Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570

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Microporous and Mesoporous Materials

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/micromeso

Mitigation of silica-rich wastes: An alternative to the synthesis eco-friendly

silica-based mesoporous materials
José Arnaldo S. Costa *, Caio M. Paranhos
CDMF, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, 13565-905, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The synthesis of nano-architectured mesoporous materials is of great importance for the sciences of multifunc­
Biomass tional materials, since the textural and structural features of mesoporous silicas allows its application in the most
Renewable silica source different areas of technological knowledge. In view of growing interest of the scientific community in the use of
Sustainable process
silica-based mesoporous materials, as well as the environmental concern of obtaining advanced materials
Multifunctional mesoporous materials
Environmental remediation
through increasingly cleaner, low-cost, and eco-friendly processes, this review aims to give an overview in the
literature of main alternative silica sources that have been used to synthetize the silica-based mesoporous arrays.
Also, we present what are the main applications of these mesoparticles. We can highlight that the main meso­
porous materials studied in the literature are those of the M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families, which pre­
sented well-structured silica-based mesoporous materials with different pore geometries and architectures. Thus,
allowing the application of these architectured materials in different scientific areas. The synthesis of silicon-
based mesoporous materials has been increasingly sought from the use of low-cost and eco-friendly silica
sources from the reuse of industrial wastes, in an attempt to minimize the possible impacts on the environment
and human health of inadequate disposal of these wastes. Based on our literature review, the main alternative
silica sources that are being used for the synthesis of silica-based mesoporous materials are rice hush ash, wheat
husk ash, palm oil fuel ash, Miscanthus ash, e-waste, coal ash, reed ash, sedge ash, Carex riparia, sugarcane ash,
bamboo leaf ash, natural clay, ore tailing, and others.

1. Nanostructured mesoporous materials
Nowadays, the synthesis of nanostructured mesoporous materials to
be applied in the most different technological fields is increasingly
occurring, mainly due to their textural and structural properties, which
provide multifunctional characteristics for these well-structured meso­
porous materials. Mesoporous materials, which are classified by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) for having a
pore diameter between 2 and 50 nm, are located between microporous
and macroporous materials in terms of pore diameter, since the Greek
prefix meso-means ‘in between’ [1,2]. The materials with mesoporous
structure are formed basically from the condensation of the silica
network from the amorphous silica source used.
Mesoporous materials are synthesized using the main reagents: (i) a
solvent: water and/or ethanol are the main solvents used in the synthesis
of a mesoporous material, which allows the dissolution of template and
precursor silica source [3]; (ii) a structure-directing agent or template:
the template is responsible to form the shape of pores during the
formation of amorphous silica structures of mesoporous arrays. In the
literature, the main templates used are hexadecyltrimethylammonium
bromide (CTAB) and tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB)
[4–6]; (iii) a catalyst: the catalysts act as the mineralizing agent for
dissolve the silica source and form silicate ions, so the synthesis can be
carried out by an acid or basic catalysis, according to the scheme shown
in Fig. 1. The most commonly used catalysts in the literature are hy­
drochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonium hydroxide
(NH3.H2O), tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAOH), so on [4,7];
(iv) a silica source: amorphous silica is the wall-building unit of
silica-based mesoporous materials. It is well-known that the synthesis of
silicon-based nanostructured materials from a commercial silica source,
such as sodium silicate, tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS), tetraethylor­
thosilicate (TEOS), and tetrabutylorthosilicate (TBOS) [3]. In addition
to these four reagents used in the synthesis of silica-based mesoporous
materials, the time and temperature are important parameters for
obtaining well-structured mesoporous arrays [8]. However, the objec­
tive of this work is to review the literature on the use of alternative,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: josearnaldo23@yahoo.com.br (J.A.S. Costa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2020.110570
Received 17 June 2020; Received in revised form 15 July 2020; Accepted 18 August 2020
Available online 21 August 2020
1387-1811/© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
inexpensive, and eco-friendly silica sources used to prepare nano­
structured mesoporous materials of technological interest.
In general, nanostructured mesoporous materials can be prepared by
a variety of synthetic routes, although the conventional method widely
used is hydrothermal one in a polytetrafluorethylene-lined stainless
steel autoclave, using template in the self-assembly processes that form
the mesoporous silicas with amorphous walls [7,9–11]. Among the main
nanostructured mesoporous materials, we can highlight the materials of
the M41S, SBA, FDU, and KIT families, which presented well-structured
silica-based mesoporous materials with different pore geometries and
architectures [12].
