ScSa:Ionic bonds

Ways of (full
Fulfillment shell)-gaining/losing
electrons
Equal number of protons & electrons
electrons
sharing
- -

Neutral

Full Stable
shell:
outer

->
loses electron
When
positively
atom
an an
charged

CATION
When an atom
gains an
electron-onegatively charged

ANION
Sc3b:Ionic Lattice

Sonic compounds form crystals with a cubic shape

called dattice

Soniccompounds to
giant
ionic lattice:
-
Lots of ions

Electrostatic forces:
Sonic bonds -

regular arrangement
alternating +, -
-

solid lattice can'tconduct

electricity -
high up, by
conducts
Molten
liquid lattice
electricity brittle
-
 Sc6

covalent bonds to shared pair electrons

of

00 X X
non-metal
cot & cross
↓
by
represented diagram
??
⑧

·o XX

Valency = numberof bonds formed by atoms

Metallic Simple molecular covalent

- -
types
of

-
bonding- Sonic
Giant
covalent (4)

Sc7a:Molecular compounds

Compounds contain atoms ofmore than one element

chemically
by bonds
joined
Simple molecular -b
cow
melting point D Weak
-

boiling intermolecular
forces

weak
attraction
strong
covalent (between)
bond

(within)

polymer:long chain molecules

repeating, identical
of monomers

e.g:Poly(ethere)
Sc7b:Allotropes of carbon

Allotropes:differentstructural forms of same

the
element

Sc7c:Properties of metals

Metals: -
solids
metallic
-

High melting points bonding

Malleable

↑
-

High density
Good conductor of electricity
⑮

positive metal ions

negative metal ions
-

attract

Non metals: solid, liquid, gas

-

yow melting point

-

-
Dull
-
Brittle
How
density
-

-
poor conductor electricity
of

When
you
hit a metal, the
layers of ions slide

over each
changing
other metal's
the shape

Metals
have free electrons which will allow them to

conduct
electricity
Sczd:
Bonding models

Ionic bonds: (in most compounds)

The bonds are formed by loss and
gain of electrons to produce charged
oppositely
ions thatattract
each other. (Lattice structure (

Properties:high mp/bp, soluble, conducts

electricity
when
liquid
Simple molecular (covalent):(in non-metals
most & compounds)
The bonds are formed when atoms share pairs of electrons. (small

distinct
groups of atoms.)

Properties:Low Mp/Bp, few are soluble. Doesn't conduct

electricity

Giantcovalent:(in a few non-metals, compounds)

The bonds are formed when atoms share pairs of electrons.

(billions of atoms held in a lattice structure)

Properties:high Mp/Bp, insoluble, Doesn'tconduct
electricity (exceptin
carbon
as
graphite)
Metallic:(in all
metals)
The bonds are electrostatic
the attraction between positive

metal ions and

negative delocalised electrons. (billions of ions

held in
together a
giant lattice structure of positive ions

in a sea of negative relocalised electrons)

Properties:high Mp/Bp, insoluble, conducts
electricity

S28a: Acids, Allealis and indicators

Acidity/Alkalinity is measured pH
with scale

7 -o
neutral/less than 7-nacid/greater than 7-b alreal;
Litmus Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

Acid blue yellow Pink

.

Alteali red red colourless

Polyatomic ions:small groups of atoms, held together by
covalent
bonds, lose electrons
or
gain,

Acids produce excess hydrogen ions (HY) in a

reaction

Altalis produce excess

hydroxide ions
(OH) in a

reaction

The
higher volume
the of AI, the
higher the

concentration, more
the acidic, lower the
the

PH

The the volume of OH, more

the
higher
altealine the
higher the pH

formula

I
common acids

hydrochloric acid HCL

sulfuric acid H2SOu

nitric acid
HNO3

I
common alkalis formula

Sodium NaOH
hydroxide
potassium hydroxide ROH

calium
hydroxide ca(OH),
Sc8b: Looking at acios

concentrated solution contains a lot of dissolved solute

per unit volume

dilute contains small amount of

solution
only a

solute

concentration:amount dissolved

volume of solution

As OH
the increases (by a factor of 10) the

concentration of lions decreases

by a factor of
10(
Acids low
with pH are STRONG acids

considered
They are
strong acids because
they
completely
DISSOCIATE when dissolved

