EXTR,ACTION OF METALS FROM OXIDES 283

possiblc, it is essential that the metal

slag. Inorder to recover the metal to the maximum extent
loss in slag be minimized'

ENER.GY-SAVING AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

endothermic process' i'e'' it requires a
The reduction of a metal oxide to metal by carbon is an
extraction of magnesium from sea-
large amount of energy. As is evident fiom Table 4.9, the
water and that of aluminium by the Bayer process are the
most energy-intensive' after titanium
(Aluminium Company of America)
extraction. some new extraction processes such as the ALCOA
process ;o. are being developed mainly to save energy'
"luninirrm are used for reduction
In the extraction of metal from oxide ores, carbonaceous reductants
reduction is employed when
aod fosil fuels are used for supplying heat. Aiternatively, electrical
these unit operations consists
oxides carbon reduction is not feasible. The main gaseous discharge from
The slags produced
These of CO1 and water vapour which are relatively harmless to the environment'
on the euvironment' However'
fiates. \, during p,vrometallurgill operatlons also have little harmful effect
to be exercised
when hydrometallurgical pio..r, is used in the refroing of oxide
ores, care has
igh to
matite while disposing of thc rcsidues.
E l'ery
r1'; ior 6.1 MAGNE.SII,iM

USES
frcm which finds extensive applica-
Magnesium is the onlY metal in group IIA of the periodic table
and
tion. The general uses of the Letai faU under two main heads, namely, uonstructural
reduc-
structural.
ounize
ore is Nonstructural Uses
tion is
Nonstructural uses include application in alloying, deoxidation and desulphurization
of molten
pyrotechnics, photography, and cathodic
metais, modifying the structure of graphite iu casi irons,
ru: the
ais can
-i protection.

r m:etal I
Alloying
ud. On I
Magnesium is widely used in alloying, especially in aluminium-base alloys,
to which it imparts
{
rne tals It is also used to improve the mechanical properties
harcness, stretrglh, and corrosion resistanc€.
m and of lead-base alloys containing Ca, Sn, and In-
l"re tbe
rr such Deoxiilation and ilesulphurization
has a strong
dc and Magnesium is used to deoxidize and desulphurize molten metals. Since magnesium
I forms amiity for oxygen, it effectively deoxidizes many molten metals'
coke
rith the At present, in the production of iron and steel, the sulphur content in the blast fursace
To reduce
re first is rather high, and the product, namely, pig iron, contains a large guantity of sulphur'
the suiphuilevel to less than 0.01 per cent, magnesium, in the form of Mag-Coke or
as magae-
re used sium wire, is injected into the hot metal'
mically
Modifyiug structure of graphite in cast irons
lroduct
Magnesium can effectively nodulize graphite particles in cast iron producing spheroidal-graphite
(S.G. iron) which is stronger, tougher, and more ductile than ordinary cast iron. S.G.
iron is
molten
used to widely used in the autorootive industry.
om the
 \/
284 ExrRAcrroN oF NoNFERRous METALs

Pyrotechnics and photography

(r
When ignited, magnesium emits a brilliant light. This property is extensively applied in pyro- e.l
technics and photography. Flashlight porvder consists of rnagnesium powder mixed with chemicals o
which readily give off oxygen when heated, for example, potassium chlorate, potassium perman-
ganate, and manganese dioxide. It may be noted that the intensity of light emitted by the ignition br
of magnesium is exceeded only by the combustion of zirconium or tantalum. ti
S(
Cathodic protection q

To provide cathodic protection to pipelines, storage tank bases, and lead-sheathed cables, .sacri- el
ficial' magnesium anodes are placed in the soil and connected oy means of an insulated wire to tr
the material that is to be protected against corrosion. In such an arrangement, the corrosion ai
attack is directed preferentially against the magnesium, and the material is spare,J.
It
Structural Uses \r h
Alloys of magnesium and aluminium are noteworthy for properties such as light weight, machin- tr
ability, damping capacity, rigidity (without excessive weight), and resistance to corrosion by (f
chemicals. Consequently, magnesium alloys find structural use mainly in the aircraft industry.
Of late, their application has been extended to land transportation and material handling. 6
A
6.2 MAGNESIUM ORES
r(
The most important minerals of magnesium are dolomite (MgCO3.CaCo3); magnesite (MgCO3); a
MgCl2 and Mgsoa, present in sea-water; brucite tMg(oHhl; carnallite (Mgctz.Kbl.6H2o), presenr I
in exposed sea beds; olivine (Mg2sioa); serpentine (Mg:Si2o.z); asbestos 1c.sior.:uisior); aoa s
kainite (MgSOa'KCl'3HrO). As mentioned in Chapter 3, India has abundant reserves of the first e:
three minerats. At preseDt, a major portion of the world's magnesium is produced from these
three minerals.
The commercial minerals, namely, dolomite and magnesite, and the magnesium hydroxide
derived from sea'water have a sufficiently high magnesium content and do noirequire uigrading
before being subjected to subsequent metal extraction processes.
I
6.3 METHODS OF MAGNESIUM EXTRACTION
:
As is evident from Fig.2.l, MgO is one of the most stable oxides, and a temperaturehigherthan
1800'C is required to reduce it with carbon. The reduction temperature can be lowered by appty-
ing a vacuum to distil off the uiagnesium and to drive the reduction reaction
Mgo (c) * C (c) + Mg (B) + Co (gy (6.1 )
to the right. It is, however, very difficult to prevent the backward reaction of the Mgvapour with
CO, and hence, carbon reduction has not found commercial acceptance. Consequenily, other
reductants such as CaC2 (which provides Ca) and Al have been successfully employea ai tzoo"C
under vacuum in order to reduce MgO. The reactions are

MgO (c) * CaCa (c) +Cao (c) * Mg (c) + 2C, (6.2)

3Mgo (c) * 2Al (l) -+ AI2O3 (c) * 3Me (e). (6.3)
Although reduction by CaC2 and Al is feasible, it is not commercially attractive. pidgeon
 ^
'psr ExrRAcrIoN oF METALS FRoM oxIDEs 285

(Pidgeon and Alexander, 1944) developed a process that is both economic and commercially
m pyro- acceptable to reduce MgO. It is based on the reduction of MgO by ferrosilicon in the presence
fiemicals of CaO, under vacuum.
permao- Magnesium cannot be readil-"- electrollzed from aqueous media because hydrogen is evolved
r ignition before utagnesium cal be deposited. This is because Mg requires 2.3 V more than Hz for deposi-
tion and the hydrogen oven'oltage is not sufficiently high to overcome this voltage (for details,
see Chapter 2). To gexlerate a sufficiently high hydrogen overvoltage, the use of an amalgam
cathode has been suggested. An amalgem cathode s€rves two purposes. First, because of its
$, 'sacn- eruemely ilDooth surface, the evolution of hydrogen is rendered difficult. Second, the low
n'ire to magnesium activity in the amalgam cathode lowers the magnesium deposition potential. An
orrosion amalgam carhode has, however, uot &en found commercially acceptable.

