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    Complex Number

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    WixirepiA, Complex number ‘In mathemutics, complex nunaber i an element of number system tat extends the real oumbers with «specie element denoted i called the Imaginary unit and satisfying the equation # = =I; every complex number ean be expressed inte form a+ bi where a and b ae real mumbers. [Besse ho veal number salle the above equation, (was called an imaginary number by René Descartes, For the complex number a~ bia called the real part and billed the imaginary part The st of complex numbers is denota by eter ofthe symls € or C. Despite the historical omenslaare “imaginary, complex nombers are rparded i the mithemtieal cnees just a real 8th real mombers a are fondamental 0 ‘many aspects ofthe seutifedesrptionofthenatural wold/:E¢) {Complex numbers allow solitons to all pobmamial equations, even those that have no solitons in real numbers, More prey the fandaments ‘hater of algebra assets tha every not-constant plynomial equation with real or complex coefcents has asalton which sa complex number. Forexarpe, the equation (= + 1]* = —Ohas no rel slfin, ance the aque ofa el uber cannot be negalive but has the two nonedl complex. Acar ranbr canbe ity selutone™I'+ 3iand=1~ 3 reposnecar apart (4b) Addition, subttetion snd muliplicaton of complex numbers can be naturally defined by using the rue = ~1 combined with the asuative, gare Sarr energie mmtative and dstrbutive nwa Every nonvera complex aunber has a ligleative vere Thie makes the complennutaers ald ha ha te Sarpolus eal numbers aa suid. The complex number alo frm el vector spice Of dibension two with (1, /} ava standard base bemoan sus aie “sana ai nates te come nb «Crs ancl he comple ln. This lows a gomrnterpetaon of the complex ‘entered ie pesto end cotenoy eqwaesig aso apn Sms tts get perio endcmtecion Yor a ‘evel number ft te ulin wi ead oh boca a th gle pace. Toe opr ces ale oe fats hel i, The den cpa Suber re Ua ns eopes pny and he lien by nconpler moni esnay veel ign Th cpusomlugon ee son eet ote ‘pec hal To cop sae es ens ar In summary, the complex numbers form arch structure thats simultaneously an algebraically closed eld, ommutativ algebra over the reals, and a Euclidean veto space of dimension Contents Definition Notation ‘Visualization ‘Caresian comoex pane Paar compl pane Complex ans History Relations and operations ena, Oraecog ‘Aton ane subtraction Mutipeaton and square Reoprocal ang dvsion ‘Mutton and evison in polar orm ‘Square rot Exponent fencton Complex ogarthn ‘Exponention Propertion eld sbuctre ‘Seluions of plyocial equations [Ngebrs characterization (Characenzation 9 2 topological felt Formal construction “Consinucton as order pe ‘Constution as quote Matix representation of complex nombers ‘Complex analysis ‘Comolex exponential and ested functons olomorpne tunctons ‘Applications ‘Geom [Agebrasenumbor theory doabte number heory Ieoneinograb Dynami equstors sear Algebra Inapofed mathomatie \Generaaations and cated notions ‘See alto Notes Referen Definition complex umber isa number ofthe form a+ i, where a and are el numbers, and isan indeterminate sting? <1. orexample,2+3ui¢a I complex number ®) y This way, «complex number defined a a polyoma wi real eolTicents inte single indeterminate for which the relation + 1 = Oi impose ‘used on this definition, complex numbers ean beaded and multiplied, wig the ation and multiplication fo polynomial. The slain # + 1= 0 Induces the equalities = 1,1 = 82 "yn =i, which old forall integers hase allow the reduction of any polynomial hat esl ‘Hom the addon and muliplictin of complex numbers to lines polynomial in, again ofthe form a ~ bi wih al coetcents “Thereal namber scaled the real part ofthe complex number a ~ bi the real mimber bs cale its naginary part Toemphasie the marnary part 7 fe Ales no nel factor tht Une maginary pact iD, not Bi) orally, te complex sumbers are defined as the quaint rag of the polynomial rng in the indoterminat i bythe eal generated by the polynomial 1 Goebel) (8 Notation Areal number a ean be regard aa