/high concentration)
Sc8c:Bases and Salts

Bases: -

substances that to
neutralise form a

salt and water

ALL metal oxides

in

Neutralisation reaction: -

metal oxide + acid to salt-water

In the reaction the Arions combine with

the oxide ions to form water

Then the are

salts produced because the

metal ions willtake the place of

the H+ions to form salt

↳T 84

acid
hydrochloric a chloride

Sulfuric acid ⑭
sulfate

nitric acid ⑪ nitrate

BLEDDL8

8888

*
 Sc80: Alkalis and balancing equations

Alkali:a base can dissolve

that in water

NaCl
NaOH + HCL -D
H,0
+

The of
amount each elementin the reactants

should of
to the amount the
be
equal
same elementin the products

Sc82:Alkalis and neutralisation

Obtain dry soluble salt-b crystallisation

neutral solution before evaporting water

↳D titration:
mixing rightamountofacid
and alkali for a neutral

solution

*ELLDON

1) acid added from burette to a fixed volume of alkali in a

conical flask

2) pipette measures alkaliin

the flash
the (indicator is
added
end
3) is
point when indicator
changes colour (phenolpthaben)
2) When acid is being added twirl conical
the flask
Sc87:Reaction of acidswith metals and carbonates

Sonic is metal atoms react Hiions

equation when with

to form metal and molecules

ions
hydrogen
Spectator ions, don'tchange
ions that
during the reaction

from the acids

Half equation
is when ions become balanced to

molecules

⑧ oxidation Acid + metals

E iS salt, hydrogen
↳ IOSS

metal
↳ reduction
carbonate -

E is
salt, water, CO2
8 gain

Sc8g:Solubility

PRECIPITATIONis a reaction in which soluble substances and

react

-...... create
an insoluble precipitate

ens

3
when

soluble salts
containing
reactthe ions from the

salts
swap.
potassium carbonate
copper sulfate
+

copper arbondtet
* potassium sulfate
 INSOLUBLESALTS:-
-e
eye protection
-

-mix in a
two solutions beaker then filter
mixture
the

-
mix mixture with a little distilled water and
pour through funnel
the

pour a little distilled

water
over precipitate
the

in funnel
the

remove the precipitate from funnel and warm

in
it an over

Sc4a:masses and empirical formula

Relative formula mass (Mr) is sum

the the
of relative atomic

mass
(Ar)
mass e.g:chlorine (cacl)
i

ca CL

①
Mass 10.0 17.8

② Ar 40 35.S

③
10 g
0.5
a
0.25
= =

④ Ans
smallestamor.s =
2

-
C2 CaCl2
- -

ca
S19b:conservation of mass

is
solute dissolved in solventto make a solution

concentration:
mass of solute (y)
volume of solution (Om3)

closed system:no new substances are added or

removed

Enclosed system:gas can escape, substances can bee

added or removed

ScAC :moles

mole=6.02 102
x

constant
Avogadro E

number ofmass (g)

moles
Ar or
Mr

ScIOa electrolysis

=lysis:the process by which ionic substances are

decomposed into smaller substances when a current

them
passes through

Electrolyte:ionic substance with freely moving electrons

nee

cathod:negative positive
A
mode
Electrode · metal roos
ne Negative
anode:positive
'thode
ELECTROLYSIS uses
energy transferred by electricity
to

dempose ELECTROLYTES

The ELECTRODES are connected to a d.C. electricity

and placed theELECTROLYTEand the
supply
into

charges
opposite are attracted to opposite
the

ELECTRODES
In oxidation loss of electrons
electrolysis is the

and reduction is GAIN

the of electrons

Oxidation
oxidation happens at Anode
the
Is
reduction happens the
at Cathode
Loss
SclOb:products from electrolysis
Reduction

Is metal is produced the

at cathode

Gain non metal

is produced at anode
the

Scha ·
reactivity

ment reaction: -

when metal
a
higher up

the reactivity
series

replaces a less reactive

metal
in an experiment
ScIlb. Ores
⑧BB: of compound to
rock
containing enough a
extract

metal for profit

&neirtions
Sell:Oxidation and
D
reduction

Corrosion:metal
reacting with
oxygen, becoming weaker

Rusting:iron reacting oxygen and

with water

Tarnish:protective oxide layer (prevents corrosion)