1.1. M41S family of mesoporous materials
Nanostructured mesoporous materials of the M41S family were
firstly reported by researchers at Mobil Oil Corporation in the 1990s,
since then these materials have been applied in many different techno­
logical applications [9,13]. The term M41S is used to generalize the
various types of MCM (Mobil Composition of Matter) synthesized with
uniform mesopores using a template and a silica source under basic
conditions [14,15], so the M41S family is represented by MCM-41,
MCM-48, and MCM-50 mesoporous materials. The main advantage of
nanostructured mesoporous arrays of the M41S family is their unique
chemical structure consisting of walls well-defined with high density of
functional silanol groups (Si–OH), whose arrangement, pore size, and
shape can be modeled in the synthesis process [2,16], as well as, the
internal surface is easily modified with organic and/or inorganic groups
[5,7,11,17].
MCM-41 is one of the most well-known and investigated member of
nanostructured mesoporous material of the M41S family, which pre­
sented an amorphous silica array of unidirectional, a controllable mes­
opore diameter ranging from 1.5 to 20.0 nm (depending of the
molecular length of template) in a well-ordered and uniform arrange­
ment with two-dimensional (2D) hexagonal structure and P6mm space-
group symmetry and high porosity (surface area and pore volume) [2,9,
13,18,19].
MCM-48 presented the cubic structure with Ia3d space-group sym­
metry in the interconnected pores network in three-dimensional (3D)
Fig. 1. Acid and basic catalyzed hydrolysis of silica source.
2
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
system [20,21]. The MCM-48-based mesoporous materials, like the
MCM-41, have a large number of Si–OH groups on their pore surfaces
that can react to form hybrid materials, a long range ordered array, high
surface area, and the large specific pore volume, enabling its wide use
due to the interconnected voids of 3D well-structured framework
[21–25]. These textural and structural properties of MCM-48-based
mesoporous materials provide easy diffusion of molecules throughout
the pore channels without mesopores blocking, as well as, the 3D
framework structure of MCM-48-based mesoporous materials can be
more resistant to blockage of active species within the pore channels
than the 2D hexagonal structure pore system of MCM-41-based meso­
porous arrays [26].
On the other hand, MCM-50-based mesoporous arrays have a
lamellar structure without space-group symmetry and consisting of sil­
ica layers in presence of double layers of surfactant as structure-
directing agent, thus the MCM-50 presented a lamellar structure with
P2 space-group symmetry in the uncalcined form, due to the arrange­
ment of template occurring as if it were a ‘‘sandwich’’ type layered
arrangement [27]. However, the framework of MCM-50 mesoporous
matrix is characterized by an unstable lamellar structure after template
removal, which can result in a dense phase with little structural
arrangement and porosity after the calcination process due to the
collapse of lamellar structure of MCM-50 at high temperature [28,29].
Therefore, Longloilert et al. [30] suggested that the preparation of
MCM-50 mesoporous array with a lamellar phase required a higher
surfactant-to-silica ratio and a longer reaction time. Fig. 2 shows the
schematic representation of mesoporous materials of the M41S family.
Nanostructured mesoporous materials of the M41S family have
attracted intense interest due to their system with high pore volumes
and large surface areas, well-defined and tunable mesoporous struc­
tures, inert framework, high thermal and hydrothermal stabilities, low
toxicity, and high biocompatibility [31,32]. Furthermore, these mate­
rials are tunable to various chemical environments and can be regen­
erated many times after utilization [33].
1.2. SBA-n family of mesoporous materials
Santa Barbara Amorphous (SBA) family was firstly synthesized in
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of structure of MCM-41 (a), MCM-48 (b), and MCM-50 (c) mesoporous materials of the M41S family.
1998. These nanostructured mesoporous materials are composed of
silica-based framework with uniform and well-ordered mesopores, large
pores, thick pore walls, high surface area, and high thermal stability
[34–36]. Since then, research has been carried out to synthesize these
materials within the mesoporous range and with adequate textural and
structural features. The SBA-n mesoporous materials family, where n is
1–16, is mainly represented by SBA-1, SBA-2, SBA-3, SBA-7, SBA-12,
SBA-14, SBA-15, and SBA-16. SBA-1-based mesoporous matrix pre­
sented well-ordered cage-like mesostructure in a 3D cubic arrangement
with Pm3n space-group symmetry that are interconnected by small open
windows [37–41]. According to Saikia et al. [37] and Wongkasemjit
et al. [39] these features allow the use of SBA-1 as discrete active sites
and for the introduction of heteroatom in the catalytic processes,
respectively. SBA-2 has an MCM-41-like hexagonal close-packed array
with amorphous silicate walls in the space between them [34]. As re­
ported by Hunter and Wright [34], SBA-2 mesoporous material can be
successfully prepared by direct synthesis at temperatures ranging from
room temperature to 100 ◦ C and pH values within the 10–12. Santa
Barbara Amorphous-3 (SBA-3) is also formed by a well-defined and
uniform hexagonal structure with P6mm space-group symmetry in par­
allel channels separated by amorphous silica walls. On the other hand,
unlike MCM-41, SBA-3 material contains micropores connected to its
mesoporous matrix [35,36,42], which can be used as active sites for
modification superficial due to the presence of Si–O and Si–OH groups
[36]. Like the MCM-41-based mesoporous arrays, the SBA-3-based
micro-mesostructured materials have large adsorption efficiency,
excellent selectivity, and improved powder recoverability [36,43].
