS the charged rod.

- 3 types: conduction, induction, friction Negative charges of

- Allows an object to gain a net charge sphere repel to the
after the process other side of the
sphere.

Principle of Conservation of Charge

- The sun of electric charges in any closed

system is conserved or does not
change.

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 4

A wire is connected,
allowing the negative
charges to flow out of
the sphere.

When the wire is

removed, all there is
left in the sphere are
positive charges.

CHARGING BY FRICTION

Electron Affinity

- Property of a material to attract Teflon – greater attraction of electrons

electrons. Human hands – lesser attraction of electrons
- Atom with high electron affinity has
tendency to become negatively charged
when interacting with another element. COULOMB’S LAW for Electrostatic

Charles-Agustin de Coulomb
ELECTROSCOPE
- An instrument which is very sensitive in
detecting the presence of a charge on a
body.
- Also used to determine the kind of
charge possessed by a charged body.
Triboelectric Series
- Better reference to examine in
determining which gets negatively or
positively charged when objects are
rubbed.
- Established the law of repulsion and
attraction between electric charges in
quantitative terms.
- “The force between two small charged
bodies acts along the line joining them
and is directly proportional to the
product of the two charges and
inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.”
Formula:
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒓𝟐

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Example Problems:

F – electric force 1. Two point charges are separated by a

distance of one meter. The two point
r – distance between two charges
charges have equal magnitudes of
q1 and q2 – charges carried by object 1 & 2 −10−6 𝐶. Find the electric force between
the two.
𝑁𝑚2
k – constant at 9𝑥109 Solution:
𝐶2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
For smaller units of a charge:
2 (−10−6 𝐶)𝑥(−10−6 𝐶)
𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄𝐶 2 [ ]
Microcoulomb (C) (1𝑚)2

1 C = 10–6 C 2 +10−12 𝐶 2
𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄𝐶 2 [ ] = 9𝑥10−3 𝑁
1𝑚2

Picocoulomb (pC)
2. How much is the electric force between two
1 pC = 10–12 C electrons separated by a distance of 2 mm?
(charge of an electron = 1.602 𝑥 10−19 𝐶)

Nanocoulomb (nC) Solution:

1 nC = 10–9 C mm to m = 1/1000

2mm to m = 2(1/1000) = 0.002m

2 (1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶)𝑥(1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶)
Application of electric forces involve charges in 𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄ 2 [ ]
𝐶 (0.002𝑚)2
motion or electric current.
2 2.566404𝑥10−38 𝐶 2
𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄ 2 [ ]
𝐶 4𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Coulomb – amount of charges that moves past
= 9𝑥109 𝑁[0.641601𝑥10−32 ]
a point in 1s when the current is 1A.
𝐹 = 5.774409𝑥10−23 𝑁
Q = It

Unit of Coulomb’s Law:

MKS System (meter-kg-sec-ampere)

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3. Calculate the force between the two point ELECTRIC FIELD

charges of +5.0 𝑥 10−10 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 6.0 𝑥 10−10 𝐶
- A vector quantity
which are 10 cm apart in air.
- An imaginary field line that helps
explain the interaction between
Solution: charged particles.
cm to m = 1/100 - A region where electric charges
10 cm to m = 10 (1/100) = 0.1m experience a force.
- is a property of space brought about by
2 (+5.0𝑥10−10 𝐶)𝑥(−6.0𝑥10−10 𝐶) the presence of a charge or of charges
𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄ 2 [ ]
𝐶 (0.1𝑚)2 in the neighborhood, such that any
other charge placed anywhere in this
2 −30𝑥10−20 𝐶 2
= 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄ 2 [ ] space will experience an electrical force.
𝐶 0.01𝑚2

−270𝑥10−11 𝑁
=
1𝑥10−2 Michael Faraday

= −270𝑥10−9 𝑁 = −2.70𝑥10−7 𝑁 - Introduced the concept of electric field

which he called lines of forces.

Any body (by virtue of its mass) is surrounded

4. A point charge of 2.0 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 is 15 cm
distant from a second point charge of
−1.5 𝑥 10−6 𝐶. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the force on each charge.
Solution:
15cm to m = 15 (1/100) = 0.15m
by a gravitational field – a region extending
from the body toward infinity.
Any other body placed anywhere in the
gravitational field is acted upon by a
gravitational force given by the universal law of
gravitation.

