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 Dóra Berkes 1
Trinity College Dublin
How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

How did Ottoman rule affect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth
century?

The Ottoman forces defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. In 1541, after a

period of civil war and Ottoman campaigns through the land, they established part of the

Hungarian lands as part of the Ottoman Empire. This divided the medieval Kingdom of

Hungary into three parts: the continuation of the Kingdom of Hungary ruled by the Habsburgs

in the Northwest, the Principality of Transylvania – an Ottoman vassal state – in the Southeast

and Ottoman Hungary in Central and South Hungary. This division lasted one and a half

centuries until it came to an end in 1699. The focus of my essay will be the region that

became a theatre for the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict for the better half of the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries: Ottoman Hungary, including the frontier regions it shared with the

Kingdom of Hungary.1 The chronological scope of the essay reaches from 1526, the starting

point of the Ottoman military occupation until 1606, the Peace of Zsitvatorok which

concluded the Long Turkish War (a 13-year long war between the Habsburg Monarchy and

the Ottomans).2 On one hand, these first 80 years were a period of establishment for Ottoman

rule, in terms of military and civil occupation. 3 On the other hand, the Long Turkish War

represents a watershed moment in the history of Ottoman-occupied Hungary, as it devastated

the lands to a degree that would take decades to recover from, where recovery and restoration

were even a possibility.4

1
Géza Pálffy, A Három Részre Szakadt Ország 1526-1606 [Hungary after Mohács: A Century of Direction
Seeking, 1526-1606], ed. Ignác Romsícs, Magyarország Története 9 (Budapest, 2009), 14-25
2
Pálffy Géza, ‘A másfél évszázadnyi török uralom mérlege [The verdict of 150 years of Ottoman rule]’, Múlt-
kor történelmi magazin, 15 September 2001,
https://mult-kor.hu/20010915_a_masfel_evszazadnyi_torok_uralom_merlege.
3
Pálffy, Hungary after Mohács, 14-25
4
Pálffy, 110-111
 Dóra Berkes 2
Trinity College Dublin
How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

Figure 15

During this essay, I will examine the question ‘How did Ottoman rule affect society in the

occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?’. Firstly, I will look at the consequences

of Ottoman occupation in Hungarian society. I will deal with demographic and ethnic

changes, and then the effects on religious congregations will be examined. The changes in the

settlement system will also be expanded upon, followed by a summary of the burdens that

were put on the peoples of the land – namely the taxation system and the concept of

condominium. I will finish this part with a short discussion on the cultural remnants of the

Ottomans in Hungary. In the final part of my essay, I will put Ottoman Hungary in the Balkan

context. Arguments will be made that the Ottoman patterns of occupation in Hungary differed

from those in the Balkans and therefore had a different effect on society. Potential

explanations will be given as to why these differences came to exist. In the end, I will

conclude that Ottoman rule in the 16th century Hungary failed to establish the Hungarian lands

as an integral part of the empire and therefore did not result in a lasting cultural or

institutional change. I will also propose that although its effects on society cannot be

5
Hungary Divided into Three Parts, 2nd Half of the 16th Century, accessed 7 April 2022,
https://projectbathory.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/hungary-divided-late-c16th.jpg.
 Dóra Berkes 3
Trinity College Dublin
How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

disregarded, the most dramatic changes in Ottoman Hungary between 1526 and 1606 were the

result of warfare rather than Ottoman rule.

One of the most significant effects of Ottoman occupation in Hungary was the large-scale

demographic transformation of the area that was caused in part by the flight of the population

and in part by the devastation of the constant warfare in the 1526-1606 period. 6 This was

characteristic for the whole of Ottoman Hungary, but particularly affected areas were the

South and the frontier regions.7 The flight was encouraged by the nobility – which itself fled -,

and the Christian states nearby, including the Kingdom of Hungary or Transylvania, were

ideal places of refuge. The Ottoman military campaigns, civil war, the ongoing sieges, the

fight for territory along the frontiers and the Long Turkish War throughout the sixteenth

century resulted in bad living conditions and transformed the country into a wasteland (in

terms of agriculture).8 As a result, fleeing was a universal experience among all the social

classes and the conditions took a toll on everyone, but the biggest burden of the period fell on

the peasant classes. They had the highest number of casualties as the bearers of plundering,

epidemics, and hunger among other things. Meanwhile, although a number of aristocratic

families were lost to war, the Hungarian nobility’s numbers did not drop by a large margin as

most of them successfully took refuge in the Kingdom of Hungary. 9 The migration also had

identity-related effects, as the contemporary identity-forming was largely based on localism.