Santa Barbara Amorphous-7 (SBA-7) material exhibits a 3D hexag­
onal mesostructure with P63/mmc space-group symmetry in a cage-like
mesoporous walls and surface area up to 910 m2 g⁻1, according to work
reported by Li et al. [44]. SBA-12-based mesoporous arrays presented
also a 3D hexagonal network in a well-ordered architecture with
P63/mmc space-group symmetry [45–47]. According to Kumar and
Srinivas, SBA-12 presents typical type IV isotherms with a H1 hysteresis
loop, an average pore size beetween 3.8 and 5.6 nm, high surface area
and pore volume due to the hexagonally arranged pores [45]. In the
literature, SBA-14-based mesoporous matrixes are poorly studied,
however, Zhao et al. [48] prepared the SBA-14 mesoporous matrix
consistent with a 3D cubic structure (Pm3n), type IV isotherm, mean
narrow pore size, surface area of 670 m2 g⁻1, and thermally stable.
Nowadays, SBA-15 and SBA-16 mesoporous arrays have been the
most widely investigated members of the SBA-n family in the literature.
The SBA-15- and SBA-16-based mesoporous arrays are widely utilized as
adsorbent [49,50], catalysts or catalytic support [51,52], sensors [53,
54], drug carriers [55,56], and others, due to its structural and textural
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Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
features presented in the synthetized mesoparticles [56–58]. SBA-15
possesses a well-ordered and regular two-dimensional hexagonal ar­
chitecture with a P6mm space-group symmetry and interconnected mi­
cropores, larger pore size, high pore volume and surface area, and
remarkable hydrothermal stability [56,59–61]. On the other hand, the
SBA-16-based mesoporous materials presented a complex 3D arrays of
well-ordered mesoporous channels with cage-like architecture in a cubic
body-centered symmetry (Im3m), high surface area, large pore diam­
eter, and high hydrothermal stability [58,62–66]. In view of the afore­
mentioned textural and structural properties of mesoporous materials of
the SBA-n family, especially the SBA-15 and SBA-16 materials, they have
attracted a lot of attention from researchers, mainly due to its inter­
connected spherical mesopores provides easy accessible for a wide va­
riety of guest molecules [67]. Fig. 3 shows the schematic representation
of structure of SBA-15 mesoporous material and the diffusion process of
different compounds into the pores of SBA-15 mesoporous matrix.
1.3. FDU-n family of mesoporous materials
The Fudan University ordered mesoporous materials family (FDU-n)
was developed by Prof. Zhao’s group in Fudan University [68], where n
= 1, 2, 5, 12, 14, or 15. This family is mainly represented by FDU-1,
FDU-2, FDU-5, FDU-12, FDU-14, and FDU-15 nanostructured meso­
porous materials. FDU-n-based mesoporous silica arrays have
well-ordered mesostructures and pore arrangements, high surface area,
large and uniform distribution pore diameter, amorphous pore-wall
structures, and thermal and mechanical stability [68–70]. Silva et al.
[69] prepared the FDU-1-based mesoporous matrix with a 3D
face-centered cubic (FCC) structure with large cage-like mesopores and
Fm3m space-group symmetry of mesoparticles, surface area of 684 m2
g⁻1 and total pore volume of 0.89 cm3 g⁻1. FDU-2 mesoporous array
possesses a mesostructure with Fd3m space-group symmetry in a FCC
unit cell and well-ordered 3D architecture, type IV isotherms, and nar­
row size distribution in walls built up from spherical cage [68,71].
While, FDU-5-based mesoporous materials presented also a 3D cubic
array in a well-ordered bicontinuous architectures of Ia3d space-group
symmetry that is analogous to the mesoparticles of MCM-48, as well
as, large pore diameter and high surface area [68,72,73].
Finally, FDU-12-based mesoporous silicas are characterized by Fm3m
space-group symmetry with a highly ordered three-cubic architecture in
amorphous walls with spherical-like cage shape, as well as, these ma­
terials presented excellent features, such as high pore volume, surface
area, and pore size, hydrothermal stability, and others [68,70,74–76].
Due to the interesting textural and structural properties presented by the
FDU-n-based mesoporous silica arrays, they have been applied in many
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of structure of SBA-15 mesoporous material and the diffusion process of different compounds into the pores of SBA-15 meso­
porous matrix.
different uses in the literature, mainly in catalytic support [69,76,77],
drug release [75,78], adsorption [79,80], surface molecular imprinting
technology [81], and hydrogen storage [82].
