364 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 43, NO.

2, APRIL 1994

The Two-Winding Transformer: An

Experimental Method to Obtain a Wide
Frequency Range Equivalent Circuit
Bruno Cogitore, Jean Pierre KCradec, Member, IEEE, and Jean Barbaroux

II
Abstract- A lumped-component equivalent circuit has been
developed by our team to model the electric behavior of any
two-winding transformer. This circuit is general: its topology is
independent of shape, sizes, and technology chosen. Changing the
sample results only in a change of numerical values. Moreover,
this circuit is suitable in a wide frequency range: from dc up to,
at least, one decade beyond the maximum working frequency of
the transformer.
The aim of this paper is to present an experimental method
which allows all the component values of this equivalent circuit
to be determined, using only external impedance measurements.
Fig. 1. General equivalent circuit submitted to characterization.
The method is illustrated by one example and, to conclude, Bode
plots related to the circuit are compared to the experimental ones.

I. INTRODUCTION A C

T ODAY, software simulation is used extensively to design

electronic circuits, and increasingly high accuracy is
expected by designers who wish to avoid building prototypes.
B
2Lp 2Lp
D

Reachable accuracy is bound to that of individual-component Fig. 2. Reduced circuit to characterize at first.
models: it is a reason to look for a reliable transformer model
Ill. to frequencies which depend on the component size but are,
In another way, design of a transformer can be aided by
at least, one decade above the chosen working frequency.
electromagnetic software simulation. To establish such an
We call “coupler” the component which appears in the
approach, experimental characterization of its electric behavior
dotted frame. It is defined as an ideal transformer which
is needed: a method of measuring characteristic values of the
multiplies voltage and divides current by the coupling ratio
model should be appreciated too.
9. in the arrow direction.
Although transformers have been studied extensively, few
equivalent circuits have been proposed and, today, the ones
used most have proved inadequate in high frequency 121, [3]. 11. PRESENTATION OF THE METHOD
Some transformers have been studied more carefully, but A . Circuit Reduction
equivalent circuits proposed to represent them are closely
As a first step, let us consider the reduced circuit shown in
bound to their shape and their technology [4], 151. Besides,
Fig. 2. It is as accurate as the general one of Fig. 1, assuming
some values characterizing these models cannot be measured
the two following conditions are respected. First, the trans-
electrically and some others require, for their evaluation, the
former behaves as a true quadripole: extemal wiring which
setting of probes inside the component.
links the windings together or to the different conductive parts
Using an energy-based approach, we have designed the
(screen, core, clamping, shielding, . . .) stays unchanged during
lumped-component equivalent circuit in Fig. 1 which is in-
the whole measurement set considered. Second, Eddy current
dependent of transformer building: only component values
losses, either in wires or in the core, are negligible. Let us
change from one sample to another. This circuit, already pre-
name the two inputs: primary for (A, B) and secondary for
sented 161, will be justified shortly in this paper. We have ap-
(C, D).
plied it to transformers ranging from submillimeter integrated
A two-ports linear circuit is fully specified, at each fre-
models to several kilowatt samples. It has proved reliable up
quency, by three independent complex numbers. Thus, to char-
acterize such a device, three Bode plots have to be recorded.
Manuscript received May 18, 1993; revised Dec. 8, 1993. For practical reasons which will be detailed later on, we have
The authors are with L.E.G., ENSIEG, U.R.A. CNRS 355, 38402 Saint
Martin D’Heres, Cedex, France. chosen to measure primary impedance when the secondary is
IEEE Log Number 9216523. open ( ZO)or short-circuited ( Z S C )and secondary impedance
0018-9456/94$O4.O0 0 1994 IEEE