MAGIqESIUM FROM SEA.WATER

t)r
Most of the magnesium presently produced is by the electrolysis of fused salts that contain
machin- mapesium chloride. Magnesium chloride is mainly obtained from sea-water by the Dow process
xion by (for details, see Chapter 8).
ndustry.
6.4 PIDGEON PROCESS
As Fig. 2.1 shows, on thermodynamic grounds, pure silicon cannot reduce MgO when both the
reactants and the products are in their standard states. To overcome this difrculty, Pidgeon
I4CO31; applied a reduced pressure in order to remove the Mg vapour and to drive the reduction reaction.
Ircs€nt In the Pidgeon process, calcined dolomite is briquetted with powdered ferrosilicon (75 per cent
$; and Si), and the reduction is carried out under a vacuum of 0.1 mm of mercury at 1100-l200oC in an
ilc first externally heated retort (see Fig. 6.1). The overall reaction is
n these 2MgO.Cao (c) +
+ FeSi (c) 2Mg (c) + 2CaO.SiO2 (c) * Fe (c). (6.4)
droxide In reactioa (6.4), magnesirrm is the only gaseous product and is removed from the retort to
grading
I

l
Er than
apFIy-

(6.1) Vacuum
seal
m with
, other 3 m(approx.)
I200"c
Residue

--) f
hopper
(6.2)
Fig. 6.1 Retort for Pidgeon Process.
-{
(o.rr;
avoid the possibility of back reaction during cooling and condensation.
ridgeol
To appreciate the advantages of the presence of CaO, we consider the free energies of reac-
286 ExritAcrloN oF NoNFERRoUS METALS

ttors at. l2{J0oil, wlth anc] without CaO: pr

2MgO + Si (c) -+ 2Mg 19;1 SiOu (c), AG- : 52kcal, lHo : 136 kcal, (6.5)

2MgO (ci * f Si (c)

ZCaO (c)
-+ ZMg ig) * 2CaO'SiOz, AG" : 19 kcal, AH" : 112 kcal. (6.6)
E.
1200'C, the equilibrium pressure of Mg for reaction (6.6) is l5 mm Hg, and to
I,x,r
attain I atm
required. Since such a high temperature is not practi'. k
of Mg, e tempetature of a6out 1700"C is
uablejespecialXy when indirect heating is desired, Pidgeon resorted to the use of vacuum to drive
reaution (6.6) to the right (see Pidgeon and King, 1948)'
Reaction (6.6) is highly endothermic, and hence, a large heat input is required. It
has been
or to the reactants speeds up the evolution of the
fbuird that a small aCaition of CaF2 MgF2
Mg vapour. Since the vapour pressure of Mg is not altered, the effect of the fluoride addition is
Y
considered catalYtic.

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION

In the pidgeoil process, the retorts, each of which is nearly 25 cm in diameter and 3 m in length,
are inserted horizontally in a single furnace (about 20 per furnace), as shown in Fig. 6'1.
These

retorts are usually made of Nichrome steel (Ni 15 per cent, Cr 28 per eent, Mn 1'25 per cent'
Si 1.5 per cent, C 0.3 per t'ent, and Fe balance) and last for about a year when continuously
ernployed for batch opeiation. There is no special cooling arrangemeDt for the
exposed ends,
gas or electricity. The furnace feed
which are mereiy air-cooled. The furnace is heated either by
materiai consists of briquettes made out of powdered calcined dolomite and ferrosilicon in the
proportion one silicon to six calcine. The total weight of the charge is approximately 100 kg.
initially, heating is carried out to vaporize the structurally combined water. The temperature
is then raised to about ll50'C, and the application of vacuum 15 gemmenc€d. At this stage,
In cases, bafles may also be provided
magnesium vaporizes and condenses at the coot end. some
After 8-10 hours, the application of
forlhe condensation of the Mg vapour at the cool end.
vaguum is stopped, the seal broken, and the condensed magnesium removed. The yield per
retort is approximately 15 kg. To achieve a daiiy production rate of l0 tons of magnesium,
approximaiely i20 toni of dolomite (equivalent to about 60 tons of calcine) and approximately
tl'tons of ferrosilicgn are required. The number of retorts required is about 300.

REACTION MECHAFIISM
It was origiraily believed that the Pidgeon process involved essentially solid-state reactions.
Thereflore, a finely ground charge was recommended to facilitate the reactions' However,
it is
now accepted that the reactions produce a liquid at some intermediate stage. Duiing the Pidgeon
process, the foilowing distinct stages are observed:
(l) The initial reaction takes place between ferrosiiicon and CaO to produce a liquid
Ca-Si-Fe allcy, which pefineates the briquette and forms a metallic network. This reaction
takes
piace rapidiy et arcu;d 1000'C and is mildly exothermic. The ternary alloy serves as the main
reducing agent.
(2) Maguesiuln'/apoui's are produced by the reduction of MgO by the Ca-Si-Fe alloy. At
this stagc, the pressure builds up rapirJly, slowing down the rate of reaction, The subsequent
reactior rate is go.rerned Lry the rate at which magDesium can escape from the briquettes.
t

EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM OXIDES 28'I

Toguri and Pidgeon (1962) have proposed that the presence of the SiO vapour in the Pidgeon
process controls the kinetics according to the reactions
(6.s)
Meo (c) -P Si (c)+ Ms (e) * Sio (e), (6.7)
'u 2sio (e) * 2cao (c) + 2cao'sioz (c) * si (c). (6.8)
(6.6)
ENERGY REQUIRED FOR THE PIDGEON PROCESS
I atm
practi- In the Pidgeon process, the overall reaction taking place is
o drive
2MgO'Cao (c) * Si (") "*'9, zMe G) * 2CaO'SiOz (c)' (6.e)
s been
From reactiou (6.9), we can calculate the energ"v required as follows:
r of the kcallkg Mg
ition is
\,
Heat necessary to heat reactauts to 1100"C 920