1.4. KIT-n family of mesoporous materials
The mesoporous materials series of the KIT-n family, where n = 1, 5,
or 6, were first reported by Prof. Ryoo’s group at Korea Advanced
Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST). This family is mainly
represented by the KIT-1, KIT-5, and KIT-6 mesoporous silicas, however,
the most studied members in the literature are KIT-5 and KIT-6 meso­
porous arrays [68]. KIT-1-based mesoporous silicas exhibit a 3D archi­
tecture in a disordered framework. However, KIT-1 mesoporous arrays
presented high surface area, larges pore volume and pore diameter, and
thermal and hydrothermal stability [68,83–85]. On the other hand,
KIT-5-based nanostructured mesoporous matrixes, unlike KIT-1 meso­
porous silicas, have a well-ordered 3D cage-like mesopores in a face
centered close-packed cubic lattice with Fm3m space-group symmetry,
interconnected amorphous walls with spherical morphology, type IV
isotherm, and interesting features, such as high surface area, large pore
volume and pore diameter, and high hydrothermal stability [86–91].
KIT-6-based mesoporous silicas possesses a bi-continuous cubic
structure with cylindrical pore arrangement of Ia3d space-group sym­
metry, like the MCM-48 mesoporous architectures [92–96]. In addition,
KIT-6 shows a highly ordered framework with a 3D mesoporous amor­
phous walls, large regular pore size, uniform pore distribution, high
surface area, and thermal stability [93,97,98]. Nowadays, KIT-5- and
KIT-6-based mesoporous arrays are widely applied as catalytic support,
due to the profound open channels which enable them to afford a porous
host with direct and easy access of guest species [86,92]. Thus, facili­
tating diffusion and migration processes of reactant and product com­
pounds within the mesopores (channels) of well-ordered mesoporous
architectures.
All these interesting properties presented by the nanostructured
mesoporous materials of the M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families
allow theses mesoporous arrays to be used in a wide range of applica­
tions, such as separation [16,99–101], catalyze [12,20,28,69,96,
102–105], drug release [21,31,106], adsorption [3,4,7,11,80,93,
107–114], luminescent devices [5,115], matrix solid phase dispersion
(MSPD) and/or solid-phase extraction (SPE) [116–118], optical sensor
[58,63,98], filler material in mixed matrix membrane [119], and others.
4
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
In addition, Fig. 4 shows the results of the number of publications found
with the individual terms related to the mesoporous materials of the
M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families obtained in the ScienceDirect
database from 2010 to 2019.
2. Eco-friendly silica source
Nowadays, the production of wastes from industrial and agricultural
activities is increasingly constant, especially due to the population dy­
namics, so measures to reduce waste generation need to be optimized by
environmental agencies. Therefore, the recycling of these agroindustrial
wastes is a plausible alternative to minimize their possible impacts on
the environment and human health [111,112,121]. Thus, to mitigate the
environmental impacts caused by the improper disposal of waste, some
research is being carried out with the objective of using alternative
silica-rich materials, such as solid waste, to be used as a silica source to
prepare nanostructured mesoporous materials of technological interest.
Therefore, the present work aims to give an overview of the main re­
searches that are using alternative materials for the synthesis of meso­
porous materials of M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families. In this
context, based on our literature search, the main alternative silica
sources that are being used by many researches worldwide are rice hush
ash, wheat husk ash, palm oil fuel ash, Miscanthus ash, e-waste, coal ash,
reed ash, sedge ash, Carex riparia, sugarcane ash, bamboo leaf ash,
natural clay, ore tailing, and others.
2.1. Rice husk ash (RHA)
Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the most cultivated plantations in the
world and this cereal is widely consumed by the population [121,122].
According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the global rice production in 2018 would be around 769.9
million tons [123], and of this total, on average 20% of this production is
processed in the rice husk (RH) as the main by-product, which is
generated in the milling and processing processes of rice [121,124]. RH
is often used as a fuel in rice parboiling or even disposed as waste by
various industries. However, the rice husk ash (RHA) produced from RH
burning contains high silica content (99%), as recently shown by our
research group [121]. In time of great environmental pollution, the use
of waste biomass like rice husk can be an eco-friendly alternative for the
synthesis of nanostructured mesoporous silica. We recently used RHA
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
Fig. 4. Evolution of the number of publications found with the individual terms related to the mesoporous materials of the M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families
obtained in the ScienceDirect database from 2010 to 2019 [120].
extracted from RH to synthesize the MCM-41 (RHA) [112],
MCM-41-NH2 (RHA) [125], and PABA-MCM-41 (RHA) [111] meso­
porous materials. The RH was calcined at 700 ◦ C for 2 h and the
amorphous silica was extracted by leaching with an extraction solution
of NaOH at 80 ◦ C for 1 h, therefore, the mesoporous arrays exhibit
well-ordered hexagonal mesostructures with P6mm space-group sym­
metry, high surface areas, large pore volumes, and hydrothermal
stability.