complex number a + 0, whose imayinary art so. A purely imaginary number bi isa complex number 0 ~ bi, whase ral paris ara. At with Polym fiscommon to witea fora’: endfor « Moreover, en te iaginary pan negate, hat ,)~ |b] ~O,Riscommon owetea linseed ota (Opi for sample for bt, 3 di ean be writen nsead of 3 (8), Since the moliplction ofthe indeterminate f anda rel is eommurative jn polynomials with rel coefficient, the polynomial a ~ bi may be written as a ib, This is oten expedient for ‘imaginary parts denoted by expressions, fr example, when b sa radical!?) “Theres prt ofa complex number zie denoted by Rel), Re(2), or (a); the imaginary partof complex number is denoted by Im), Em(e) or 32). For example, ‘Theset of al complex number ie denoted by C(ackbotrd bold) or €(speght bold In some disciplines, parislryin electromagnetism and letra engineering, jis wd instead ofa ie roquently wed to repreeetsestre corel I these cases, complex numbers rewrites asa bjeora jh Visualization Acomplex umber an thus be eatifed with an ordered pale (2), 3(2) of al nunbers, which inten may be interpreted as coordaates ofa polat Ina two-dimensional space. The mast immediate space i the Bucldean plane with stable coordinates, whichis then elle complex plan or Argand diagrams (FETT gamed after Jean-Robert Argand, Another prominent space on which the coordinates may be projected ithe twordieasional sulace ‘fa spbere, which is then called Rieti phere Cartesian complex plane ‘The definition ofthe complex numbers invuving two aeirary rea values immediately suggests the use of Cartesian coondinates i the complex plane ‘The horizontal (ea axis is generally used to display the veal pat, with increasing vals to the righ, and the imaginary part marks the vertical Gmaginany) axis wt ineessng eas upmards ‘charted number may be vewe ether at the ourdnatized pint o asa position vector from he aig to ths pnt. The coordinate values ofa complex ‘umber an hence be expressed ints Cartesian, rectangular or elgebrae fr. ‘Notubly, the operations of adtion and muiplication take on every natural geometric character, when complex numbers are viewed as postion vectors ‘dion corresponds to vector adton, while mliestion (see below) corcesponds to multiplying their agnitudes and adding the anges they make withthe relax. Viewed in this way, the maitipiation of complex number by corresponds to rotating the poston vector counterlocorize bya quarter rn (90) about the origin — fac which ean be expressed algehsicly Sellen (orm) a+ 4697 = B+ ak Polar complex plane Modulus and argument _An alternative option for coordinates inthe complex pane isthe polar aordnte stm that wes the distance ofthe point from the org (0), and the anileeubtendl betwen he psn eal aed he tne sgn OF racountetlcive sees. This lnds to te polar form rel = roomy + ining) of complex number, where the buoute alu of, and is the argument of ‘The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) ofa complex number =x | yi) = Poe. Is isareal nomber that | Thats the absolut vale of sel number equate absolute aloe aa complex nome By Pythagoras theoer, the absolut alu ofa comsples number ithe stance to the origin ofthe punt representing the complex number inthe comple plane “Theargument of 2 in many appiatons refered oa the phase” pis the ange ofthe radius Or withthe positive real ais ands written asa. 2 As wth the modus, the argument «canbe found form the retangular form x yal*1-by applying the inverse angent to the quotient of imaginary-by-real pars By sing a halfange idem, a single ranch ofthe aretan Sesto cover the range "ff ofthe arg-funeion, and avoids amore subi case-by-case analsis ) Hy#0ore>o, poate ty) = ‘defined ‘Normally, a gven above, the principal value inthe interval (x, i choten, Ute rg vale negative, values i the range (x, ] or [0 2a) canbe obtained by adding 2x. The val of @ |s expressed in radians i hate. Tt can inerese by any integer mulipleof 2 and sl gve the sme angle, vewed as subtended bythe rays ofthe posive rel axis aod rom the cit Ugh Hence, the arg function is someline considered as mulvalued The polar angle or We complex nue Os indeterminate, bul