As a result, the refugees often had to readjust their identities according to their new residence.

If they decided to stay in Ottoman Hungary, they sometimes changed loyalties or became

renegades in society and owed loyalty to neither the Ottoman nor Hungarian authorities. 10 It is

6
Peter F. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, vol. V, X vols, A History of East Central
Europe (Seattle, London, 1977), 283
7
Pálffy, ‘Török uralom mérlege’.
8
Sugar, 87-88
9
Pálffy, Hungary after Mohács, 54-64
10
Éva Sz. Simon, ‘Sorsfordító Kényszerpályák. Menekülők És Behódolók Az Oszmán-Magyar Határvidéken
[Forced Paths. Refugees and Surrenderers on the Ottoman-Hungarian Frontier]’, in Identitás És Kultúra a Török
Hódoltság Korában [Identity and Culture in Ottoman Hungary], ed. Júlia Székely (Budapest, 2012), 100–110.
 Dóra Berkes 4
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

worth noting, however, that despite all of this the overall population of the Hungarian lands

did not decrease under Ottoman occupation – it rose slightly, albeit not reaching the trends of

the western European territories. The reason for the increase was not however the

demographic boom as elsewhere, but the emigration of various groups into the region.11

As the Ottomans did not have the settlers or the manpower to fill the depopulated areas there

were no official settlement campaigns and the land was repopulated by the unregulated

emigration mainly of Balkan peoples from the Ottoman areas. This resulted in a change in the

ethnic composition of the land.12 In the sixteenth century, the population groups who

emigrated into the country in multiple waves were composed mainly of South Slavic peoples

with Serbs forming the majority.13 A minority of them came into the land serving under the

Ottomans, but most of them were simply moving from one Ottoman province into another in

hopes of a better life, as Ottoman rule was still in the process of establishing itself in Hungary

and was, therefore, less present in everyday life. They migrated into the southern strip of

Ottoman Hungary and brought with them their language, their Christian Orthodox religion,

their culture – and also an acceptance of established Ottoman settlement. As the area was

depopulated and characterised by constant migration, they did not have a chance to

seamlessly assimilate into the population. When the Hungarian nobility tried to impose the

feudal system on them, they rather chose the Ottoman authorities. This resulted in a much

closer co-existence with the Ottomans compared to the Hungarians and the Ottomans having

much more direct authority over them.14 This ethnic change was the beginning of a process

that would ultimately transform Hungary into a multi-ethnic state and have significant

consequences on the future of the country.15

11
Pálffy, ‘Török uralom mérlege’.
12
Sugar, Southeastern Europe, 87, 383
13
Pálffy, ‘Török uralom mérlege’.
14
Klára Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén [On the Frontiers of an Empire], 2nd ed. (Budapest, 1982),
182-191
15
Pálffy, ‘Török uralom mérlege’.
 Dóra Berkes 5
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

In terms of the effect of Ottoman rule on religious congregations in the occupied territories,

one of the biggest changes was that it broke the reign of the Catholic hierarchy. Although the

Catholic Church still claimed authority over its dioceses and enforced taxation where it could,

exercising direct authority was made impossible by the Ottoman presence. 16 It was more so

this that made the spread of other religious congregations – Christian orthodox and various

Protestant churches – possible, than the Ottoman’s policy of ‘tolerance’, which is more

accurately described as indifference.17 The Christian orthodox religion was brought by the

newly settled Slavic people, and had a peaceful coexistence with Islam, due to their shared

past in the Balkans, but remained a minority religion. Protestantism, on the other hand,

became the majority faith by the 1570s – although since this happened in all three parts of

divided Hungary, it cannot be fully categorized as an effect of Ottoman rule. In Ottoman