ScIld:Life
cycle assessment

Recycling metals:
-melting them, making into
them
something new

Advantages:ores lastlonger, reduce

mining, less waste/pollution
ne

Mentage:expensive, requires more

energy

LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA):assessmentcarried work

outto out
the environmental impact a product
of

①obtaining raw materials & manufacture Use Disposal

Sclza:Dynamic equilibrium

Reversible
reaction is when the products can to
react reform the

recestants

e.9:
ammonium ammoniat
chloride.-> hydrogen chloride

Dynamic is still but

the
equilibrium: reaction
occurring
-

in substances remain in balance

-
be
must in a closed system

neard-rate
of backward

S
THEHABEL PROCESS

ammonia -
a fertilizer

nee
Nitrogen Hydrogen-b
+
ammonica

3Hz 2NH,
to
N2 t

steam is reacted methare

with to form hydrogen

Nitrogen obtained air

from (fractional distillation(

Hydrogen and nitrogen are compressed, then heated 450°

at

They are then passed over an iron catalyst

cooled to
Ammonia gas is produced and then
liquid ammonia

recent

ammonia is oroffbesoloonreactogases
bed to

①
Temperature

② Gas pressure

③ concentration
 Sala:Transition metals

placed in central
the block of periodic
the table

Physical malleable
-
properties:
nee

ductile

good conductors of electricity

Shing
high melting points

high densities

emproperties: coloured

catalytic activity
Sc13b:corrosion

Tarnish:- a thin layer formed after a oxidises

metal further oxidisation
prevent

Corrosion: -
when a continues
metal to
oxidise
becoming weaker over time

Rusting: reaction ofiron steel

with and water
or
oxygen
-
Rusting can be prevented if metal
the is put in an

unreactive environment

Also can
it be prevented water
is away, e.g.
kept
if
using
desiccantpowder,
painting, oiling, plastic coverage

Sacrificial protection: -
method of prevention
rust

Zinc is attached
magnesium or the
to

iron or steel so the oxygen will

react them
with instead ofiron/steel

Sc13c Electroplating

electroplating:surface of one metal

covering a thin
with

of another metal
layer

and tin plating:

-

me

3
coating iron/steel
a
galvanising with Zinc

tin
electroplating
plating
--
plating iron/steel
withtin
sacrificial metals

Sc130:Alloying

Alloy: mixture of with

metal other elements
-

Alloy steels
are made by deliberately
adding other elements

steel
to
to stop
rusting
In pure metal layer
the of atoms slide over each other

easily as atoms
the are same
the size, however alloys
have different
site atoms difficult
making it for the
lagers
to slide over each
making
other the
alloy stronger.
 Scla:Yields

Theoretical
yield:maximum mass of product from the
formed
reactant

Actual
yield:amountofproductyou actually made from the

experiment

YIELD:
MICAL
①
Calculate Mr

② balancing
Multiply by number

-AGE
YIELD:

actual
yield
X 100
theoretical
yield

100%
me
never

-reaction is incomplete (notall reactants

were used
2- some of productis lost
the (remainders on containers)
3- unwanted side reactions

Sclb: Atom
economy
atom
economy:method of showing how efficiently a
particular
reaction makes use of the atoms in reactants
the

Atom
economy Mr of
=
useful
x 100 %

Mr everything
of
ScIUc Concentrations

20m 1000cm
=

O concentration (g0m3) mass

- ofsolute (9)

(0mi)
volume of solute

② concentration (moldm") no moles

= in solute

volume of solution (Om)

③ concentration (moldm3):concentration (90m3)
Mr of solute

ScId
Scle:Molar volume of gases

us
law:

if temperature and pressure are same.

the

volumes of different contain

equal gases

number of molecules
equal

volume of gas:amountof gas (mol)

X
molar volume

SclSa:Fertilizers and The haber process

fertilizers promote plantgrowth

ene

La
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium

Ammonium nitrate:

ammonium + nitrate
-
ammonium nitrate

Ammonium sulfate:

ammonium + sulfuric acid -

ammonium sulfate

ScISb:Factors
affecting equilibrium

be a reaction pathway
me

availability yield
- -

cost atom
economy
- -

-rate