aria eolc ofthe polar angle common “The alueof p equals the result of ata: ‘p= atan2(tin(2),Re(s)) ‘Together, rand 9 give another way of epreenting complex numbers, th pola form, asthe combination of modulus and argument flly specif the postion of a point onthe plane, Recovering the iil rectangela ¢o-ordates rom the polar forms done by the formula called trigonometric form = rleoay + ising). ‘singe cs anetion, this srmetiesabbrevited to reise. ‘mange notation, often use in lecronis to represent phasor with amplitude rand phase g iis weten asi re. Complex graphs ‘When visualisog complex functions, both a complex input and output are needed. Because each compler number i represented la two dineasions, Mn ‘sual graphing a complex fonction would require the perception of four mensional space, whichis possible oly in projections. Because ofthis, other ‘way of visulangcomplesfuntlons have beea designed. {In domain eoorng the output dimensions are representod by color and brightness, respectively Bach pint nthe complex plane as domain i ornate, ‘Spel with olor representing the argument of he complex mimber, na rights representing te magne. Dark spot atk mh neat brighter spots are farther avay fom the origin, the gradation may be dzcontinvos, bu is assuned ax monotonous. The colors fe vay steps of for to 2 from re, yellow, green yan, lve, to magenta, These plots are cll colo whee! graphs, This provides 2 simple way to vsualie the factions fs without ling information The tare shows zeros or “1, (2) and poles at +Y—E— Acalrwtel raph othe | “The solution in radicals thou trigonometric functions) ofa general cubic equation, when all thre of ts roots are eal numbers, contains the square rots of negative number, 2 stuaton tbat omnot be Fee by forty Ae bythe enol rot tat, ts ab iedacey this Uw socal com eda Cinedanble cas?) Hs como ed len _thematisin Gerlamo Cardano fo cone of complex mombers is around 548 nbs Avs Moga thogh i understcing wes odinetay; rear he ter smd comple ‘umber at "subtle a they are alee History ° ‘Work on the problem of general polynomial ultimately ed othe fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers solution exists to every palynnal equation of degece oe or higher. Complex numbers thu form an algghraicaly closed fl, where any palyoomial equation has a Yoo. Many mathematicians contributed tothe development of complex numbers, The rules fr ation, subtraction, multiplication, and root extraction of complex numbers were developed by the tall mathematician Rafael Borel! A more abstract formalism fr the complex numbers was further developed by the Ireh extended this abetrtion tothe theory of quaternions 7), “Thecaris otng reference to square ot of negative numbers can perhaps be i to occ the work ofthe Greck mathemati ‘Stereometrca he considered, apparel in error he volue of an imponsle Cas vB ‘The impetus to study complex nurnbers as atopic in isl ft arose inthe 16 century when algebra ultlons fr the rots af eubic and quart polynomials were discovered by tan mathematician (see Nieslb Fontana Tarai, Gerolamo Cardana). I ws von realize (bt proved rch Inter] that these formula, even if one was interested only in eal slutons, sometnes equiedthe menpulation of square rots of egave numbers. As an expe, Taapi's forma for #eubic nsation ofthe form x* = px +g ves the ston tthe Her of Alesana he century AD, wherein his fa pyramid to arrive atthe term @T-= 144 In bis calculations, which today would simply to 3/7. Negative qunttes were not conceived fn Helene mathematise and Hero merely epace it bys postive VTE =BI = 37.5. (v=? + (=) Mri -Vi4i 23 tur for Y=I"" in Tartaglia’ coie formula and simplifying one gets 0, rand -1 a he solutions of»? ~ x= 0 Of couse this particular equation ean be solved at sight butt des iosvate ‘hat when general formulas ate used to solve ebic equation with real rot hen, a ater mathematicians showed rigorously] thease of complex numbers is unavoidable Rael Bombe was he est to addres expel these seemingly paradoxical solutions ofeubic equations and developed the rls fr complex arithmetic tying to resolve hese sue. [Att lance this ks