Hungary, the most popular Protestant religion became Calvinism and on a smaller scale,

Unitarianism.18 In terms of the spread of Islam – and it is worth noting that the Islam brought

into Hungary was more so of the Balkans than of Anatolia – historians are not aware of large-

scale Islamization; only a very small number of conversions are known. 19 This can be

explained by the separated living of cultural and ethnic groups (that will be expanded upon

later) and the low numbers of Ottomans living in Hungary.20 In general, the Ottomans seemed

16
Szabolcs Varga, ‘Gods in the Part of Hungary under Ottoman Rule Popular Religiousness and Religious
Syncretism in South Transdanubia and in the Southern Part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th-17th
Centuries’, in Cultus Deorum: Studia Religionum Ad Historiam. Vol. 3, Res Medievalia et Recentoria Ab Oriens
Ad Europa / in Memoriam István Tóth, ed. Péter Vargyas and Árpád Szabó (Pécs, 2008), 113–22; Pálffy,
Hungary after Mohács, 24-25
17
Varga, ‘Gods in the Part of Hungary under Ottoman Rule Popular Religiousness and Religious Syncretism in
South Transdanubia and in the Southern Part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th-17th Centuries’; Pálffy,
‘Török uralom mérlege’.
18
Pál Fodor, ‘“A Kincstár Számára a Hitetlen a Leghasznosabb”. Az Oszmánok Magyarországi
Valláspolitikájáról. ["For the Treasury the Non-Believer Is the Most Profitable". On the Religious Policy of
Ottomans in Hungary.]’, in Magyar Évszázadok. Tanulmányok Kosáry Domokos 90. Születésnapjára
[Hungarian Centuries. Studies for the 90th Birthday of Domokos Kosáry], ed. Mária Ormos (Budapest, 2003),
88–99.
19
Varga, ‘Gods in the Part of Hungary under Ottoman Rule Popular Religiousness and Religious Syncretism in
South Transdanubia and in the Southern Part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th-17th Centuries’; Hegyi,
Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 72-82
20
Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 72-82
 Dóra Berkes 6
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

to have no agenda for mass conversions. Beyond limiting the practices and living space of the

Christian religions and the sporadic acts of aggression, as long all the taxes were paid – and

indeed it was Christians who paid the most taxes-, non-Muslims were left to their own devices

when it came to religious practice.21

Ottoman rule in Hungary had effects on the settlement system as well. One of the significant

changes was the flocking of people to village and town centres, resulting in a much more

concentrated settlement of people across the land.22 Another characteristic of settlements in

Ottoman rule was the separation of cultures: due to their low numbers and most of them being

military personnel, Ottomans almost exclusively only lived in towns (such as Buda, Pest, Pécs

or Esztergom) which as a result became Muslim cultural enclaves. 23 Although even these

cities had some Hungarian or Slavic population, these groups had their own city districts.

Their living circumstances could perhaps be more accurately described as ‘living beside each

other’ than ‘living with each other.24 A significant part of the village system was destroyed by

war or depopulated by its people fleeing to a city (which provided protection) or escaping

Ottoman Hungary. The ones that remained faced exceptionally hard circumstances due to

taxation and the devastated land around them but the distance between the Ottomans and

Hungarians both provided them with a certain sense of autonomy as well in their everyday

lives – as long as they paid what was expected of them. 25 Autonomous living of settlements in

Ottoman Hungary was not a rare sight: they normally developed in regions where the

Ottomans/Hungarians could not (frontier region) or would not (inner, ‘secure’ regions of the

occupied land) enforce their authority.26 A type of agricultural town, mezővárosok (market

towns) not only developed autonomy under Ottoman rule but also prospered economically,
21
Fodor, ‘Az Oszmánok Magyarországi Valláspolitikájáról’.
22
Pálffy, ‘Török uralom mérlege’.
23
Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 72-82; Sugar, Southeastern Europe, 87
24
Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 72-82
25
Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 192-208
26
Hegyi, 127-132
 Dóra Berkes 7
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

creating a liveable and relatively stable environment.27

When looking at the effects of Ottoman rule, one must also consider the burdens it placed on

society (beyond the already mentioned devastation caused by warfare) which contributed to

the dubious livelihood of the people. One of the most significant of these was taxation. In

theory, the Ottoman taxation system did not differ much from medieval taxation systems of