Force is exerted upon one body by the other

2 (2.0𝑥10−6 𝐶 )𝑥(−1.5𝑥10−6 𝐶 ) through this field, which could fill empty space.
𝐹 = 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄𝐶 2 [ ]
(0.15𝑚)2
Similarly, any electric charge is surrounded by
2−3𝑥10−12 𝐶 2 an electric field, and any other charge placed
= 9𝑥109 𝑁𝑚 ⁄𝐶 2 [ ]
2.25𝑥10−2 𝑚2 anywhere in the electric field of the first charge
will be acted upon by an electrical force as given
−27𝑥10−3 by Coulomb’s law.
=
2.25𝑥10−2
The second charge is also surrounded by an
= −12𝑥10−1 𝑁 = −1.2𝑁 electric field which exerts a force upon the first
charge.

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 7

Gauss’ Law Electric field exists at a point if a test charge

placed at the point experiences a force.
- Formulated by John Carl Friedrich Gauss
- Describes what an electric field will look
like due to a known distribution of
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY at a point
electric charge.
- First formulated in 19th century - Force per unit of positive test charge
- The total of the electric flux out of a placed at a point.
closed surface is equal to the - A vector quantity
magnitude of the charge enclosed
divided by the permittivity of free
𝐹
space. Formula: 𝐸 =
𝑞0

E – electric field intensity

𝑞0 – small test charge placed at the point under

consideration

Electric Field Strength

- Independent of the mass and velocity of

the test charge particle.
- Depends on the amount of charge
present on the test charge particle.
Q – charge enclosed by a surface

Epsilon-zero (𝜀0 ) – permittivity of free space Test charge – can be positive or negative
(constant at 8.85 x 10–12)

Phi (𝜙) – electric flux through the surface

Electric Flux = electric field (E) x area (A)

𝜙 = EA

More field lines = larger flux

= greater magnitude of electric field

Electric Field Line

- A curve in space such that a tangent to
any point of the line represents the
direction of the electric field vector at
that specific point.

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Lesson 2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential energy
- energy needed to move against an
electric field.
- To transform into kinetic, the charge
must be propelled by electric force
Electric Potential (V) of a body
- Equal to the amount of work done by
an external agent to bring a unit
positive charge from a point of zero
potential to the body.
𝑊
Formula: 𝑉 =
𝑞
V – potential of the body in volt
W – work in joule needed to transfer a charge
of q
q – test charge
Electric Potential at a point
- Work done by external agent in bringing
a unit positive charge from a point of
zero potential to the point.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
- Work done in carrying a unit positive
charge from the point of lower
potential to the point of higher
potential.
E=V(It)
E=VIt
E = Energy E=VQ
1Joule = 1volt-coloumb 1volt = 1J/C
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8
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM
- Work that has to be done by an external
agent to assemble this system of
charges by bringing them to their
present positions from infinity.
Lesson 3 CAPACITANCE AND
CAPACITORS
➢ Electric charges can be stored
temporarily in metal conductors.
➢ The capacity to store charges depends
on the voltage or the potential
difference of the objects.
➢ If two identical spheres are at different
voltages or potential differences, the
one with the higher potential stores
more charges than the one at the lower
potential difference or voltage.
➢ If the voltage of an object is doubled,
the amount of charge on it also
doubles.
Capacitors
- A device used to temporarily store
electric charges
- Made up of two pieces of conductor
separated by an insulator
- Also called condensers
Capacitance
- Ratio of the magnitude of the charge on
either plate to the potential difference
between them.
 9

𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

Formula: 𝐶= = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙 - All positive plates are connected to the

1𝐹 = 1
𝑉 positive terminal of the battery
C – capacitance in farads (F)
Q – charge in coulombs (coul)
V – difference in potential between the plates in
volts (V)
- Negative plates are connected to
negative terminal
- Potential difference across each
capacitor is the same as the potential
difference across the combination.
FORMULAS:

PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯

- Two metal plates separated by an 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = ⋯

insulator.
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ⋯
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CAPACITANCE OF A 𝑄
CAPACITOR 𝐶=
𝑉
1. Area 𝑄
𝑉=
- Area of the plates increases 𝐶
2. Distance
- Decreases Example:
3. Dielectric (insulating medium)
- Added between the plates Three capacitors with capacitance 10
𝜇𝐹, 15 𝜇𝐹, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 20 𝜇𝐹 are connected in
parallel. (a) Find the capacitance of the
combination. (b) If they are connected to a
CHARGING CAPACITOR
battery of an EMF 240V, find the charge in each
- Connected to a battery so that one capacitor.
plate becomes short of electrons and
Given:
the other plate gains electrons.
- After charging, electric field is formed. 𝐶1 = 10𝜇𝐹 Solution:
a. 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝐶2 = 15𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑇 = 10𝜇𝐹 + 15𝜇𝐹 + 20𝜇𝐹
Geiger-Muller Counter (GM counter) 𝐶3 = 20𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑇 = 45𝜇𝐹 = 45 × 10−6 𝐹 = 4.5 × 10−5 𝐹
- Device used for detecting and 𝑉𝑇 = 240𝑉
measuring incidence of ionizing
radiation like gamma radiation.

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 10

CAPACITORS IN SERIES SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION

- When the voltage across the capacitor is
too large for the capacitor to withstand, it
has to be connected in series with another
capacitor.
- Connected to divide the large voltage
among the different capacitors.
Three condensers are arranged in a series-
parallel combinations as shown in the diagram:
𝐶1 = 10𝜇𝐹, 𝐶2 = 20𝜇𝐹, 𝐶3 = 20𝜇𝐹. The whole
combination is charged to a difference of
potential of 24 volts. Find (a) the capacitance of
the combination, (b) the charge stored in each
capacitor, and (c) the voltage across each
capacitor.

1 1 1 1
= + + 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑄
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝐶=
𝑉
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 𝑄
𝑉=
𝐶

Example:

Three capacitors of capacitances 8

𝜇𝐹, 16 𝜇𝐹, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 24𝜇𝐹 are connected in series.
They are then connected to a 6-V battery. (a)
What is the charge in each capacitor? (b) What
is the voltage across each capacitor?

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

- A capacitor is a device for storing charges. It

is therefore possible to view it as a device to
store energy.

- The charge stored in the plates possesses

electric potential energy. Work is done to
deposit the charge on the plates.

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- During the charging process, the potential Lesson 4 CURRENT, RESISTIVITY,

difference between the plates increases.
There is a need of a large amount of work in RESISTANCE
bringing the incremental amount of charge CURRENT (I)
from one point to another.
- Amount of net charge (q) passing through a
- As the capacitor becomes fully charged, the unit cross section of area in unit tine (t).
potential of the positive plate relative to
that of the negative plate increases from 0 𝑞
𝐼=
to V. 𝑡

- The average potential difference is ½ V.

In a unit cross section of area of a conductor,
1 electrons move randomly like the molecules of
- Energy store in a capacitor = 𝐶𝑉 2
2
gas.
- Electric field strength and electric energy
electrons moving to the left = electrons moving
stored in a capacitor are related to one
to the right.
another, so it is also possible to regard the
electric energy as being stored in the It means that the net rate of flow of electrons is
electric field between the plates ZERO.

DIELECTRICS

- Piece of insulating material that fills the

space between the plates of a capacitor.
- Examples:
But, when two ends of the conductor are
• Mineral oil
connected to the terminal of a battery,
• Plastic
electrons will move to the positive terminal of
• Mica
the battery so net flow ≠ 0
• Porcelain
• Silicon
• Germanium
• Ceramic
- If such materials are inserted between the
plates of a capacitor, the capacitance of a
capacitor increases.
- The increase in capacitance of the capacitor
depends on the material used as dielectric.

Current (I) is the same for all cross sections of

the conductor even though the conductor cross
section is not uniform.

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Charge must be conserved; it does not just
disappear or appear from nowhere.
The electrons move in a solid conductor when
an electric field is set up within it by means of a
battery.
Conventional Current
- in a direction opposite the flow of electrons
- has holes or positive charges as moving
charge carriers
Nonconventional Current – moving electrons
Current Density – quantity that describes the
amount of current per unit area.
Rate of flow of charge through the cross section
in Coul/s is called the current I in Amperes.
Ampere
- MKS unit of current
- Named after Andre Ampere
Current Based on Consistency of Direction
Direct Current (DC)
- direction is consistent
- electricity flows in only one direction
without reversing
- Ex. Battery-operated lamp
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12
Alternating Current (AC)
- Current that reverses direction at certain
intervals of time
- Ex. Refrigerator, air-conditioning units,
televisions
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
- Energy converted from one form into
electric energy per unit charge transferred
through the source.
- Energy needed to move a unit charge
supplied by a source (battery or outlet).
Complete Circuit
- Loop that includes a connection of
wire, a load, and a source that gives
the charge carriers the push to
move around the circuit.
Incomplete Circuit
- If there is a break in the circuit that
can stop the charges from
following.
Two Common Sources of EMF:
1. Generator – mechanical to electrical
2. Battery (cell) – chemical to electrical
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Ohm’s Law • The slope of an I-V curve is the