lke nonsense. However, formal ealultions with complex numbers show thatthe equation: = has thre solutions: —#y Substitotng these in “The term “imaginary fo hese quantities was coined by René Descartes in 167, who was at pss to stes thir unreal paturl21 sometimes only imaginary, thats one can imagine as many as Isai ech equation, but sometimes there exists no goat that matches tat which we image i-queiquefissalement imaginarese'est-d-aire que Ton peut toujours en imagine eulant que ja dit en chague uation, mais qui my quelqufos aucune quantté ul corresponde delle qu'on imagine. ‘furthers af ofision wast the sguton VT? = y=Ty=T = 1 sere tobe cpio icnsent wit he geri ety fd yB-— Va, wish eva for a toga ea unr and, ad which as alo ued in compex numb cations wih onto ab ontve ante ther nga. The lace se of hi ens and the aed in the case when bth «end b are negative oven bodeviled Loonhard Euler. This ical eventually edt the convention of using the spesal symbol in place of YT to guard agains his mistake. ven so, Hale considered it natura to introduce students to complex numbers much ere than we do today In his clementary algebra tet book, ements of ‘Alger, heintrodves thee numbers almost st once and then wether na nara way trooghow nthe 16th century complex numbers guned wider ut, a twas noticed tha formal manipulation of complex expressions could be ws to simplify calculations invalving tigonometeie fnetions. For instance, n 1730 Abrabam de Moivre noted that the complicated identities relating trigonometric functions ofan intger mulple of an angle to powers of trigonometric fanetions ofthat angle could be imply re-expessd by he llowingwelLnow formula which beat his pam, de Moises formal 8 + isla, (os0-+ ising)" 11748, Euler wont father and obtained Euler formala of complex analysis) coe8 isin ty oly manag oper poe ries nd cherved tht hs ore colle te ord ny goes ely to mach spl exponent enti “Theidea ofa complex number as point in the comple plane above) was ft described by Danish-Norwyan mathematician Caspar Wess in 792 although tha ben anipted ‘Sarvs 685 in Walls A Treat of lyr Wisse's memoir appeared in the Proceedings ofthe Copenhagen Academy but went largely untied In 1806 Jean-RobertAand independently ssocd a pamphlet on complex numbers and provided a rigorous prof ofthe fundamental theorem of algebra Carl iedrch Gauss hed evr published an essaialy toplogel pro of the theorem in 1797 but expressed is doubts atthe time about "the rue metaphysics of the square root of 1°31 was not until 1831 that he overcame these doubts and published his treatise on complex numbers s points in the plane argely establishing modern notation and termivolgy 12] one formerycontemplatd this subject from a false point of view ad therefore found a mysterons darkness, thsi age part atribuabl to clumsy terminsogy Had one ot eal +1, -1,-Y= postive, negative, or mainary Cor eve impossible) units, but instead say, diet, inverse, ater wnt, then there enue seareely have ben talk of ue darkness. tn the begining of the oh cent oer mathematicians dicneed independent the geometric epreentation of the complex uber: Rue Mowe 2 Waren ea Francais and hs brother, Beli ‘The English mathemticlan G.H. Hardy remarked that Gauss was the Hest mathemati ‘Norwepi Nils Henrik Ab! and Car Gast Jaca Jacob were necessary axing them routinely before Gas published is 833 ret Auguii-LoulsCauehy and Bernard Rr ‘he common terms used in the theory ar chiefly due to the founders. Argand called os g ~ Js g the direction factor, and r= YE the modulus?) Cauchy (1821) called cos p+ sing the reduced form (expression rut] and apparenty introduced Uh term argument; Gauss used for YT. nteeluced the tern complex number for a ~ bi and called a2 +82 the norm." Te expression direction coefficient, often ued for cos g + sing is due to Hankel (867) and absolute value, fr modulus, due to Weierstes ous comple uber in ely confident an esi wa’ although maton ich at together brought the fundamental ideas of comple analysis thigh tate of eumpltion, commencing around 1825 in Cauchy's case ater classical writers on the general theory inclde Richard