Abukhadra and Shaban [126] prepared the MCM-48 mesoporous
matrix with a cubic mesoporous architecture and Ia3d space-group
symmetry. In this work, silica gel was extracted from RHA with an
extraction solution of NaOH at 150 ◦ C for 4 h and then the MCM-48 was
synthetized via the common hydrothermal method with silica gel as
silica source. Muniandy et al. [127] obtained the sodium silicate solu­
tion from RHA by the extraction in basic medium (NaOH, 2 h and 80 ◦ C),
so the sodium silicate solution was used as silica source to prepare the
well-structured MCM-41 mesoporous material with high surface area,
large pore volume, and hexagonal array. While Braga et al. [128] pre­
pared the RHA-MCM-41 nanostructured mesoporous material by hy­
drothermal method using RHA as silica source in a heated at 100 ◦ C for
120 h. RHA-MCM-41 exhibited a mesoporous hexagonal structure
formed on amorphous walls-like MCM-41-based mesoporous materials
prepared with TEOS as silica source, high surface area (747 m2 g⁻1), and
long-range structural organization.
Ho et al. [129] synthetized the well-ordered SBA-16 material by
hydro-solvothermal method with high surface area, large and
well-defined pore size, and body-centered cubic structure of Im3m
space-group symmetry. In this work, the pure silica powder was pre­
pared from drying the collected silica gel from RHA. On the other hand,
Bhagiyalakshmi et al. [130] used the sodium silicate solution extracted
at 70 ◦ C for 24 h with NaOH from RHA for the preparation of MCM-41,
MCM-48, and SBA-15 mesoporous arrays. These materials were syn­
thetized using CTAB, EO20–PO70–EO20 (P123), and CTAB/polyoxy­
ethylene (23) lauryl ether (PLE) mixture as templates, respectively, for
the syntheses of MCM-41, MCM-48, and SBA-15. MCM-41 and SBA15
arrays exhibited well-structured hexagonal mesophases, while the
MCM-48 presented the well-known bicontinuous cubic phase with Ia3d
space-group symmetry according to X-ray diffractometry (XRD) results.
5
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
All mesoporous architectures show high surface area values, suitable
pore volume, and large pore diameters. On the other side, Jullaphan
et al. [131] prepared the mixed-phase uniformly infiltrated SBA-3-like in
SBA-15 using sodium silicate extracted from RHA. The so-called bimodal
mesoporous silica exhibited narrow pore size distribution, interesting
textural and structural features, and highly uniform mesoporous arrays.
2.2. Sugarcane ash
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) cultivation plays an important
role in economic strategies in many developing countries [132], mainly
for sugar production, since sugar is one of the main food commodities in
the world [132,133]. Nowadays, it is well-known that Brazil is the
largest producer of sugarcane and that its global production is around
36% [134]. Brazilian sugarcane production is estimated at 622.3 million
tons in the 2019/20 harvest [135]. However, in the context of cleaner
and sustainable energy development, as well as aimed at reducing the
reliance on petroleum fuels, Brazil has also been producing ethanol from
sugarcane (The Brazilian Alcohol Program – ProÁlcool) [136]. There­
fore, Brazilian sugar and ethanol productions were approximately 33.49
million tons and 30.46 billion liter in the 2015/16 harvest, respectively,
since sugarcane production was 665.6 million tons during this same
period [137].
On the other hand, sugarcane-processing generates some by-
products, mainly hydrolyzed bagasse, raw bagasse, sugarcane straw,
and cane tops [136]. Thus, sugarcane bagasse can be a serious envi­
ronmental problem for sugarcane producing countries, especially if an
appropriate destination is not given for this agricultural waste. On the
other side, sugarcane bagasse can be an attractive feedstock as a silica
precursor for the synthesis of multifunctional nanostructured meso­
porous materials due to its abundance, renewable, eco-friendly devel­
opment, low-cost, and mainly because the sugarcane bagasse contains
high silica content [138–140].