reciprocal of resistance while the area
- Named after Georg Simon Ohm
under the curve represents power.
- States that in a complete circuit, the current
• For non-ohmic, graph is more complex
is directly proportional to the potential
difference and inversely proportional to the
resistance.
𝑉 ENERGY AND POWER IN SIMPLE CIRCUIT
𝐼=
𝑅 - In determining power in a given simple
circuit:
P = VI
- Ohmic Materials – materials that follows 𝑃
Ohm’s law 𝐼=
𝑉
- Non-ohmic – does not follow Ohm’s law 𝑃
𝑉=
𝐼
Where:
I-V Characteristic Curves P = power
V = voltage
- Differentiates ohmic and non-ohmic by I = current
using a graph relating current and voltage.
- Voltage along the x-axis treated as the PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT
independent variable and current along the - Standard single-phase voltage of electric
y-axis. sockets: 220 V
- The effects vary from case to case,
depending on the value of current and the
material it comes contact with.

Fuse – a safety device that closes a circuit when

too much current is in it.

MEASURING ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES IN A

CIRCUIT

Analog Ohmmeter – measuring resistance

Analog Ammeter – measuring current

Analog Voltmeter – measuring voltage

Multimeter – measuring current, voltage,

resistance, etc.

Analog Electricity Meter – measuring energy

Optical Power Meter – measuring power in an

optical signal

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 14

The EMF of a cell is the difference in potential

between the electrodes in open circuit.

Potential difference = volts

Alessandro Volta (1800)

- Showed that there is a potential

difference between the two rods in
such an arrangement now known as
voltaic cell →example of chem to
electric
RESISTANCE

- Opposition of a material to the flow of

Simple Cell (How it works) charge carriers.
𝑉
• Uses dilute sulfuric acid as the electrolyte 𝑅=
𝐼
where the electrodes are carbon and zinc.
• Acid attracts zinc electrode and dissolves it. R – resistance (in ohms → 𝛺)
• During dissolution, it leaves 2 electrons V – voltage (volts)
behind and goes into the solution as a I – current (amperes)
positive ion.
• Zinc electron acquires a negative charge.
• Meanwhile, zinc ions enter the solution Symbol for resistance:
(which makes the solution positively
charged for a moment).
• Electrons are then pulled off the carbon
electrode making it positively charged.
• Opposite charges on electrodes give the
terminals a potential difference, charges are
R – resistance
allowed to flow the terminals through
wire/light bulb resulting to zing being L – length (in meters)
dissolved.
• In doing so, one of the 2 electrodes will be A – area (𝜋𝑟 2 )(in meters)
used up and the cell will no longer produce 𝜌 – resistivity
electric current.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE (externally)

Common symbol for cell/battery
Cell – internal resistance

1. Material
- Metal: has flow because it is a conductor
- Wood: no flow because it’s an insulator

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2. Length
- The longer the length, the higher the
resistance
- The shorter the length, the lower the
resistance
3. Cross-Section Area
- The wider the cross-section area, the lesser
the resistance
- The narrower the cross-section area, the
higher the resistance
RESISTIVITY
- Symbol: 𝜌 – Greek “rho”
- Constant as long as temperature is 200 𝐶
- Unit: ohm-meter → 𝛺 ∙ 𝑚
- Ability to oppose the motion of the charge
carriers, and is dependent on temperature.
The resistivity related to resistance is another
quantity that characterizes every material.
Example Problem:
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15
TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (TPD)
- The reading of the voltmeter
- The TPD of a cell is the difference in
potential between the terminals when the
circuit is closed.
- Less than EMF of the same cell by an
amount which depends on the internal
resistance of the cell and on the current
being supplied by cell.
- The larger the current being supplied by a
given cell, the larger the difference between
EMF and TPD.
- The conversion process is reversed and the
transformation of energy is said to be
reversible.
When a cell is:
1. Being charged = TPD > EMF
2. Being used: transformation of energy =
chemical to electrical
For dry cells, the chemical reaction is not
reversible and the electrical energy is wasted if
the current through the cell is reversed.
When current is reversed in a generator, it is
operating as a motor, and the electrical energy
is transformed into mechanical energy.
 16