Dedekind, Otto Holle, Fei Kein, Hen Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others. (Gacuding teraction) complex multivariate calclus has beer stared at beginning Ube 200 sary poeant resus ave bee achieved by Wilheln Witager ia 192. Relations and operations Equality Complex numbers havea similar definition of equality to real mmbers; twa complex numbers a + yi and a + Bal are eq ifand only both their el an imginary pars ar ol, hat {sf ~ ay and b, ~ by. Nonzero complex nombers writen n polar form ane equal and only they have the same magnitude and thelr argument diferby an ater multiple of 2. Ordering alike the ral numbers here eo natural ordering ofthe complex numbers fn patel, there ino linear ordering on the complex numbers tht is compatible with ado and ‘gulipation. Hence, the complea numbers do not have the structure ofan ordered field One explanation for Uisis tat evry non-vl sum of squares i an dered ald is nonzero, ad +1 = Oisa non-trivial sum of squares. Thus, complex numbers are asturally though of existing ona two-dimensional plane Conjugate ‘The comple conjugate ofthe complex number 2~x ys gven by x ~i-Its denoted by iter 72+ This unary operation on complex aumbers cannot In Bcaprcsd Sy rego te bas peon eton oboacton ican and don (Geormrcally, 7s the "ellen" of: aboot the el ait, Conjygating wie sve he orignal complex nmi % ‘which kes tis operation an involution, The reflection leaves oth the eal part andthe magnitude of unchanged, tat is Rel) = Rel) iely and [I= la aaron “The imagioary part and the argument ofa complex number = change thei sign under conjugation Im(@)=—Im(e) and arg? = —arg2 (mod 24). For details on argument and magnitude, se the setion on Poa for, “The produc ofa complex number = x+y and its conjugates known asthe absolute square. Its awayas non-negative rel number snd equal the square of he magnitude of each “This property ca be used to convert fraction witha complex denominator oan eile: fraction with ral denominator by expanding both sumerstor an denominator ofthe ration bythe conjugate ofthe gives denominator. This process is sometimes called "atonlzation” ofthe denominator (though the denotisatr i he al expression might be a ratital eal men) because st resembles the method to remove roots tom simple expresions na denominator “The real and imaginary parts ofa complex number ean be extracted using the conjugation: Moreover, a complex namber is real fand only ft quasi own conjugate Convgationdistebates over the baie complex arithmetic operations Fw-70, FU=F5, Te= fe. Conjugation is also employed in invesive branch of geometry studying elections more general than ones about ne. Tn the network analysis of electrical tui, the complex corborse i wedi fining the eae! taped wien hn nari poner edo thorn ood bx Addition and subtraction Teo comple numbers = 24+ yland b= w+ of are mont easly add by separately ang thei real and imaginary parts That soy 7 (e+ w+ (ute) = (e+u)+ (teh ction ca be performed a a a (e+) — (w+) =(2—w) +o ‘Multiplication of a complex number a = 2 + yi and areal number r can be done similarly by multiplying separately rand the real and imaginary parts of b ram ret) = retry. Stenson ‘parte, subtraction canbe done by negating the subtshend (that ie mulpying it with +b aang the result the mined: ab Using the visualization of complex numbers inthe complex plane, adton has the following geometric interpretation: the um oftwo complex numbers and , interpreted as points nthe complex plan, the pnt obtained by building a parallelogram from the three vertices O, andthe points ofthe arrows labeled a ana 6 (povided that shey are not on alin). Equivalently, ‘Slim ve in 1,8 opty ond he oe pat a prs Xe agi O48 ol TB ae sana ‘Mattiplication and square “The rules ofthe dsebutve propery, the commutative properties of addition and maltipiation), and the defining property #2 =—1 apply to complex mimbers 1 law that (rw) ute) (eu w) + (e+ wi. tn parteaar, (etn a2 tao, Reciprocal and division ang the conjugation the reciprocal fa nonzero complex number z= x + cn always be broken downto a a rr re tlneenon-aeroliplies that 2+ ye greater than