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COGITORE er al.: THE TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER: AN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
10K--
10 100 1K 10K lOOK 1M 10M
Fig. 3. Asymptotic diagrams of moduli used.
under similar conditions: (2;) and (Zg,). Among these four
plots, we finally keep the three most accurately measured.
Expressions of these impedances are found after a laborious
but easy calculation. They are complicated and, to use them,
some approximations are welcome [ 6 ] .
For most industrial transformers, coupling is higher than
0.98, power efficiency better than 0.95, and capacitances are
weak enough to allow the inductive behavior of impedances
studied to be seen during at least one decade of frequency. In
such a case, the following inequalities are true:
Using these approximations, transfer functions of 20 and
ZSC become simpler, poles and zeros are found, and related
asymptotic Bode plots are drawn as shown in Fig. 3.
The five characteristic frequencies ( f l to fs) which appear
in Fig. 3 are given by
1 measured at this frequency identifies with R p .
Expressions of Zl, and Z$, are deduced from Fig. 3 by a
permutation of indexes 1 and 2, followed by a multiplication
of q2. Expressions of f 3 and f4 ( 1 ) show that serial resonance
of ZO occurs at the same frequency as parallel resonance of
Z&, and this remains true for 2 6 and ZSC.In practice, these
frequencies are always very close.
The problem now amounts to this: how to deduce the nine
values of the reduced circuit, starting from Bode plots of
20,ZSC,26 and ZLc. We will see that the solution is easy
providing that a certain order is followed.
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365
B. Characterization of Magnetic Coupling
The first ascending part of the Bode plots of Zo,Zsc,
and Zl, allows three inductances to be defined, respectively:
the open-circuit inductance ( L O )the
, short-circuit inductance
(lsc),both viewed from the primary, and the open-circuit in-
ductance viewed from the secondary (Lb).These inductances
can be expressed in terms of those included in the reduced
circuit:
z+-
2LP
The transformation ratio q and the coupling coefficient k
are deduced directly from them:
k=/l-%. (3)
Note that the definition taken for 11 does not coincide
systematically with the tum number ratio: it has been chosen
so that the magnetic quadrupole is symmetrical. Yet, when the
coupling is close enough (k 2 0.98), these two estimations
of q are identical.
Using (3), it follows that
lsc
Is = -
k
l+k
Lp =Lo-
2 .
Again, approximations apply when k 2 0.98.
C . Determination of Resistances
The low-frequency plateau of ZOequals T I , and that of Zl,
equals q2r2. Since q has been estimated, rz can be deduced.
Then it is possible to check that the plateau of ZSC in Fig. 3
+
equals r1 rz.
The value of R p does not appear in Fig. 3 on the asymptotic
diagram of 20because it is masked by parallel inductances on
the low-frequency side or by parallel capacitors on the high-
frequency side. Luckily, these two effects compensate each
other at resonance frequency fz, so that the modulus of 20
D . Determination of Capacitances C1 to C3
Calculation of C l , C Z , and C3 of Fig. 2 is carried out
starting from frequencies fz, f 3 , and f 4 . Because inductances
1s and L p are now known, three independent capacitance sums
are deduced from (1). Then, values C1 to C3 derive from
them directly. One of these capacitances may be negative:
only individually measurable capacitances have to be positive.
E . Determination Of Capacitances y1 to y6
From an electrostatic point of view, the transformer behaves
as a three-input system as in Fig. 4, and its electrostatic energy
366 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 43, NO. 2, APRIL 1994

qg:*
B D r

Fig. 5. Accounting for Eddy currents in wires.

Fig. 4. For electrostatics, the device is a three-input circuit.

4) A connected with D + V3 = VI
W E ( 6 ) is a quadratic function of three potentials which is
distinguished by six coefficients C;,: c1 + = +
c3 c11 c33 + 2c13

WE = i c l l v ; + 3 c 2 2 v , f ic33v32 c
2 + c3 = q2c22
+ icizViVz + ci3ViV3 + cz3V2V3. (6) c i + c2 = cii + c33 + 2c13 + ?l2c22

As a consequence, measuring C1 to C3 with two different

+ 2 d c 1 2 + e231
links between windings generally results in different values.
5 ) Each winding is floating relatively to the other 13 =
Owing to its six capacitors 71 to 7 6 , the full circuit of Fig. 1
0. V3 is linked to VI and V2 by V3 = -(C13vl+ C23Vz)/C33
synthesizes all these results. Its electrostatic energy Wk is

(7)

identifies with W E if 71 are chosen as follows:

6) A connected with B and C with D + VI = V2 = 0.