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

Resistivity is strongly dependent on - The total current divides among the voltage
temperature. across each of them is equal to the voltage
across the combination.
For metals:
Rules:
Increase of resistivity = increase in temperature

For insulators:

Decrease of resistivity = increase in temperature

RESISTANCE IN SERIES Disadvantage:

- Resistance are connected in series when The farther the object is to the source, the
they are joined such that the current weaker its voltage is.
passing through any of them is the same
current passing through the other
resistance in combination.

Rules: ELECTRICAL ENERGY

- Current is never used up in the resistor

since it flows back to the same source of
EMF.
- Current entering = current leaving
- There is a drop in potential across the
appliance
• It means that electrical energy has
been transformed into some other
Disadvantage: form of energy when a current is
passed through resistors/electrical
When one is disconnected, the rest will also be
devices.
disconnected.
- whenever electrical energy is transformed
into some other form of energy, there is a
drop in potential across the device after the
transformation of energy.

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 17

KILOWATT AND HORSEPOWER ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

- when the appliance is a device like a motor, Electric Electric

it is usually rated in terms of horsepower Power Energy
- in its specification, the current taken in at Formula P = VI E = Pt
the operating voltage is specified. Unit 1 watt = 1 1 kilowatt-
- Output = mechanical power volt- hour = 1KwHr
- Input = electrical power ampere
Example:

Cost: Php13.00 per KwHr

• By Ohm’s Law, the current passing through

𝑉
is equal to 𝐼 = (volts per ohm).
𝑅
• The difference in potential between the two
points A and B in volts is equal to the work
done in transferring a unit charge from one 1. Convert electrical power in hp to kw; w to
point to the other. kw
• If the total charge transferred from A to B is Conversions:
q coulombs, the work is 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉. This work
is done in carrying the charge q against the watts to kilowatts = x 1/1000
resistance R of the device, and this work is horsepower to kilowatts = x 0.746
done by the source of EMF.
2. To solve energy consumption:
- (Quantity) (Rated electrical power in
kw) (Hours of use daily)
Work – is the energy taken in by the device
during the time (t). 3. To solve the cost:
(Energy Consumption) (Cost per kwHr)
Work is Done – the transformation of electrical
energy into some other form when the current
is passed through the appliance having the Solutions:
resistance R.
A/C

1.5hp (0.746 Kw) = 1.119 Kw

Formulas:
Energy consumed = (2) (1.119 Kw) (6 Hrs)

= 13.43 KwHr

Cost = (Php13.00) (13.43 KwHr) = Php174.59

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ELECTRIC FAN Total Cost per day

1𝑤 174.59 + 93.60 + 3.25 + 124.80 + 15.60
300𝑤 𝑥 = 0.3 Kw
1000𝑤

Energy consumed = (3) (1.119 Kw) (8Hrs) = Php411.84

= 7.2 KwHr

Cost = (Php13.00) (7.2 KwHr) = Php93.60

ELECTRIC FLAT IRON

1𝑤
1000𝑤 𝑥 = 1 Kw
1000𝑤

Energy consumed = (1) (1 Kw) (0.25Hrs)

= 0.25 KwHr

Cost = (Php13.00) (7.2 KwHr) = Php3.25

REFRIGERATOR
1𝑤
400𝑤 𝑥 = 0.4 Kw
1000𝑤

Energy consumed = (1) (0.4 Kw) (24Hrs)

= 9.6 KwHr

Cost = (Php13.00) (9.6 KwHr) = Php14.80

FLOURESCENT LAMPS
1𝑤
20𝑤 𝑥 = 0.02 Kw
1000𝑤

Energy consumed = (10) (0.02 Kw) (6Hrs)

= 1.2 KwHr

Cost = (Php13.00) (7.2 KwHr) = Php15.60

Total Energy Consumed

13.43KwHr + 7.2 KwHr + 0.25 KwHr + 9.6 KwHr +

1.2 KwHr

= 31.68 KwHr

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