Heat required for reaction (6'9) at 1200"C 2330

kngth, Total 3250

- These
[ (rnt, I 1f the heat is supplied by fuel combustion, the estimated heat effi-
!iL!|0lusiy
ciency for indirect heaiing at 1200"C is 40 per cent'
d ends, Therefore, heat to be supplied by fuel 8125
re feed
is the Assume auxiliaries and heat losses consume equal amount
Lg. of energl', i.e., 8125
Erature 16,250
Tota! heat required per kg of Mg according to reaction (6.9)
i stage,
rovided Next, the eoergy for silicon production has to be considered:
ltion of 1

rld per Energy needed for Si production (at 15 kWh/kg Si and

nesium, {
2650 kcal of fuel generates I kWh) 23, I 80

imately Total energy 39,430

required

Despite the fact that the foregoing estimate of the total energy required assumes high heat
offlons. losses for a small-scale operation, the energy required is only 39.43 x 106 kcal/ton, which is
r, it is only 46 per ceot of the energy required by the Dow chemical sea-water process (see Table 4.9).
Pidgeon This is because the Pidgeon process uses a higher grade raw material and does not require the
Iarge amount of heat needed to evaporate solutions as in the Dow process and the electrical
r liquid eDergy needed in the subsequent fused chloride electrolysis.
n takes
MAGNOTHERM PROCESS
he main
A magnotherm process is essentially a ferrosilicon reduction process similar to the Pidgeon pro'
lloy. At cess, except that it is carried out at a temperature of 1500"C and the bath is maintained in a
Eequent molten state by the addition of alumina to form a molten slag. This process has been iu operation
siuce 1964 in France (see Campbell, 1971)"
288 ExrRAcrIoN oF NoNFBRRoUS METALS

65 MAGNESIUM PRODUCTION IN INDIA

At present, India's requirement of magnesium is met exclusively by imports, the total quantity
importea in l9?8 being around 257 tons. (This figure does not include the finished magnesium
components, wbich are also being imported.)
ihere is a persistent demand for magnesium; for example, from aluminium companies which
produce various alloys, from mints for coinage applications, from the uranium plant of the
bepartment of Atomic Energy, and from the defence establishments.
pro-
We now discuss two schemes that have been initiated in India for the limited indigenous
duction of magnesium. First, the National Metallurgical Laboratory (NML), Jamshedpur, has
set up a plant for the ferrosilicon reduction of calcined dolomite. The present capacity is 250 tonsi
y."r, Unitn"re is a provision for eventual expansion up to 500 tons/year. Second, the Central
Llectrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi (Tamil Nadu), has successfully tested a
pilot plant based on the electrolytic reduction of MgClz produced from magnesite. Y
NML PROCESS
In the NIvIL process, the basic raw materials employed are dolomite, ferrosilicon (75-80 per cent
silicon), and fluorspar. Dolomite is calcined in the temperature range 950-1100:C. The calcined
dolomiie and the ferrosilicon are first ground and then mixed with I per cent fluorspar' The
mixturc is thet briquetted, and the briquettes are charged into tubular retorts made of high-
pesistant alloys with a high content of chromium and nickel. These retorts are set horizontally in
an oil-fired furnace wittr the open ends projecting out of the end walls. The retorts are shut in
an airtight maDner and vacuum is applied. Magnesium is distilled from the charge [according to
reactio;(6.9)l and then condensed on a removable slecve at the cold end of the retorts. Sodium
and potassium, if present in dolomite, are also liberated, distilled, and condensed on the remov-
able sleeve. Once the distillation of magnesium is complete, the retorts are opened, their contents
discharged, and the cyclic operation continued. As pointed out in Section 6.4, the fluorspar
essentially acts as a catalYst.

CECRI PROCESS
In the CECRI process, magnesite is initially converted to anhydrous magnesium chloride by
chlorination. This chloride is then melted and electrolyzed in a fused salt medium, as in the Dow
process and shall be discussed in Chapter 8.

6.6 ALUMINIUM
USES

Next to copper, aluminium is considered the most important nonferrous metal. Aluminium is
remarkable in many ways. For example, it can be rolled, extruded, cast, fo:med,'and machined
as readily as, if not more readily than, competing metals such as iron and titanium. Its high
strength-io-weight ratio is a distinct advantage in many qtructural applications. Further, the
metai exhibits excelleot corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivitv.
Someof theapplicationsof aluminiumanditsalloysarementionedinTable6.l along with the
properties exploited in these applications.
The fact that aluminium is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is less expensive than
copper, aids in rendering Al as a replacement for Cu.
 289
EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM OXIDES

Table 6.1 Applications of Aluminium

tal quantity Froperties exPloited

I magnesium Application
I

ranies which vessels and containers Ductility and flow ProPerties

In impact extrusiotr of
plant of the of various shaPes
properties
kitchenware, chemical and brewing Corrosion resistance and nontoxic
igenous pro- In
rhedpur, has industries, and milk Processing
tr is 250 tons/ ln packaging industry and decorative and Rolling properties and ability to acquire
the Central protective surfaces brilliant surface finish
fully tested a
\, In roofing systems and thermal insulation High reflectivity and low emissivity
either as metal foil or aluminium paint
Attractive mechanical properties in
general
In aluminium alloys in transport industries ratio
i-80 per cent and high strength'to'weight
and structural aPPlications
Ihe calcined
uorspar. The In electrical conductors Excellent electrical conductivity
lde ci high- Deoxidizing Strong afEnitY for oxYgen
niiz,ontally in
l r.re shut in
and Al (given in
flu,crding to The thermal conductivities and electrical resistivities of Ag, Cu, Au, and gold are
Since silver
orts, Sodium Table 6.2) are outstanding when compared with those of other metals'
n the remov-
Metals
heir contents Table 6.2 Thermal Conductivity and Electrical Resistivity of Some
the fluorspar
Thermal conductivitY Electrical resistiv!tY
near 20'C near 20oC
Metal oC-r)
(cal cm-l sec-l (10-6 ohm cm)

chloride bY
r.59
u in the Dow Ag 1.00

o.94 1.67
Cu
0.71 2.19
Au
0.53 2.66
AI

{luminium is
scale ibr electrical applications' In this
md machined highly expensive, they cannot be used on a commercial
has a lower strength and a lower con'
nium. Its high u.Iu, *pp.. has been found ideal. Although aluminium
especially when the copper price is
Further, the ductivity than copper, the factors that make it a competitor,
ratio'
I conductivitv. Uign, its widespread availability and its high strength'to-weight
- "o application of aluminium.
long with the w. ooo* give examples of the electrical
wires with a
A compJsite conductor made of aiuminium wires that surround a core of steel core compensates
conductor' The
lxpensive than Uigh tenslle strength is being extensively used as an overhead
 \/
290 ExTRACTtoN oF NoNFERRous METALS

for the low strength of aluminium.