C33 is measured directly.

74 = c33 f c13 + qc23 F . Accounting for Extra Losses

7 5 = -qc23 Usually, parameter determination stops here. Yet, in some
76 = -C13. (8) cases, it can be noticed that the first ascending part of modulus
ZSC(or 20)gives a slope weaker than 1, which is the expected
To conclude, we have to deduce coefficients Cij from
value for an inductor. To account for this observation, it is
several sets of C1 to C3, measured for different wirings
judicious to divide the serial I S (or parallel L p ) inductance
joining the two windings. The following equations allow this
into two parts, one being shunted by a resistance T (or R).
calculation. They result from identification, in each case, of
This splitting of IS (or L p ) has been introduced previously
W E(6) with electrostatic energy stored by the reduced circuit.
[7]-[9] to model Eddy currents in wires or in the core.
1) B connected with D V3 = 0
For instance, when Eddy currents appear in wires, a close
ci + c3 = c11 look at ZSC shows an increase in serial resistance. together
cz + e 3 = q2c22 with a decrease in serial (leakage) inductance. The circuit
proposed in Fig. 5 behaves roughly in the same way.
c
1 + c
2 = Cl1 + q2c22 + 2qc12
Due to T , serial inductance of this circuit decreases from 1s
2 ) A connected with C 3 V3 = VI - V2 in low frequency to 1k in high frequency. A fast calculation
shows that the decrease of this inductance is half the total
ci + c 3 = c i i f c33 f 2c13 variation for frequency fc and that the slope of this curve is
c 2 + c3 = q 2 [ c 2 2 + e33 - 2c23] maximum for frequency f M given by
ci f c 2 = c i i -k c33 + 2c13 + 7/2(c22 + c33 - 2c23)

+ 27(c12 - c33 - c13 + c23)

3) B connected with C 3 V3 = V2

c1 + e3 = Cl1
The inductance variation and its frequency location allow
CZ+ c 3 = Q 2 [ c 2 2 + c33 - 2c23]
I$ and r to be evaluated.
ci f c 2 = c i i f 0 2 ( c 2 2 + c33 - 2 c 2 3 ) The same reasoning and the same conclusions apply to the
+ %(e12 - c13). (9) parallel inductance L p .