er, ‘Thiscan be used to express division ofan arbitrary complex number w= w+ viby a non-zero complex number: 2 y Fee Tae _ (ue te) 1 oe wok ate Lowen-( ‘Multiplication and division in polar form Formulas for multpieatio, division and exposeatation are simpler in pola form than the oeresponding formulas ia Cartesian coordinates. Given two complex numbers ~?y(e0sgy + sine) and) ~r(cosgy sing), because of the trigonometieentiee conacord — sinasind = oos(a-+8) cotasin8 + sinacotb = sin(a-+8). wemay derive ae sauna = ria(ooolon + va) + ésin(ps + 92). Sooeatomes rant {nother words the abolute vale are mulled and the arguments read to eld the polar form of he product, For example, nltplyng by ¢ stereo reas corresponds a quarter-tra counteract, which ves back? =I. Theplctureat the igh sates the mulpeation of Somes ner @40(84) 546 eens tne Since the real nd imagoary part ofS ~ Si ate qual the argument of that number is 4 egrets, ot in cain) On the otherhan, itis aiothesumofajans sso sinn am then a the ono here nd hue nese zen) and arctan, enpecve Ths, he la oan goasta(7) +oome(3) hols, Asthe arctan fneton canbe approximated highly ecient formuls lik this — known as Machi sre wed for high-precision approximations of Sir vision svenby HB (oon(os ~ 92) +isin(os - vad). Square root “The square rons of a+ Bi wth 6 #0) are +8), where fat Jae 2 sd (en where sg ithe signum function. Tit ean be sen by squating y+ i) to blain a+ bill Hace /aTFOF is called the modalus ofa + i, and the square rot sgn indaes the square oot with non-negative rel part, called the prinipal square root; also a4 = 3, where: — a+ bist) Exponential function “The exponential funtion exp: > C,2> expzcan be define for very complex namber “by the power series which hasan infinite ads of converge, “Thevalueat | ofthe exponential function i Euler's number exons oA wars, Iz isreal,one has exp een Analyte continuation llows extending ths equality for every complex ale of, and thst define the complex exponentition with base # as ‘The exponential function satisfies the functional equation *"* = ee. This can be proved ier by comparing the power series expansion of both members or by applying analtie contauation fom the retricon ofthe equation Yel agueats ules formule Ele’ formula states tat, for any rel number, os csyt ising. “Thefanetons equation implies hus tht and y are rea one has rad (cony + fsiny) =e cony + Se" lay, ‘which isthe decomposition of the exponential funtion into tral and imaginty parts Complex logarithm 1 he release the natural logarithm can be defined a he inversela: RY Rj +4 ln ofthe exponential function. Hor extending this a the complex domain, one an ste from Hale's formal. Itimplis tha, fa complex number + € C* is write in pola form roca + ising) with rp € Ry then with ine=lar tip 1 complex lgaritn one hat a proper inverse: explnz = exp(lnr + ip) = rexpip = r(cosy + ising) = x However, because cosine and sine are periodic functions, the addition ofan integer mutiple of 2et y doce not change For example, f= forthe natural logarithm of =I 1 sooth irandSiare possible values Therefore, the comple logarithm i oto be defined ata mulivaled function dne= lar +4(64208) |e), cow taro esac nd ut te coun, eng athe ct neon mes REA (nal Ifz.€ C\ (Mp9) isnot a now-postve real number (e postive or 2 non-real number, the resulting principal value ofthe complex logarithm is obtained with“ < g Orel ands epee exponentision defined as eae, here denotes the natural ost ‘seems satura to extend this formula to complex values ofr, but there are some dfclies resulting from the fact that the complex logarithm isnt really a fonction, but a faetion, lows that 2a above, and irs anoter complex number, then the exponentiation she mulalue fasetion = {el™* (cool pt + 2nht) + isin(gt + 2nkt))} | ke Z}. In the preceding formula, ¢ ian integer, then the sine and the cosine are Independent of k Yh, fhe exponent mean integer, then 2k ‘well defined, andthe exponeniton forma simplest de Moi’ formal h z (r(cos p+ isiny))" = #* (counp + ising). “Then mth rots of complex number ar given by r (C2)

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