For transformer winding, flat aluminium strips or foils interleaved with insulators are
employed.

ALUMINIUM ORES
The nature of the common rninerals of aluminium has been discussed in Chapter 3. The
most
common minerals are gibbsite (AlzOr.3HzO) and diaspore (AI2O3.H2O). The thetretical percent-
age of AlzOs in gibbsite is 65.4 and that in diaspore 85.4. Bauxite is amixture of these
two ores
and contains varying amounts of impurities such as Fe2O3, TiO2, and SiO2. The bauxite
ores
found in Irtdia normally contain between 58 and 67 per cent alumina. These ores have a high
content of TiO2 (5-10 per cent) and a low content of silica, i.e., 0.5-2.0 per cent. The ores found
in Kashmir are, however, strikingly different from the other ores in that they chiefly belong to
diaspore variety and contain around 7 5 per cent .A,12O3, essentially no TiO2 anj a high amount
of !,
silica as an impurity, i.e., above 5 per ceot. The high silica content of these ores renders the
Kashmir deposits unsuitable for purification by the Bayer process. In this process, during the
leaching stage, silica forms a compound Na2o'Al2o3.3sio2, which, in turn, forms an insoluble
residue called red mud by reacting with other impurities in bauxite such as Fe2O3
and Tio2. This
causes a serious loss of alumina. For this reason, ores with a siiica content
above 5 per cent are
considered unsuitable.

6.7 EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

Like Magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, too. is very stable (see Fig. 2.1). The carbothermic
reduction of aluminium oxide has not been commercially adopted for the reasons now listed:
(l) It requires a high temperature, i.e., almost 2000"C. {2) N this temperature, undesirable
aluminium carbide is formed. (3) The refractories required for operation at such a high tempera-
ture are not only expensive but are also not readily available.
The extraction of aluminium by the electrolysis of aluminium salts in an aqueous medium !
is
not feasible. This is because the decomposition of the aqueous solution, which results in the
evolution of hydrogen, occurs at a rnuch lower voltage than that needed for the electrodeposition I
i

of aluminium ions. Moreover, the hydrogen overvoltage is insufficient to overcome the 1.67-volt
difference in potential between aluminium deposition and hydrogen evolution (for details,
see
Section 2.24).
The universally adopted process for the extraction of aluminium is the Hall-H6roult process,
in which alumina (Al2O3) dissolved in cryolite (3NaF.AlF3) is electrolyzed. Here, alumina
(obtained from the Bayer process) in a pure form is enrployed ai the electrolyte in the electrolytic
cell. It may be noted that the Hail-Hdroult process consumes a large u*ount of energy, i.e.,
6.51x 106 kcal/ton (see Table4.l0). A recent innovation seeks to convert the aiumina obtained
from the Bay-er process into aluminium chloride, which is then electrolyzed in a fused salt
medium containing NaCl and LiCL In this innovation, the energy ccnsumption is decreased by
30 per cent, which is a significant saving of energy especially with respect to the enerqy-intensive
aluminium extraction process. A!so, ronelectrolytic processes for the reduction of AlCi3 are being
studied.
As the high-grade aluminium resources are getting rapidll' depleted, low-grade alumina
minerals such as clay are becoming increasingly important in the extraction of alumina and
aluminium.
 EXTRACTION OF MtsTALS FROM OX1DES 291

6.8 BAYER PROCESS FOR ALUMINA PRODUCTION

for subsequent electrolysis) is extracted from
I are In the Bayer process, high-purity alumina (required
by NaoH, under conditions of high pressure
bauxite. In this pr*.rr,i"uxiteis ioitialty leached
sodium aluminate, from which A(oH)3
(25 atm) and bigh ,"-p"*iri" e2o"c),_io.form solubte
t.

AlzOa is obtained' Figure 6'2 presents a

l,
is subsequently precipiiated. When AI(OH)3 is calcined,
[;most
ltrot-
fi ores
I ores Cr*htrret"atrg Classification

I hish
brod
hg to
Fnt of \,,
hn the
Pregnant liquor
!s tue
phble
hThi' Red mud
ilF
*.
i,

Ir

lh*i"
llFo"o,
hraUte
hpera-

his 1 Efluent
ir tn"
I
$fnioo
pEvolt {
t
t
[L see

f0cess,
*miou
il|i",n,"
il, 1.e.,
pined
salt Al2O3 hYdrate
fd
hed by
|ensive
I being

lurnina Anhydrous alumina

!a and
Fig. 6.2 Flowsheet for BaYer Process'
 292 ExrRAcrroN oF NoNFERRous METALS

sirnplified flowsheet for the Bayer process.

At the outset, the bauxite obtained from the mines is crushed and ground
to a very fine size
in jaw crushers and hammer mills. As a result, the silica present
in the bauxite tends to get
concentrated in the finer fractions. This characteristic rendirs
the bauxite amenable at least to
partial beneficiation by screening. A bauxite with an
average coiposition of 1.5 per cent silica
may have, in the
-100 rnesh fraction, a silica content as high as l0 per cent. com;inution thus
leads to the enrichment of alumina in the coarser fractions.
some attempts at beneficiation by
grinding and screening are being made at INDALCO Limited.
The crushed-bauxite is once again ground along with caustic soda in
a ball mill to yreld a
slurry, which is fed into_ a digester (or autoclave). Here, the alumina
in tbe bauxite is dissolved
in caustic soda (150-350 gm/l Nazo) in the temperature range 150-220'C
under a pressure of
5-25 atm' This treatment dissolves the alumina and leaves
th"e impuritles as suspended solids in
the solution. The reaciions for the monohydrate and the trihydrate,
respectively, are
Y
AlzOr.HzO f 2NaOH : 2NaAlOz * 2H2O, (6.10)
AlzOr.3HrO { 2NaOH: 2NaAIOz + 4I{2O. (6. l t)
It should be noted that the dissolution of the monohydrate
[reaction (6.10)] requires a tempera-
tureof 230ocandatimeperiodof 3hr,whereasthaiofthe trihydrate
a temperature of 180'C and a time period of I hr. Since bauxite lriaction(6.11)l requires
is a mixture of the mononyarate
and the trihydrate, the temperature used is 180-220"C and
'llnder the time period allowed is 2.5 hr.
these conditions, 86-88 per cent of alumina in the bauxite is taken
into solution. At such
high tennperatures, a suffciently high pressure (5-25 atm) must oecessarily
be applied io order to
retain water in the liquid state.
The liquor from tbe Bayer process cooled to a little below l0fC and completely
depressurized
is next taken to the settling and clarification section where thc red mud is deposited
in settling
tanks and is removed. Additives such as starch speed up the settling of red
ncud. Any remaining
red mud in the liquor is eliminated by a series of washirs where it is
confronted with a counrer-
current flow of hot water. In the final stage of clarification, the liquor is filtered
through a series
of filters. The filtrate obtained is a clear solution of sodium aluminate. The residue I
i"ft u.nioa
alier filtration consists mainly of ferric hydroxide, silica, and alumina.
The heat in the hot liquor is tapped by heat exchanges for energy conservation (
and firr cool-
ing the liquor. t
During precipitation, the filtrate is cooled to a temperature below the critical temperature 2