Norsuraya et al. [139] prepared the SBA-15 mesoporous material
using sodium silicate solution extracted from sugarcane bagasse ash
(SCBA) as silica source. The prepared SBA-15 mesoparticles showed
surface area and total pore volume values of 466 m2 g⁻1 and 0.14 cm3
g⁻1, respectively, three well-defined peaks (XRD patterns) with a
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
hexagonal mesopores in a P6mm space-group symmetry like SBA-15
synthesized with TEOS, as well as exhibits a significant amount of
disordered micropores. In this work, the sugarcane bagasse was calcined
at 1000 ◦ C for 4 h and the SCBA obtained was treated with HCl at room
temperature for 2 h, after the sodium silicate solution was extracted of
SCBA with NaOH at 80 ◦ C for 4 h of extraction. While Azizi et al. [141]
used the stem cane for extraction of silica powder, firstly, the stem cane
was burned in air at 700 ◦ C and the silica powder was extracted of stem
cane ash with NaOH solution at 100 ◦ C for 4 h. Then, the silica powder
with high SiO2 content (86.50%) was used as silica source in the hy­
drothermal synthesis of SBA-16 mesoporous silica. The prepared SBA-16
material exhibited interesting textural and structural features such as
high surface area and total pore volume, large pore diameter, excellent
micropore volume, and uniform pore size distribution with good N2
adsorption. In addition, SBA-16 presented a type IV isotherm and type
H2 hysteresis in a well-ordered architecture with 3D spherical meso­
particles in interconnected mesopores in the range of 30–60 nm. On the
other side, Arumugam and Ponnusami [140] used silica recovery from
sugarcane leaf ash (SCLA) in synthesis of SBA-15 mesoporous silica. The
synthesized SBA-15 nanostructured mesoporous material showed ag­
gregates of uniform rod-like structure in a hexagonal well-ordered pores
shape, amorphous silica wall thickness of 3–4 nm with pore diameter
around 6 nm, and surface area and average pore volume values of 1.23
cm3 g⁻1 and 632 m2 g⁻1, respectively. Finally, the best conditions for
extraction of silica from SCLA with NaOH solution were i) reaction time
of 5 h; ii) at a temperature of 110 ◦ C; and iii) NaOH to SCLA weight ratio
of 1:3.
2.3. Wheat husk ash
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is one of the most cultivated cereals in the
world, currently occupies a prominent place in the production of this
grain, like rice crop. Global wheat production was forecast at 728.4
million tons in the 2018/19 harvest [142]. Wheat husk (WH) is main
waste as by-production during wheat production and it is estimated that
each ton of wheat produces approximately 1.5 tons of WH as solid waste
[143,144], so an average of about 1092.6 million tons of WH was pro­
duced worldwide in the 2018/19 harvest. On the other hand, the WH
has been widely burned or used as animal feed and fertilizer [144–146],
so the wheat husk ash (WHA) produced by burning the WH can pose
serious environmental problems due to the release of large quantities of
hazardous pollutants. In order to avoid this serious environmental
problem, research has been conducted concerning the use of WHA as a
renewable, inexpensive, and eco-friendly source of amorphous silica to
synthesis of silicon-based nanostructured mesoporous materials of
technological interest with multifunctional features [111,112,121,122],
due to the high silica content presents in WHA.
Sohrabnezhad et al. [147] synthetized the well-ordered MCM-41
mesoporous material with a rope morphology by electrospinning tech­
nique using the amorphous silica powder from WHA. In this interesting
work, the amorphous silica was extracted from WHA (99.02 wt% SiO2)
with a sodium hydroxide solution in 4 h reflux reaction. Then, the
MCM-41 mesoporous material exhibited a long-range well-ordered
hexagonal structure, type IV isotherms with pore size of 2.5 nm and
specific surface of 450 m2 g⁻1, as well as, the transmission electron mi­
croscope (TEM) result revealed the presence of hexagonal voids on the
face of rope-shaped particles. Ma et al. [146] used the sodium silicate
solution obtained from wheat straw ash calcined at 500 ◦ C for 6 h as a
silica source for the preparation of MCM-41 mesoporous molecular sieve
by the hydrothermal method at different temperatures. The authors
found that the mesoporous materials prepared at 80, 100, and 120 ◦ C
presented the typical infrared spectroscopy spectra of amorphous silica
framework, as well as a highly ordered hexagonal pore arrangement. In
addition, the surface area, pore volume, and average pore diameter
values increased with the temperature of hydrothermal treatment, ac­
cording to the author, due to the accelerate of polymerization of
6
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
amorphous silicate framework from the silica source. In turn, Shaikh
et al. [148] synthetized the MCM-41 mesoporous matrix using the
extracted silica from wheat husk ash treated with HCl at 90 ◦ C and
calcined at 550 ◦ C for 6 h. The prepared nanostructured mesoporous
material exhibited the agglomerated mesoparticles with the uniform
size indicating a well-organized and -ordered assembly of meso­
architecture of MCM-41 mesoporous material.
2.4. Palm oil fuel ash (POFA)
Oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) is an ornamental plant native to Af­
rica and has an average life span of 25 years. Nowadays, the cultivation
of this plant has become one of the most competitive agricultural com­
modities in the world, which can be found in large quantities in America,
Asia, and Africa [149]. Palm oil is a well-known and most produced
vegetable oil in the world, which is widely used in food processing [149,
150]. According to a statistical report from the United States Depart­
ment of Agriculture (USDA) [151] the world palm oil production was
forecast at 74.08 million metric tons in the 2018/19 harvest, and ac­
cording to Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
[152] a production of 80.8 million metric tons is expected in the 2025
harvest. On the other hand, the extraction of palm oil results in the
generation of significant amount of biomass wastes during the har­
vesting, processing and/or re-plantation processes of palm oil trees, such
as oil palm fibers, empty fruit bunches, mesocarp fiber, oil palm kernel
shell, oil palm kernels, oil palm trunks, oil palm leaves, and palm oil mill
effluent [149,153,154], and this amount of waste generated tends to
increase further due to the expansion of palm oil production. According
to Khankhaje et al. [150], it is estimated that approximately 4 kg of dry
biomass as waste is generated to produce only 1 kg of palm oil.