Europe – tax was to be paid to the landowners and the state. This did not constitute much of a

change in the Hungarian peasant’s life in itself – even the amount of money that was to be

paid remained roughly the same. The ’extraordinary’ state taxes and increase in taxation were

neglected by the Ottomans in the sixteenth century. The jizya - a state tax paid by non-

muslims – however, did put an additional burden on taxpayers. 28 As did the system of double

taxation which was made possible by the condominium (double rule of both Ottoman and

Hungarian authorities) mainly on the frontier regions, although the Hungarian state and nobles

still tried to acquire the taxes from all over the conquered territories, which they continued to

regard as part of their legal system.29

In terms of culture, we can only talk about some sporadic Ottoman and Slavic cultural

remnants, rather than influential cultural changes. This, once again, was made possible by the

in essence segregated living of the cultural groups and by the relatively short period of time

the Ottomans occupied the Hungarian lands (in contrast to the centuries they spent in the

Balkans).30 Some of the cultural remnants include craft techniques, ornamental styles, trades,

Ottoman melodies and instruments, clothing items and materials and loanwords from the

Turkish language.31

27
Sugar, Southeastern Europe, 89-91
28
Hegyi, Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén, 102-118
29
Hegyi, 224-235
30
Hegyi, 267-273
31
Hegyi, 267-273; Tamás Hofer, ‘Der Einfluß Der Türkenherrschaft Auf Die Ungarische Bäuerliche Kultur [The
Effect of the Ottoman Rule on the Hungarian Rural Culture]’, Acta Historica Academiae Scientiarum
Hungaricae 34, no. 1 (1988): 89–101.
 Dóra Berkes 8
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

As we have seen, Ottoman Hungary went through significant changes in the sixteenth century,

as the Ottoman occupiers settled into their newly conquered territories. I would argue,

however, that the most significant changes that had far-reaching effects – such as the

demographic transformation and the development of a multi-ethnic state – can largely be

attributed to the ongoing wars, rather than Ottoman settlement. The land did become

depopulated and devastated due to the Ottoman conquest, but it was not only the Ottomans

who took part in the military actions but the Habsburg armies as well. In the context of the

essay question, Ottoman rule (=governance of Ottoman Hungary) does not equal the military

actions of the Ottomans. And in a Balkan context, Ottoman rule in Hungary did not affect

society permanently when it comes to culture, civic life or religion (in terms of the spread of

Islam).

In the Balkans, a significant number of the population converted to Islam. Settlements did not

become semi-autonomous from the Ottomans excluding taxation, but rather lived directly

under Ottoman authority, together with the Ottomans. The establishment of Ottoman

institutions and civic life was a success in the Balkans, in contrast to Hungary, where the

attempt of the Ottomans in the sixteenth century to impose their structures on society in a

non-superficial way failed.32 This can be explained partly by the fact that the divided

Kingdom of Hungary had an uninterrupted political and institutional history in the form of the

other two non-Ottoman occupied parts of the land, with which it never lost touch and

connection.33 An example of this is the political elite of the land, which did not seize to exist,

only moved elsewhere, and continued to exercise its privileges on the occupied territories

when possible. As the theatre of war for the Ottoman-Habsburg conflict and the border region

32
Klára Hegyi, ‘A Törökök Berendezkedése Meghódított Országaikban [The Settlement of Ottomans in the
Conquered Lands.]’, Történelmi Szemle 24, no. 3 (1981); Klára Hegyi, ‘A Magyar Tartomány Helye És Helyzete
Az Oszmán Birodalomban [The Place and Situation of the Hungarian Province in the Ottoman Empire]’,
Világtörténet, A magyar tartomány helye és helyzete, 16, no. 1 (1994): 18–24.
33
Sugar, Southeastern Europe, 309-310
 Dóra Berkes 9
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

of both empires, Ottoman Hungary never became – or arguably was never intended by the

