KEY TERM WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW KEY TERM WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

Absorption line A spectrum of discrete dark lines against the bright background of a continuous spectrum showing that only photons of A class of fundamental particle of relatively small mass. Electrons, muons and neutrinos are leptons. Leptons are subject to
Lepton the weak interaction.
spectrum certain exact energies have been absorbed.

Alpha decay The process during which an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle. Lepton number A number which is conserved all particle interactions. Leptons have a lepton number of +1. Antileptons have a lepton
number of -1. All non-leptons have a lepton number of 0.
Alpha particle A particle made of two protons and two neutrons emitted from the nucleus of an unstable atom. It is identical to the nucleus
of an atom of helium-4. Maximum kinetic Photoelectrons are emitted with a range of kinetic energies. A few of the photoelectrons will have the maximum kinetic
energy, Ek(max) energy, Ek(max). The maximum kinetic energy depends only on the frequency of light (i.e. its colour) and not on its intensity.
When a particle and an antiparticle meet, they annihilate i.e. their total mass is converted directly into energy and
Annihilation
momentum (one gamma ray photon with energy and momentum that is equal to the total of the two incoming particles). Mega-electron-volt,
MeV 1 MeV = 1 x 106 eV = 1.60 x 10-13 J
Antimatter Matter made of antiparticles.
Mesons Composite particle made of two quarks which is subject to the strong interaction.
Antiparticle Every particle has a corresponding antiparticle e.g. proton(+)/antiproton(-) or electron(-)/positron(+).
Neutrino, ν A type of lepton emitted during beta decay (represented by the Greek letter ν - nu )
Atom The smallest particle of an element. Atoms have neutral charge unless they are ionised.
Neutron A neutral (zero charge) particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
A non-SI unit of mass used in nuclear and particle physics equal to 1/12th of the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
Atomic mass unit, u
u = 1.66x10-27 kg Nucleon number, A The sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Baryon Composite particle made of three quarks which is subject to the strong interaction e.g. proton, neutron. Nucleus The +vely charged centre of an atom. It is extremely small compared to the radius of an atom and extremely dense.

A number which is conserved all particle interactions. Baryons have a baron number of +1. Baryons have a baryon number Pair production The opposite of annihilation. An interaction in which a particle with enough energy can create a particle and antiparticle at
Baryon number the same moment, whilst conserving lepton no., baryon no., energy, mass, momentum, strangeness and charge.
of -1. All non-baryons have a baryon number of 0.

Beta minus particle, The emission of electron(s) from a metal surface when EM radiation is incident on the surface. The emitted electrons are
A high energy electron emitted from the nucleus of an unstable atom. Photoelectric effect
β- sometimes called photoelectrons.

Beta minus β- decay The process during which an unstable nucleus emits a negatively charged beta particle. Photoelectric This relates the photon energy, work function and maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons. hf = Φ + Ek(max)
equation
Beta plus β+ decay The process during which an unstable nucleus emits a positively charged beta particle.
Photoelectron An electron that has escaped from a metal surface due to the photoelectric effect.
Continuous Electromagnetic radiation arranged in order of frequency (eg. ROYGBIV) after it has passed through a prism or diffraction
spectrum grating. A continuous spectrum has no gaps. Photon The particle that is exchanged when two particles interact via the EM force. It has a mass of zero.

Coulomb, C The unit of electric charge. One coulomb is the charge transferred when a current of one amp flows for one second ie. Q = It When a photon is absorbed, an electron from a lower energy level is promoted to a higher energy level or escapes the
Photon absorption
system.
de Broglie The equation that proposes that waves have particle-like properties and particles have wave-like properties. λ= h
wavelength Photon emission When a photon is emitted because an electron drops down to a lower energy level.
mv
Pion exchange The exchange particle for the residual strong interaction between composite particles (e.g. between two protons).
Diffraction The spreading out of a wave as a result of passing through a narrow gap or across an edge.
Planck’s Constant, h A fundamental constant of nature h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
A property which causes a particle to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types:
Electric charge
positive (+ve) and negative (-ve). Unlike charges attract, like charges repel. Proton A +vely charged particle found in the nucleus. It is the only stable baryon into which other baryons eventually decay.
Electron A negatively charged particle found “orbiting” the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is also the number of electrons present in the neutral atom. The proton
Proton number, Z
number defines the element e.g. carbon atoms will always have Z = 6.
Electron capture A form of beta decay where the nucleus captures an inner electron (from the electron cloud) via the weak interaction.
Quark An elementary particle with fractional electric charge that cannot exist in isolation.
Electron cloud An alternative model which pictures the electrons existing in a cloud around the nucleus.
Radioactive decay The process whereby an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting alpha or beta particles or a gamma ray photon.
A beam of electrons is diffracted by the gaps between atoms in the crystal. This shows that particles (electrons) can have The process is spontaneous and random.
Electron diffraction
wave-like properties associated with them.
From Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity (for an object at rest). Mass can be expressed in units of energy. This is known as
Electron excitation An alternative model which pictures the electrons existing in a cloud around the nucleus . Rest energy
the rest energy. The rest energy is often given in the form of MeV.
Electronic relaxation The opposite of excitation i.e. a transition from a high to a lower energy level. Specific charge The charge per unit mass. qm = Q / m