required for alumina precipitation. Very fine freshly prepared aluminium hydroxide
i, iaaea to
r:rake available nuclei in order to accelerate the precipitation of Al(oH)3. {
The precipitate is
separated from the liquor in a series of thickeners. The produci, a coarse hydroxide,
is finally I
calcined in a rotary kiln to produce anhydrous Al2O3.
a
It may be noted that, to produce I ton of AlzOr by the Bayer pr@ess, we need 2.2-2,4 tons I
of bauxite,0.08-0.t2 ton of caustic soda, 8-10 tons of steam, and 0.18-0.20 ton of
fuel oil. li
FACTORS AFFECTING EAYER PROCESS b
p
Several investigations have 'oeen carried out to determine the effect of various
factors on the
efficiency 0f the Bayer process' we now discuss some of the conclusions
drawn from these
irvestigations.
a
(l) The firrer the bauxite, the better the digestion of alumina in the leach liquor.
d
 EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM OXIDES 293

e very fine size
E tends to get
:ble at least to
per cent silica
milution thus
roeficiation by
(2) In general, wet grinding is more efficient than dry grinding. Wet grinding also cuts
down the time required for subsequent digestion.
(3) Digestion is accelerated at higher temperatures. However, at a temperature above 100'C
water would evaporate. Hence, to attain a temperature up to 220"C, high pressures up to 25 atm
are applied.
We now consider an example. Glastonbury (1968) has expressed the kinetics of gibbsite dis-
solution as

mill to yreld a r : 4.60 x losl(Cpuor{)1'73 e-23,850/(.R?'), (6.12)

te is dissolved
r a pressure of where r rs the initial extraction rate (gm atom Al/sec), A the surface area of gibbsite (cm2),
Cpueq the sodium hydroxide concentration (moles/litre),,R the gas constant, and T the absolute
ended solids in
temperature. The relatively large activation energy, i.e., 23,850 cal/mole, required for reaction
rE v (6.1 t) indicates that temperature affects the kinetics to a great extent. For instance, the reaction
(6.10) rate at 100"C is approximately i50 times faster than that at 50"C.
(4) There is a lower limit to the temperature at which the digestion and its subsequent
(6.1 l) processing can be carried out. At a temperature below this limit, aluminium hydroxide may pre-
:!RS a tempera- cipitate, during clarification, leading to a loss of alumina. Further, if it precipitates during the
6,1 lJ. requires final filtration, not only is the filter cloth ruined due to clogging, but also alumina is lost. For
.. rnonohydrate efficient operation, the water is maintained at a temperature as close to the boiling point as
n*'rd is 2,5 hr. possible.
ud:on- At such (5) The sensible heat of the hot pregnant liquor after filtration is recovered by heat
[ud in order to exchangers. This heat is used for producing steam for the digesters.
(6) ln the precipitation stage, the entire quantity of alumina in solution is not allowed to
p depressurized precipitate because this may'lead to the simultaneous precipitation of alarge amountofdissolved
ited in settling silica, resuhing in a product unsuitable for electrolysis. The precipitation is, therefore, deliberately
\ny remaining kept incomplete, the residual solution being recirculated to the digestion stage.
ith a counter- (7) For the efficient calcination of alumina, the rotary kiln should be able to attain a
rough a series temperature as high as 1400oC. However, if the alumina is only to be dried, a temperature of
lue left behind 200"C is sufficient. The decomposition of A1(OH)3 produces Al2Or.H2O and Al2O3'3H2O (in both
cases, water is chemically bound). The minimum temperatures required for the dehydration of
and for cool- the monohydrate and the trihydrate are l200oC and 800"C, respectively. The addition of a small
amount of CaF2 sometimes helps in dehydration.
atr temperature
ide is added to
: p'rrcipitate is
6.9 HALL.HEROULT PROCESS
mme. is finally In 1886, Hdroult in France and Hallin the U.S.A. independently patented a process which ousted
all other existing processes for the commercial production of aluminium. At present, the Hall-
rC 2.2-2.4 tons HJroult process, which is based on the electrolytic decomposition of alumina dissolved in a
'fue I oil. liquid bath of cryolite, is the only widely practised commercial method. The modern versions are
basically identical to the process introduced in 1886. A source of cheapelectricpoweristhe
primary requisite for the Hall-H6roult process. This process also requires high-purity alumina,
factors on the cryolite, and ashless carbon electrodes.
rn from these Since alumina is not an ionic compound, very few ionic nnelts are capable of dissolving it to
any appreciable extent. However, cryolite (3NaF.AlF3)-a naturaliy occurring mineral-can
U,f,I. dissolve up to 15 per cent alumina at 1000'C.
294 ExrRAcrroN oF NoNFERRoUS METALs

Of late, cryolite has been sucoessfully synthesized by passing HF through sodium aluminate
solutions, the HF being produced from naturally occurring CaFz. The main reactions are
CaF2 (c)* (HzSOr)"c: 2(HF)"q 4 CaSOr (c), (6,13)

(Na6Al2Oe)* + l2(HF)oq: 2NarAlFo (c) * 6(HOLq. (6.14)

A flowsheet for the production of synthetic cryolite is shown in Fig. 6.3. Aluminium industries in
India usually employ a mixture of natural and synthesized cryolite, both of which are imported.
It may be noted that cryolite is yet to be synthesized in India on a commercial scale.
Small amounts of CaF2 and NaF are added to the cryolite bath to enhance its conductivity
and to improve the metal recovery. At 1000'C, the density ofthemoltencryoliteisapproxi-
mately 2.1 gmlcm3 and that of Al2O3 is 3.96 gm/cm3. When a bath containing about 10 per cent
CaF2, 80 per cent cryolite, 5 per cent AlzOg, and a small amount of NaF is electrolyzed, the
aluminium liberated (density 2.3 gmlcm3l is heavier than the bath and sinks to the bottom. (The
?
metal is thus protected against atmospheric oxidation.) It is evident that density is one of the
factors which limits the concentration of AlOl in the bath. In other words, the higher the amount
of AlzOa in the bath, the higher its density and consequently the sinking of aluminium is rendered
more difficult.