Ottomans to become – an integral part of the Ottoman Empire.34

As we have seen throughout the essay, the society of Ottoman Hungary went through

significant changes in the sixteenth century. The effects of war and the flight of the population

resulted in a devastated land and a depopulated country, mainly in the southern regions. The

depopulated areas were then repopulated with the unorganized settlement of Slavic people,

mainly Serbs – which signalled the beginning of a process that would transform Hungary into

a significantly multi-ethnic state in the seventeenth century. The Ottoman rule also ended the

supremacy of the Catholic Church in the occupied lands and gave way to Christian Orthodox,

and more characteristically, protestant religious congregations. Islam, however, did not leave

a lasting mark on the faith or culture of the people, as conversions were a rare occurrence.

Regarding the settlement system, Ottoman occupation resulted in part in Muslim enclave-

turned cities and destroyed villages, and in part in segregated co-exitance and a more

autonomous way of living. Additional burdens, such as double taxation and double rule were

also placed on certain regions. It can also be concluded, that culturally, the Ottomans left very

little behind. I argued, that while some of these represent significant changes, the most far-

reaching ones (demographic, ethnic change) were caused rather by military actions than

governance. And we have also seen that as the battleground of wars, Ottoman Hungary did

not fit the pattern of Ottoman occupation in the Balkans. So how did Ottoman rule effect the

occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century? As the first 80 years of it failed to

establish the Hungarian lands as an integral part of the empire, especially in civic life,

Ottoman rule did not result in lasting cultural or institutional changes in society. What

significant effects it had in terms of demography and ethnic make-up of Ottoman Hungary,

were more the result of the military actions than Ottoman rule itself.
34
Hegyi, ‘A Magyar Tartomány Helye És Helyzete Az Oszmán Birodalomban [The Place and Situation of the
Hungarian Province in the Ottoman Empire]’.; Sugar, Southeastern Europe, 70-71
 Dóra Berkes 10
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

Word count: 2542

 Dóra Berkes 11
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Secondary reading
Ottoman Empire
Ágoston, Gábor. ‘The Ottoman Empire and Europe’. In The Oxford Handbook of Early

Modern European History, 1350-1750, edited by Hamish Scott, 2:612–37. Oxford,

New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.

https://www.academia.edu/18090015/The_Ottoman_Empire_and_Europe.

———. ‘The Ottomans: From Frontier Principality to Empire’. In The Practice of Strategy,

edited by John Andreas Olsen and Colin S. Gray. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2011. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608638.003.0006.

Isom-Verhaaren, Christine, and Kent F. Schull. ‘Introduction: Dealing with Identity in the

Ottoman Empire’. In Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th

Centuries, edited by Christine Isom-Verhaaren and Kent F. Schull, 1–15.

Bloomington, Indianapolis, 2016.

Sugar, Peter F. Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. Vol. V. X vols. A

History of East Central Europe. Seattle, London, 1977.

Ottoman Hungary
Ágoston, Gábor. ‘Muslim Cultural Enclaves in Hungary under Ottoman Rule’. Acta

Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 45, no. 2/3 (1991): 181–204.

Dávid, Géza, and Pál Fodor. ‘Magyar Ellenállás a Török Berendezkedéssel Szemben

[Hungarian Resistance against the Turkish Settlement]’. In Keletkutatás 1996. Ősz -

2002. Tavasz [Orientalism 1996. Autumn - 2002. Spring], edited by Géza Dávid and

Pál Fodor, 271–76. Budapest, 2002.

Erdélyi, Gabriella. ‘Túlélési Stratégiák a Török Idején [Survival Strategies in Ottoman

Times]’. In Identitás És Kultúra a Török Hódoltság Korában [Identity and Culture in

 Dóra Berkes 12
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

the Period of Ottoman Conquest], edited by Júlia Székely, 89–99. Budapest, 2012.

———. ‘Turning Turk as Rational Decision in the Hungarian-Ottoman Frontier Zone’.

Hungarian Historical Review 4, no. 2 (2015): 314–45.