On the other side, to save energy and fuel in palm oil industries, these
biomass wastes are usually burned at high temperatures and thus led to
palm oil fuel ash (POFA) generation as a by-product and it is disposed
within the landfills and/or open fields [150,155–157]. As a way to
mitigate the impact on ecological environments (water, air, and earth)
and human health of constant POFA generation due to its carcinogenic
and bio-accumulative effects, some research has been conducted with a
view to sustainable use of POFA as silica source to clean and eco-friendly
production of silicon-based nanostructured mesoporous materials due to
the high silica content present in the POFA. Chong et al. [158] and
Abdullan et al. [159] used the POFA obtained from calcination of
biomass waste of palm oil mill at 600 ◦ C (6 h) for the synthesis of SBA-15
mesoporous material. In this work, the POFA was treated with concen­
trated HCl at 100 ◦ C (3 h) to remove impurities and then the sodium
silicate solution was extracted from POFA with NaOH solution at 80 ◦ C
for 3 h. The SBA-15 material exhibited well-ordered hexagonal meso­
particles framework with P6mm space-group symmetry, large pore
diameter and good pore volume, and acceptable surface area. To date,
we have found few studies reporting the use of palm oil fuel ash for
nanostructured mesoporous material synthesis, mainly because the
POFA is used as an additive in concrete production in major palm oil
producing countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia.
2.5. Bamboo leaf ash (BLA)
Bamboo tree is the most important and found non-wood forest
product in many regions of the world due to its rapid growth and highest
variety plants, especially in the subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. Then, the global bamboo production is forecast at almost
20 million tons per year [160–164]. The bamboo plant is widely used for
construction, household appliance, bamboo pulp, paper and cloth pro­
duction, handcraft applications, and other [160,165]. On the other
hand, according to Ge et al. [166] only 40% of cut bamboo is used for a
noble purpose, which indicates that about 50–80% of bamboo material
is improperly disposed as an agro-industrial waste in the environment.
Therefore, the bamboo stalk is the raw material used in the bamboo
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
processing and the leaves are discarded in the environment as the main
waste, but these bamboo leaves are used as energy source and fuel,
promoting the formation of large amount of bamboo leaf ash (BLA)
[161,163,167,168].
The BLAs are not of interest to the industry and are treated as agro-
industrial waste. However, like the RHA, SCBA, WHA, and POFA, the
BLAs present high silica content and can be used as a renewable and eco-
friendly silica source for synthesis of nanostructured mesoporous ma­
terials. To date, to our knowledge, we have only found one work in the
literature that uses the BLA to synthesize MCM-41 mesoporous silica. In
the mentioned work, Arumugam and co-workers [169] obtained the
sodium silicate solution from BLA incinerated at 500 ◦ C for 20 min and
then the synthesis of MCM-41 was performed using autoclave at 373 K
for 24 h. The MCM-41 material exhibited an agglomeration of meso­
particles of sizes ranging from 300 to 500 nm, well-ordered hexagonal
shaped mesopores according to TEM result, high surface area, large pore
volume, and acceptable pore diameter.
2.6. Coal ash
It is not today that coal combustion in power plants is a matter of
concern for environmental agencies around the world, because that this
activity generates a large volume of waste, mainly fly ash and bottom
ash, and that improper disposal of such industrial wastes can pose
serious hazards to the environment and human health [170–173]. Ac­
cording to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, the global coal
production in 2018 was estimated at 3916.8 million tons, while the
global coal consumption was estimated at 3772.1 million tons in the
same year. Of the total coal produced in the world, around 2853.1
million tons were produced in Asia-Pacific, which also has the highest
consumption, around 2841.3 million tons in 2018 [174]. Thus, ac­
cording to the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)
[175], the global coal production will be close to 4000 million tonnes
until to 2040.
In view of global coal production, it can be said that huge amounts of
ash as waste is being generated worldwide from power plants. Inade­
quate waste management in the next years can contribute to coal ash can
become a serious environmental and human problem [176], in term of
soil, air, and water pollution. In addition, according to Li et al. [177], 1
ton of coal can produce approximately 250–300 kg of fly ash and 20–30
kg of slag as wastes from coal production. On the other side, coal ash
contains a high silica content in its composition and can be used as an
inexpensive and eco-friendly silica source for the synthesis of nano­
structured mesoporous materials, mainly the mesoporous materials of
the M41S and SBA-n families.