DECOI\{POSITION POTENTIAL OF AIZOI DISSOLVED IN CRYOLITE

of the Hall-Hdroult process, it would be appropriate to
Before discussing the technical aspects
frrst estimate the voltage required for the process. The theoretical computations given here are
according to Lancker (1967).
For a cathode of aluminium and an anode of oxygen, the decomposition reaction may be
written as

0.5A12O3 (solution in Na3AlF6) : Al (l) -10.7502 (e), AGr (6. l s)

This reaction may be split up into a series of reactions for which the standard free energies are
known. Thus,

Al 0) + 0.7502 (g) : 0.5AIzO3 (c), AGz, (6.16)

0.5A12O3 (c): 0.5AlOr (l), AGz, (6.17')

0.5A12O3 0) * NaaAlFe 0) : 0.5A12O3 (solution in Na3AlF6), AG* (6. l8)

At 1000'C, for the reaction

SAI 0) * Oz (g) : $Al2O3 (c), (6.1e)

the free energy change is -206 kcal. Hence, AGz is 154,500 calimole.
-
We can calcuiate AG3 from the heat of fusion of Al2O3. Here, /G3 is equivalent to converting
0.5AlzOr, at l000oC, to the molten state. From standard tables, AG3 is obtained as 3800 cal. AGa
corresponds to the dissolution of Al2O3, molten at 1000'C, into cryolite. For I mole of Aizor,
we have

AG4 : RI ln 441,q,,
wh(?ea41rs, is the activity of alumina in cryolite, T:1273 K, and R:1.987 call'C. If it is
 EXTRACTION OF METALS FROI{ OXIDES 295

Fluorspar
h aluminate
t., are
Grinding
; ro,t:l
(6.14)

u industries in
ue imported.
lG-
Pulp
b conductivitY
lite is approxi- i
Fri 10 per cent
htrolyzed, the {y
! bottom. (The
I b one of the
1

fcr th" amount I

Water
hm is rendered I

i Hydrofluosilicic and
hydrofluoric acids
t

Calcined
soda

(6.15) Hydrofluoric acid

I

fite energies are I First step in cryolite

i Ar(oH)3
l
production
i
(6.16)
I Sodiurn
Second step iD silicofluoride
(6. l7) Na2CO3 cryolite production
(6.18)
Water Decantation and washing
I

|tr
lr
(6.re)
l'
ll
Cryolite mass
[t to converting
lg 3800 cal. AG+
I mole of Alzor,

l? cali"C. If it is
Fig. 6.3 Synthesis of Cryolite.
 EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM OXIDES 297

would not be effective in appreci-

of Thus, we observe that the injection of hydrogen or methane
such an injection may effectively
of ably reducing the decoipositio; potential or error. However,
cut down graphite consumption and prove economicai if
hydrogen or methane is available at
as methane'
cheap rates-. I'fatural gas would have a similar effect
l0)
ACTUAL DECOMPOSITION POTENTIAL
V and 7 v' The breakdown of
In an actual plant operation, the voltage is maintained between 5
:1) the voltage riquirement is as follows (the values are approximate):
needed for electrolytic reduction 1.7 V
15)" Voltage
]res Voltage droP across carbon lining
0.6 v
:i?h 0.5 v
Voltage drop due to aDode resistance
rto 1tq,
Voltage drop due to resistance of electrolyte l'8 V
ffi,
Voltagedropduetocontactresistance,leads,andjoints0'5V
Total 5.t V
.lJ)
r?3) ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION CELL
is sunk into the
cal, Figure 6.4 shows an electrolytic ceil for the electrolysis of aluminium. The cell
floor with the top portion (about 0.3 m) above the ground level. It essentially contains rec-
boxes, each around 5 m long, 2 m wide, and 1 m deep' The cathode
luogrlu. refractory-lined steel
i.24) with carbon mixed with a tar binder. An iron
liniig which consists of refractory bricks is faced
i get
Anode bar
'.25)

'1O:
bout Frozeo crust
lorr' of electrolyte
and
Al2O3 charge
al is

Molteo bath

Molten aluminium
r the
died. Collector
strap

6.26) Collector
bar
to be

,6.27)

Fig. 5.4 Electrolytic Cell for Aluminium Electrolysis.

298 EXTRACTIoN oF NoNFERRo{Js METALS

plate and an iron bar which form the cathode are embedded in the carbon mixture. A tap hole
ihrough which the metal is collected is located at the bottom of the cell. The anode may be either
prebaked carbon electrodes that aro replaced from time to time or continuous electrodes, in
which case a carbonaceous paste is continuously fed into steel moulds. The carbon gets baked in
the cell itself and forms the anode. Iron pins are inserted for electrical contact. The baked carbon
products for the electrodes and the cathode lining must be sufficiently strong (with a compressive
strength of 250-300 kg/sq. cm) and dense (not over 25 per cent of porosity). Figure 6'5 gives a
flowsheet for the manufacture of two types of carbon electrodes, namely, prebaked and continuous.

Cell Operation
During operation, the cell bath is filled with cryolite and the anode is lowered into it. A current
is pasied through the cell circuit until the cryolite melts (melting point 990"C). Only when the
bath attains a molten state is the addition of alumina commenced. The alumina decomposes to \
yield aluminium and oxygen, the necessary heat being supplied by the resistance offered by both
the electrodes and the electrolyte. If the alumina content of the bath (normally 5-10 per cent)
falls below 2 per cent, then normal contact between the anode and the bath is interrupted by a
gas film which abruptly increases the resistance. As a consequence, the normal operation ceases.
This effect is called the anode effect.
The agitation of the bath caused by the evolution of gas (CO and COz) and the magnetic
stirring effect produced by the current flowing through the bath from the anode to the cathode
lining of the cell, help maintain fresh additions of AlzO: in suspension long enough for dissolution
ia the electrolyte. The depth of the electrolyte is maintained at about 25 cm. Relevant operational
data on current, consumption of power and raw materials, are given later in this section.