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COGITORE et al.: THE TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER: A N EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
A MIN 1.000 Q START
B M I N -90.00 deg STOP
Fig. 6 . Bode plot of Zo (measured).
111. EQUIFJMENT
AND EXPERIMENTAL
PRECAUTIONS
Experimental results presented are obtained using a Hewlett-
Packard HP 4194A impedance gain-phase analyzer. Its wide
frequency band (100 Hz4O MHz), its compensations for
wiring impedances, and its various presentations of results
(see Section IV) make it a very convenient tool to do the
job. Now, let us see how to use it best.
At each frequency, a quadrupole is defined by only three
independent complex parameters. On the other hand, a lot of
impedances and gains are measurable: we have to choose. Let
us note first that the required load, for any gain measurement,
can hardly ever be considered as ideal (infinite, zero, purely
resistive, . . .) in the whole frequency domain. Moreover,
disturbance due to added wiring cannot be compensated cor-
rectly during a gain analysis. This is why we have chosen
to measure three impedances, taken among the four easily
measurable ones, that is to say, those that a winding presents
when the other is open or short-circuited. Among these four
measurements, the least accurate is eliminated. The final
choice depends on instrument specifications, on magnitudes of
component impedances and may vary according to frequency
domain. Notice that some extra measurements often allow
useful checkings.
Using the supply voltage setting of the analyzer, a curve
can be acquired twice, with two different supply voltages,
to check whether the behavior of the transformer is linear.
The voltage choice also has to take the analyzer manufacturer
advice into account [7] aiming at obtaining the best accuracy.
The selected value depends on the impedance measured and
on the frequency domain: an increase can be necessary in high
frequency to insure a sufficient signalhoise ratio as well as a
decrease in low frequency to avoid magnetic core saturation.
Any unexpected behavior which is noticed should incite the
operator to carry out the measurement again with a different
supply level or to check the connections.
During measurements, some wires are used, first to connect
the component to the instrument, and second to add extra
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367
100.000 Hz
40 000 000,000 Hz
wiring such as a short circuit. The influence of the former can
be compensated efficiently by the analyzer, providing locations
of the four main terminals have been defined precisely. The
quality of the short circuit which, during some experiments,
loads a winding has to be tested with the greatest care.
In high frequency, as soon as capacitance effects become
perceptible, the transformer is no longer a quadrupole: its cur-
rents depend on more than two potentials. To obtain coherent
and reproducible results all the terminals (two of each winding,
one for each screen, metallic core and clamping, shielding, . . .)
have to be labeled, and the whole cabling has to be recorded
in detail. As long as the transformer is characterized as a
quadrupole, this cabling has to stay unchanged.
Iv. ACTUALCHARACTERIZATION OF A TRANSFORMER
A . Component Description and Choice of Measurements
The transformer tested below is an industrial molded model
using a ferrite core. It is intended to work at 20 kHz with a
primary supply of 40 V, and 0.2 A. Primary and secondary
turn numbers are respectively 32 and 560.
Two of the necessary Bode plots are represented in Figs. 6
and 7. They are related respectively to 2 0 and to ZSC. The
two homologous impedances seen from the secondary side (26
and A’&) are measured but not shown here.
B . Study of the Magnetic Coupling
Open and short-circuit inductances seen from the primary
side (Lo and I S C ) can be deduced directly from Figs. 6 and 7.
But, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9, using the serial ( L s / R s )or
parallel ( L p / R p )presentation which separates inductive and
resistive parts of the impedance is more appropriate,
LO is deduced directly from Fig. 8 or from the L p / R p
representation of 20:
LO= 5.43 mH.
lsc comes directly from Fig. 9 after a careful choice of the
frequency. First, the quick increase of LS below 1 kHz, is
~

368 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 43, NO. 2, APRIL 1994

A MIN 100.0 mR START 100.000 H z

E M I N -90.00 deg STOP 40 000 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Hz
Fig. 7. Bode plot of Zsc (measured).

A MIN 0.000 H START 100,000 H z

B MIN 100.0 mR STOP 40 000 000.000 H z
Fig. 8. L , y / R s representation of 20 (measured).

due to the fact that r:! does not short-circuit L p perfectly, as This value is very close to the turn number ratio:
shown in Fig. 2. Afterwards, the slight decrease of LS above
100 kHz will be taken into account, as mentioned above, by 560/32 = 17.5.
introducing T , as shown in Fig. 5. Finally, the value is read
at 10 kHz:
C . Study of Power Losses
lsc = 1.21 pH. Rp is deduced from the modulus or from the ( L p / R p )rep-
Equation (3) shows that coupling is very close (IC near resentation of 20:it is identified with the resistance measured
0.999). Thus, according to (4) and (3,L p and 1s can be at frequency f2. We read at 53.5 kHz:
ranked respectively with LO and ISC:
Rp = 42kR.
L p = 5.43 mH and IS = 12.1pH.
Similarly, Lb is deduced from 2;: It is not easy to deduce 1-1 from Figs. 6 , 7, and 9 because
frequency f i is below the analyzer measurement range. For-
Lh = 1.644 H. tunately, this value can be found on Fig. 8 looking at the Rs
part of 20 in low frequency. Thus:
Using (2), from LO and Lb we deduce
= 17.4. r1 = 230mR and v2r2= 8 3 0 .

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COGITORE et al.: THE TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER: AN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD 369

A MIN O.'OOO H START 100.000 H z

El M I N 100.0 mR STOP 40 000 000.000 H z

Fig. 9. L.y/ Rs representation of Zsc (measured).