A non-SI unit of energy used in nuclear physics. It is the energy transferred when an electron moves through a potential Stable nucleus A nucleus that has no tendency undergo radioactive decay, due to its very long half life, e.g. carbon-12.
Electron-volt, eV
difference of one volt. 1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J
Stopping potential, The voltage or potential difference needed to “stop” all photoelectrons. This gives a measurement of the maximum kinetic
Emission line A spectrum of discrete bright lines against a black background showing that only photons of certain exact energies have Vs energy of the photoelectrons.
spectrum been emitted, shown by the equation hf = E1 − E2
A physical property that is conserved during the strong and electromagnetic interactions. Strangeness can change by 0, +1
Strangeness, s
Electrons bound to atoms exist at discrete energy levels e.g. -13.6 eV is indicates that 13.6 eV are needed for the electron to or -1 in weak interactions.
Energy levels
be released from the atom. (Note that -5.7 eV is a higher energy level.)
The force that holds the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion of protons. It is attractive at separations of up to 3
Strong nuclear force
Exchange particles Particles interact by exchanging particles e.g. the electromagnetic force is mediated by photons. fm and repulsive at separations below 0.5 fm.

Femtometre, fm A very small distance roughly equal to the radius of a hydrogen nucleus 1 femtometre = 1 fm = 1 x 10-15 m Threshold frequency,
f0 The minimum frequency that will release photoelectrons from a metal.

Feynman diagram A diagram which represents an interaction in terms of the incoming and outgoing particles and the exchange particle e.g.
electromagnetic repulsion of two electrons. Ultraviolet light A high frequency light with large photon energy that will produce photoelectrons from zinc.
Unstable nucleus A nucleus that has a tendency to undergo radioactive decay e.g. carbon-14.
Fundamental
Particles can affect each other only by these interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak.
interactions Velocity of EM
A fundamental constant of nature c = 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
radiation, c
Gluon The exchange particle for the strong interaction between quarks.
Ground state The lowest energy level (most tightly bound to the nucleus). Virtual photon The exchange particle for the electromagnetic interaction. They are virtual because detection would prevent the exchange.

Hadrons Composite particles made of quarks which are subject to the strong interaction. W boson/Z boson The exchange particles of the weak interaction.
Ionisation The process of removing (or adding) electrons from (or to) atoms to create electrically charged ions. The idea that as particles can have ‘wave-like’ properties (e.g. electron diffraction), so waves can have ‘particle-like’
Wave particle duality properties (e.g. photons and the photoelectric effect).
Isotope A nucleus of a particular element that may have a different number of neutrons e.g. carbon-12 (6 p, 6n) and carbon-14 (6p,
8n). The Periodic Table lists only the most common isotopes as found in nature. Work function, φ The minimum energy “cost” for an photoelectron to escape from a metal.
 PARTICLES QUARKS AND ANTIQUARKS

Nuclide notation:

Simple diagram
of the atom
Specific charge (C/kg) = charge (C)
mass (kg)
These quantities are always conserved in particle
interactions:
E = hf = hc Particle decay:
λ • Mass • Strangeness
(where Baryon → proton • Charge • Momentum
h=Planck’s Muon → electron • Baryon number • Energy
Constant) Kaon → pion • Lepton number

FUNDAMENTAL FORCES UNIT 2 - PARTICLES AND RADIATION

ELECTRONS AND ENERGY LEVELS
In fluorescent tubes a gas has an electric current
pass though it. This causes electrons to become
excited and ionise. When electrons return towards
the ground state they lose energy which is emitted
as UV radiation. This radiation is absorbed by the
coating in the tube which emits visible light.
STABLE AND UNSTABLE NUCLEI
Spectrums provide evidence for electrons
inhabiting discrete energy levels.
The definitions for these spectra can be
found in the key terms section.

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

The photoelectric effect suggests that EM waves have a
particulate nature. Electron diffraction suggests that particles possess wave properties.
Wave particle duality is
It is the emission of electron(s) from a metal surface when the theory proposed by Diffraction patterns are observed when accelerated electrons in a vacuum
tube interact with the spaces in a graphite crystal.
EM radiation is incident on the surface. The emitted electrons Louis de Broglie. It
are sometimes called photoelectrons. They are normal suggests that ‘wave-like’
electrons, but their name describe their origin – emitted Changing the speed or mass of the particles changes the diffraction pattern –
like shows particle which fits in with de Broglie’s hypothesis.
through the photoelectric effect.
properties and that FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS
A photon with less than the threshold frequency (f 0) cannot ‘particles’ like electrons
cause electron emission so therefore: should be expected to
Φ = hf0
show wave-like
properties.

de Broglie Equation
λ= h
mv