Roleof Cryolite in ElectrolYsis

Various theories have tried to explai n the mechanism of the Hall-H6roult process. Experimentai
evirJence shows that the process does not depend merely on the simple dissociation of AIzOr.
Measurable amounts of fluorine and sodiunn vapour accumulate in the cell, which indicates that
the electrolysis involves other reactions as well.
When AlzO: is dissoived in molten cryolite, the ions thought to be present are (see
Lancker, 1967)
Al3+, 02- (in solute),
Na+, Al3+, AIF;-, F- (in solvent).
The O2- ions are the only ions foreign to the solvent and may react with Al3+ to form AIO+
and AlOi in the melt. Also, the Al2O3 structure may not be completely depolymerized' More-
over, Al2O3 may go into solution by assimilating ionic groups such as AIO+ and AlOl (or even
more complex groups). During electrolysis, several reactions involving all the aforestated ions
take place simultaneously io the melt.
Simple molecular theories of electrolysis are based on the hypothetical dissociation reactions

Na3AlF6: NaAIF+ * 2NaF, (6.28)

NaAlFa: NaF + AlF3. (6.2e)

We assume that the NaF thus produced initiates a number of reactions as indicated by the
following two theories.
 EXTRACTION OF MBTALS FROM OXIDES 299

I Solid carbonaceous materials

f (e.g., petroleum coke)
I
I
F Crushing
b
I
IL
Calcination
\
J

I rl
Grinding
E
ir,

D
h
\i
p Classi6cation
i
L
I
E
p
! Carbon mass
I

Pouring into
il aluminium casing
t

I
Continuous electrodes
!

l- Inspection
I
I
I
l
I
Finished elecrodes

,1
Fig. 6.5 Manufacturing Process for Carbon Electrodes"

I
Theory I
I The reactions according to this theory are
F
l2NaF: l2Na + l2F, (6.30)
300 ExrRAcrIoN oF NoNFERRoUS MBTALS
(6.31) (
12Na * 4AlF3: 12NaF 1- 4Al, curren
(6.32)
12F + 2ltlzOt: 4AlFr + 60, lower r

(6.33) curren
60 + 6C: 6CO or 60 + 3C: 3COz'
Wt
TheorY 2 ciency

The reactions according to this theory

are
(6.34)
l2NaF * 2AlzOr : 4AlF3 a 6Na2O' (6'35)
+ 60,
12Na ' where
6NaO - (6'36) electrt
l2Na * 4AlF3: l2NaF + 4Al' excess
(6'37)
60 + 6C: 6CO or 60 + 3C
:3COz' ,v ELEC
Theforegoingtwotheoriesattributetheconstantpresenceofsodiumvapourandfluorine
above the cryolite uotiio the decomporitioi-or
Nar' tt is also obvious that the depletion of The P
fluorine[reaction (6'30)] or NaF degra
Al2O3ortheloweringof itsactivityennancesitreformationof
of fluorine ."ut.t the anode effect' which
[reactions (6"31) and 1o- illi Ao io.r"urrg;;;;r-** the Hall-Hdroult
for ca

prevents normal op.r"iior"'iurther, it is also clear that the current efficiency of electr,
show that only a limited quantity of cryolite
process cannot be tOO per cent. The side reactions
is consumed during electrolYsis'

Factors Infl uencing ElectrolYsis

Wenowdiscusscertainoperationalfactors(seeChakravartyandMonga,lg68;Sevryukov,1975)
a marked influence on the electrolysis
of alumina:
iu"r1ur.
(l)Thebathtemperatureisanimportantfactor.Asarule,anincreaseintemperature (above-th.e normal
decreases the current efficiency.
For euery 4oc rise in the bath temperature
the higher the temperature' the more
g70"c), the current efficiency raus uy I per cent because It should'
greatei ihe dissolution of the metal in the bath'
the number of side reactions and the
however, be noted that a decrease io
t.ip"ruture_ does .not improve the current efficiengy
phase appears
which varies with the bath composition' a solid
indefinitely. Below a certain limit,
of the cell'
io tU. This residue upsets the normal worki,g
".rr. the current efficiency. Therefore, the current
(2) The higher the current density, the greater
value'
density is maintained at a very high
(3)Thelowerthedensityofthebath,thehighert!:'."t:ofseparationofthemetalliberated when the
uy ,rrlog high AIF:/NaF ratio. However,
irom the bath. The density can be tor""."a " drawbacks arise' For instance' the con-
quantity of AlFr i, ru.ge .ompared with Nuf, ".rt"io and a large volume of
ductivity of the brth:; lowered, tne
sotu[itity of alumina is reduced, dens,
the current efrciency
fluorine is produced. On the other hand,
a high NaF content reduces follo
in the concentratiin of sodium ions and the deposition of sodium calci
apparently due to an increase ratio
directly lowers the current efficiency' An NaF/AlF:
on the cathode. rt l ,oair.* deposition elect
optimum'
that is slightly less than three is considered and
(4)Thecurrentefficiencyisalsoaffectedbytheinterpolar-distance,whichisthedistance abor
from the bottom of the anoie to the top
of tle molten metal bath (see Fig' 6'4)' The current I
per cent)
distance, reaching a maximum (about 90
efficiency increases along with the in-terpilar
cons
when thi distance is approximately 65 cm'
I
I