These values are close to those measured with a micro- Finally, capacitances y1 to 76 are deduced using (8):
ohmmeter:
y1 = -15 pF 72 = 3.66 nF y3 = 127 pF
220mCl and 79R. 74 = 214 pF 75 = -204 pF 76 = 10 pF.
Our measurement is slightly overestimated because the Rs Two capacitances are negative. This is not awkward because
part of 2 0 includes a part of the iron losses, even in low all measurable values remain positive. For instance, the input
frequency. To conclude, we retain capacitance of the model, found when V2 and V3 are null, is
TI = 230mR and 7-2 = 274mCl. + +
given by: y1 7 3 7 6 = 122 pF, as confirmed by direct
measurement.
According to the theory in Fig. 3, the sum 7-1 +r2 = 0.504 R
Although this approach is theoretically well established,
appears in Figs. 7 and 9.
great care is required at the time of measurements and calcula-
Finally, to calculate EL and T , let us focus again on Fig. 9.
tions. Some values come from substractions of numbers close
First, I$ equals the high-frequency asymptotic limit of the LS
in magnitude, which often leads to very approximate results.
part of ZSC.Then, T is deduced from fc (10) or fM (11).
Crosscheckings, based on measurements relative to different
Using both these equations is helpful when capacitance effects
interwinding wirings, should be carried out for safety.
mask the horizontal asymptote of L s . We obtain
E$ = 11.77pH and T = 400mR. v. COMPARISON BETWEEN
MODELAND EXPERIMENT
To test the reliability of the final resulting circuit, it is con-
D. Research of Capacitances
venient to compare the graphs deduced from the model with
Measurements presented above are pointed out without the experimental ones. Many electronic simulation softwares
any wiring between the two windings. Resonance frequencies allow model-related curves to be drawn. To do this, we use
allow the sums below to be deduced: a proprietary software [ 111 which locates all poles and zeros
Cl+C2 = 1.52 nF C1.+C3 = 117 pF C2+C3 = 1.45 nF. of the transfer function and draws the results in any of the
presentations offered by the HP 4194A analyzer.
A second set of measurements, obtained by connecting B Model-related curves in Figs. 10-12, are given for com-
to D, gives in the same way: parison to their measured counterparts in Figs. 6, 7, and
9. They have been set out considering, as was true during
C1+C2 = 3.44 nF C1+C3 = 122 pF C2+C3 = 3.57 nF.
measurements, each winding was floating relatively to the
C33 is measured directly between the two windings, after other. Other graphs, not presented here, have been compared
they have been short-circuited (VI = V, = 0). too. All of them have shown that the model is reliable up to
2 MHz, i.e. two decades above the working frequency.
C33 = 19.5 pF. Data introduced in the software are actually those resulting
from the previous calculation: no further adjustment has been
Using relations (9), coefficients Cij are found: made to bring the model nearer to the experimental results.
Finally, only resonances beyond 1 MHz are more damped
in reality than it appears with the model. Slight improvements
may be expected from fine tuning some component values.

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370 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 43, NO. 2, APRIL 1994

The circuit obtained has proved accurate up to one or two

decades above the maximum usable working frequency of the
transformer. Introduced in an electronic simulation software,
it allows parasitic resonances to be forecasted, capacitive
interwinding currents to be studied and every kind of power
loss to be evaluated separately, whatever the surrounding
circuit.
Because each component of the model is physicallyjustified,
the above characterization is a convenient tool to diagnose
manufacturing defects and to compare prototypes in compe-
tition. Conceming the transformer taken as an example, the
experimental study has brought strong induced currents in
Hz lkHz lOkHz lOOkHz lMHz lOMHz lOOM conductors to light.
Fig. 10. Modulus and phase of 20 (model). To conclude, let us emphasize the fact that the equivalent
circuit is the meeting point between physics and electronics.
Electromagnetic simulations are beginning to supply com-
ponent values. Consequently, experimental characterization
appears as a means to validate these computations.