Fodor, Pál. ‘“A Kincstár Számára a Hitetlen a Leghasznosabb”. Az Oszmánok Magyarországi

Valláspolitikájáról. ["For the Treasury the Non-Believer Is the Most Profitable". On

the Religious Policy of Ottomans in Hungary.]’. In Magyar Évszázadok. Tanulmányok

Kosáry Domokos 90. Születésnapjára [Hungarian Centuries. Studies for the 90th

Birthday of Domokos Kosáry], edited by Mária Ormos, 88–99. Budapest, 2003.

Hegyi, Klára. ‘A Magyar Tartomány Helye És Helyzete Az Oszmán Birodalomban [The

Place and Situation of the Hungarian Province in the Ottoman Empire]’. Világtörténet,

A magyar tartomány helye és helyzete, 16, no. 1 (1994): 18–24.

———. ‘A Törökök Berendezkedése Meghódított Országaikban [The Settlement of

Ottomans in the Conquered Lands.]’. Történelmi Szemle 24, no. 3 (1981).

———. Egy Világbirodalom Végvidékén [On the Frontiers of an Empire]. 2nd ed. Budapest,

1982.

Hofer, Tamás. ‘Der Einfluß Der Türkenherrschaft Auf Die Ungarische Bäuerliche Kultur

[The Effect of the Ottoman Rule on the Hungarian Rural Culture]’. Acta Historica

Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 34, no. 1 (1988): 89–101.

Pálffy, Géza. A Három Részre Szakadt Ország 1526-1606 [Hungary after Mohács: A Century

of Direction Seeking, 1526-1606]. Edited by Ignác Romsícs. Magyarország Története

9. Budapest, 2009.

———. ‘A másfél évszázadnyi török uralom mérlege [The verdict of 150 years of Ottoman

rule]’. Múlt-kor történelmi magazin, 15 September 2001.

https://mult-kor.hu/20010915_a_masfel_evszazadnyi_torok_uralom_merlege.

Sudár, Balázs. ‘Az Oszmánok És Magyarország Mentális Meghódítása [The Ottomans and
 Dóra Berkes 13
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How did Ottoman rule effect society in the occupied Hungarian lands in the sixteenth century?

the Mental Conquest of Hungary]’. In Identitás És Kultúra a Török Hódoltság

Korában [Identity and Culture in Ottoman Hungary], edited by Pál Ács and Júlia

Székely, 40–49. Budapest, 2012.

Sz. Simon, Éva. ‘Sorsfordító Kényszerpályák. Menekülők És Behódolók Az Oszmán-Magyar

Határvidéken [Forced Paths. Refugees and Surrenderers on the Ottoman-Hungarian

Frontier]’. In Identitás És Kultúra a Török Hódoltság Korában [Identity and Culture

in Ottoman Hungary], edited by Júlia Székely, 100–110. Budapest, 2012.

Varga, Szabolcs. ‘Gods in the Part of Hungary under Ottoman Rule Popular Religiousness

and Religious Syncretism in South Transdanubia and in the Southern Part of the

Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th-17th Centuries’. In Cultus Deorum: Studia

Religionum Ad Historiam. Vol. 3, Res Medievalia et Recentoria Ab Oriens Ad

Europa / in Memoriam István Tóth, edited by Péter Vargyas and Árpád Szabó, 113–

22. Pécs, 2008.

Voigt, Vilmos. ‘Sok Évszázados Ellenségünk Rokon Dallamai (És Néhány Más Dolog). Van-

e Nyoma Az Oszmán-Török Folklórnak a Magyarban? [Kindred Melodies of an

Enemy of Many Centuries (and Some Other Things). Can Traces of Ottoman-Turkish

Folklore Be Found in the Hungarian?]’. In Identitás És Kultúra a Török Hódoltság

Korában [Identity and Culture in Ottoman Hungary], edited by Júlia Székely, 366–

79. Budapest, 2012.

Image resources

Hungary Divided into Three Parts, 2nd Half of the 16th Century. Accessed 7 April 2022.

https://projectbathory.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/hungary-divided-late-c16th.jpg.