ExrRAcrroN oF METALS FRoM oxrDEs 30I

(6.31) (5) The cell efficiency can be improved by strictly controlling
the addition of alumina. The
(6.32) current efficiency is a minimum when the AI2O3 content in
the bath is 4 per cent. At values
Iower and higher than 4 per cent, the current efficiency increases.
(6.33) However, to maintain a high
current efficiency, the cell should be operated consistently with
a high Alzo: content.
welch (1967) has derived the empirical relationship for the
dependence of the current em-
ciency (CE) in per cent on various normal operating variables
as
CE :254.92 1 0.39C2a1,s, + 0.45A1F3 +
1.70Ca1,s.
('6.3 4)
- 0.055XirF.
(5.3s) + 0.3CcuF, _ 0.237 + j29l(D + l) + 25r,
where 7 is the temperature of the cell
rt 6.3 6) CC), , the anode current density (A/cm2), D the inter-
electrode distance (cm), Cc"r, the wt
,%. CaF2, Ca1r6, the wt % Al2O3, and Xap, the wt
(6.37) excess of the cryolite ratio of 3. I Al\ in
luorine
ELECTROLYTIC REFINING OF ALUMINIUM
tion of
r )iaF The purity of metal produced by the Hall-Hdroult process
seldom exceeds 99.5 per cent. This
which degree of purity is sufficient for most alioying purposes.
However, for electrical applications and
Idroult for canning, a higher degree of purity is required.- To achieve
ttris nigner degree of purity, an
n1'c,l i te electrolytic methoc known asthe three-layei procrss (see Fig.6.6)
is employed. In this process, a
Electrolyte (density 2.8) phite electrodes
=
Magnesite Pure aluminium
insulation (densitv 2.3)
,1975) ' Commercial
aluminium or scrap
rature i=.rr.o [
rorma.l -,
i InOIE
,hor-ltd,
icLency
ppears

turreDt
Carbon
bottom
Anodc
rm'ated
rn the Al-Cu anode(28-30% Cu) (density 4.5)
=
t cpD- Fig. 6.6 Three-Layer process.
rne of
biency dense electrolyte fcrrmr the middle layer. The approximate
composition of the electrolyte is as
odium follows: aluminium flucride 36 per cent, cryolite 30 per
'3
cent, barium fluoride 1g per cent, and
ratio calcium fluoride l6 per cent. The density of the electrolyte
enables the aluminium purif,ed during
electrolysis to float upward (to form the top lai'er). The
i*pu.*--"tul is alloyed with copper,
rstance and this heavy alloy forms the bottom layer. The temperature
of operation is maintaineci at
iurrent about 950"C.
r ceot) The average outpur of metal i9r'.99 per cent purity) is
about I00 kg per ceil per day. The
consumption of the elecirolyte an'-l that of tne grapiite
electrodes is each equivalent to about
302 ExrRAcrIoN oF NoNFERRoUS METALS

The three'layer process

if the impure
proves ineffective
6 per cent of the metal produced.example,'ef-nit t'i', t"'"p-' bt'"ose magnesium reacts with
for
aluminium contains -ugo"iio-,
ii" and renders it unsuitable'
"i".rt"rvte
LOW'GRADE ORES
6.10 METTIODS OF TREA'TING
-i bauxite) is concerned' This
TheBayerprocesshasremainedunchallengedasfarastheextractionofaluminafromrich
t""ipi", process'
aluminium o*., *itt tow sitica ?iol.
Moreover' the Bayer
to be modified if the ores [ur" , high silica content'
"ootrot
have
however, needs lo;-;u;" o"rrr. consequently' other.processes
uo."onoiiJJio .6" of we now
process proves low-grade minerals of aluminium'
out to ,r.u:,lo*giude "ur.
bauxite. iiitt
been tried "oaare only of minor industrial importance'
,o-" Ji,i".r"!io*rr", as they
discuss in brief

LIME SINTER PROCESS is first liberated by

for siliceous ores such as clay. Alumina
The lime sinter process is suitable
n""*iirrg (Ai2q2sio2) with limestone (CaCor):
"ruv (6.38)
* 2caco, * Alor'
Alo,2sioz (c)
T;m:l2casior
fractions as now described'
separated by leaching the Al2o3-rich
The reaction products are next

DEVILLE.PECHINBY PROCESS
IntheDeville.Pechineyprocess:P*-*"d".Y.xiteoresaremadetoreactwithNazCo3inthe
The reaction is
solid state to produce *oiia N"etO2'
ol*iujil" , 2NaAloz(s) * coz
Bauxire $ Na2co3(s)
1000'C. hr
2

(6.3e)

Bubble COz
in the Baver
rhe sotid aruminate is then dissolvedil,l:lY:l1*fl':;::'"ffi:'::#ione
case or the rime sinter process'
in the
;'?::::"^":iffi;';;;;;liil"::.
ine nnat reaction maY be written
as
(6.40)
2NaAlOz 4 COz + 3H'zO -+ 2Al(OH)r $ NaaCOr'

SEITPECK PROCESS
in presence of carbon to
process; atmospheric nitrogen is passed through Al2o3
In the serpeck is
proao*" a nitride' The reaction
(6'41)
AlOr 3C + * 2N
160016
2AlN * 3CO'
or at elevated temperatures'
This oitride is hydrolyzedat room temperature to produce Al(oH)3'
 EXTRACTION OF METAI,S FROM OXIDES 303
if
the impure to producc anhydrous Alzor directly. The relevant reactions are
ium reacts with
room temperature
AIN + 4Hrg NH{OH { Al(oH)3, (6.421
200-300
2AtN + 6Hro 92NH3 + Atzor * 3lrzo. g.43)
mina from rich It may be noted that the ammonia produced as a byproduct partially meets
L This process, the operational costs
of the process.
uer, the Bayer
processes have 6.11 PRODUCTION Otr'ALUIVIINIUM IN INDIA
inium. We now The development of the aluminium industry in India was
very slow during the first decade after
lance, independence, but, subsequentry, the growih has been
,apid,'as shown by the data in Tabre 6.3.
rlt,

\,1r, Table 6.3 Production ot' Aluminium (tons)

rt liberated by (after Minerals and Metals R)view',
1979)

(6.38)
Year Production
rlc" described.
r953 4000
1958 8300
l{a:C0r in the
1960
18,000
1965
69,000
1968 120,000
I 970
(6.3e) 16i,000
t97 5
167,500
1976 2I i,000
t977 183,900
r iu the Bayer
1978
204,00a
1979
208,900
(6.40)
In trndia at present, four companies, namely,
Alumiriium rndia (ALIND), Bharat Aluminium
corporatiou (BALCo), Hindustan Aluminium
: of carbon to
corporation (HINDALCo), and Madras Alu-
Iliu- compauy (MALco), produce alu-ioium. arro, t*o uto.inium smelters in the central
sector and one aluminium plant in the
state sec:or are envisaged. Table 6.4 gives
the aluminium plaats in IndL. the details of
(6.41)
As a typical example of aluminium production
The locatioo of this unit enables t ;;;;".e
in India, we shall consider HINDALCO.
temperatures, bauxite, at economical rates, from severax mines
situated nearby' The composition of
the bauxite obtained f;;;;.. of these mines is given in