REFERENCES
[I] E. Laveuve, J. P. Keradec, and F. Lappas, “Un obstacle- 2 la montke en
fr6quence: les ClCments bobinks,” EPF/90, Toulouse,France, 1990.
[2] M. Mino, T. Yachi, A. Tago, K. Yanagisawa, and K. Sakakibara, “A new
planar microtransformer for use in micro-switching converters,” IEEE
Trans. Magn., vol. 28, pp. 1969-1973, July 1992.
[3] Philips Data Handbook, “Soft ferrites,” MAOl, 1991, pp. 38-39.
[4] B. Lees, “Transformer design optimization for a multikilovolt high
frequency quasi-resonant converter,” in Proc. HFPC191, 1991, pp.
160-178.
~- [ 5 ] M. S. Paul, D. W. Novotny, and D. M. Divan, “Design considerations for
Hz lkHz lOkHz lOOkHz lMHz 1OMHz lOOM high frequency co-axial winding power transformers,” in Proc. IAS/91,
Fig. 11. Modulus and phase of 25,- (model). 1991, pp. 946-952.
[6] B. Cogitore, J. P. Keradec, and E. Laveuve, “Des circuits 2 constantes
localiskes pour reprksenter les transformateurs haute fkquence,” Revue
GCnCrale de I’ElectricitC, no. 5, pp. 36-47, Mai 1992.
1 [7] E. Laveuve, “Modklisation des transformateurs des convertisseurs haute
Mquence,” thhse de Doctorat, INPG, Grenoble, Sept. 1991.
I
I

~
i 1 w
_.__
2
[S] E. Laveuve, J. P. Keradec, and G. Meunier, “Influenced of induced
currents in conductors on leakage and losses in a transformer,” Electric
Machines and Power Sysl., vol. 19, pp. 55-68, Jan. 1991.
[9] B. Cogitore, J. P. Keradec, and R. Comec, “Representation of copper
I
~. 1QM losses of magnetic components in high frequency: An equivalent circuit
with fixed value model,” in Proc. EECC193, European Space Agency,
Noordwijk, The Netherlands, May 1993.
~

[lo] Hewlett Packard, “4194 A impedance/gain-phase analyzer operation

m i I
manual,” section I , general information, pp. 4-37.
[ 111 B. Cogitore, “Modklisation semi-automatique de composants passifs
lineaires,” rapport de DEA, INPG, Grenoble, 1990.
4uH
i L

j
Fig. 12. L s / R s representation of z.5~(model).

Also, to reduce the model-experiment gap, resistances could

be inserted inside the capacitive branches but, in this case, the
physical meaning of these extra components would have to Bruno Cogitore was bom in Valence, Franm, in
1965. He received the “Diplome d’ing6nieur” in
be clarified. electrical engineering from the “Ecole superieure
d’ingknieurs de Marseille” in 1989.
VI. CONCLUSION After a short period, working as an engineer in
“Electricitk de France,” he joined the “Laboratoire
The experimental method presented here allows the linear d’Electrotechnique de Grenoble.” Since 1990, he
behavior of a two-winding transformer to be fully character- has been working on the wound component mod-
eling used in high-frequency static converters.
ized. To achieve this, only impedance measurements, which
need no component dismantling, are necessary.

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COGITORE et al.: THE TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER: AN EXF’ERIMENTAL METHOD
Jean Pierre Keradec (M’92) was born in Paris,
France, in 1947. He received the “Doctorat de
Physique du Solide” in 1973 from the University
of Grenoble, France.
He taught physics at the University of Tunis,
Tunisia, from 1973 to 1977. He currently teaches
analog electronics, signal processing, and measure-
ment systems design at the “Institut Universitaire
de Technologie” of Grenoble and at the “Institut
National Polytechnique de Grenoble.” He joined
the “Laboratoire d’Electrotechnique de Grenoble”
in 1985 and his research interests mainly include high-frequency power
transformer modeling and measurements related to high-frequency power
static converters.
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37 1
Jean Barbaroux was bom in Toulon, France, in
1949. He received the degree in electrical engineer-
ing in 1984 from the “Conservatoire National des
Arts et MCtiers,” France.
He teaches analog and power electronics at the
“Institut Universitaire de Technologie’’ of Grenoble.
He joined the “Laboratoire d’Electrotechnique de
Grenoble” in 1974. Since 1985 he has been working
with the power electronic research team of this
laboratory. His research interests mainly include
high-frequency power converters for induction heat-
ing, voltage and current probes for measurement on high-frequency power
static converters.