Panek et al. [178] used the coal fly ash (CFA) in the preparation of
MCM-41 mesoporous material via hydrothermal synthesis, so the
MCM-41 exhibited high SiO2 content (~97 wt%) with high purity, due
to the amorphous framework from CFA, with a well-ordered architec­
ture hexagonal, high surface area, large pore diameter, and high pore
volume. In this work, the silica source solution was prepared at 80 ◦ C for
36 h, which was then mixed with a solution containing the CTAB tem­
plate until hydrothermal treatment. Li et al. [179] prepared the
aluminum-containing ordered MCM-41 mesoporous silica using CFA as
a silica and aluminum sources. However, the MCM-41 was synthetized
at room temperature for 16 h of agitation of synthetic gel, which had its
pH adjusted with acetic acid to different values (pH = 8, 9, 10, and 13).
Then, according to the authors, the mesoporous materials prepared at
pH 8 (so-called MCM-41-CFA-8) and 9 (so-called MCM-41-CFA-9)
exhibited only one diffraction peak, which is related to the h, k, and l
Miller Indices, attributed to the (100) diffraction plane of hexagonal
mesophase formed with P6mm space-group symmetry, due to the low
ordering of mesostructures formed at these pH values. In contrast,
MCM-41-CFA-10 prepared at pH 10 presented a high ordering of mes­
oparticles due to the (100), (110), and (200) diffraction planes displayed
at the three peaks of small-angle XRD analysis. However, the so-called
7
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
MCM-41-CFA-13, synthetized at pH 13, did not present mesoporous
architecture. While Sikarwar et al. [180] prepared the MCM-41 material
derived from amorphous silica extracted of CFA, amorphous silica
powder was extracted from CFA with NaOH pellets in the furnace at 823
K for 2 h, and then the extracted amorphous silica was mixed deionized
water to form sodium silicate solution, which was used as a silica source
in the preparation of MCM-41 matrix. The synthetized MCM-41 showed
well-ordered hexagonal arrays of mesopores typical of the M41S family
with spherical shape, as well as, the mesoporous material prepared ex­
hibits the main characteristic bands of silanol groups from the amor­
phous framework of CFA used as a silica source.
On the other hand, Chandrasekar et al. [171] synthetized the
MCM-41, SBA-15, and SBA-16 mesoporous arrays from coal bottom ash
(CBA) as an amorphous silica source, which was extracted from CBA
with NaOH powder at 550 ◦ C for 1 h. All mesoporous silicas present the
main peaks of ordered mesopores of mesoporous arrays with a good
surface area, large pore diameter, and high volume values. While Li et al.
[177] prepared the SBA-15 mesoporous material via two-step hydro­
thermal method using the fly ash treated with HCl at 80 ◦ C for 2 h as an
amorphous silica source and then the sodium metasilicate solution was
obtained from reaction of treated fly ash with NaOH powder and
deionized water in a hydrothermal reaction at 95 ◦ C for 4 h. So, the
synthetized SBA-15 mesoporous array exhibited a well-ordered hexag­
onal array with regular two-dimensional hexagonal architecture and
high Si content (99.34%) due to the amorphous framework from silica
source, as well as, type IV isotherm and type H1 hysteresis, good surface
area, high pore volume, and large pore diameter.
2.7. Reed ash
Common reed (Phragmites australis (Cav) Trin. ex Steud) is a native
perennial plant growing at wetlands around the world, which has as its
main destination the use as a household feedstock. However it can be
used for different purposes such as paper production, construction ma­
terial, fodder, phytoremediation, electricity, energy supply, bioethanol
[181–184]. On the other side, aquatic common reed plays an important
role in aquatic ecosystems, acting mainly as a natural purifier due to its
phytoremediating property, as well as combating river erosion [185].
Nowadays, the common reed has been reported as a serios environ­
mental problem, since due to its easy adaptation in the different eco­
systems, the reed plant hinders the growth of other ecologically valuable
plant species [183].
Despite the different uses of reed, it has been used in some parts of
the world as an economically viable biomass for energy production, as
reported by Köbbing et al. [184]. Then, the combustion of common reed
for energy production leads to the generation of common reed ash (CRA)
as the main by-product [182,186]. CRA has high SiO2 content and
presents itself as a unique opportunity to be used as an inexpensive and
abundant amorphous silica source for the eco-friendly synthesis of
nanostructured mesoporous silicas with a well-ordered framework. To
date, to our knowledge, we have only found one work in the literature
that uses the reed waste for synthesize mesoporous silica. In the
mentioned work, Azizi and co-workers [186] synthetized the MCM-41
nanoparticles using the stem of CRA as an amorphous silica source.
The sodium silicate solution was extracted from the treated CRA (SiO2 =
84.02 wt%) with NaOH solution at 100 ◦ C for 4 h and neutralized by HCl
to form silica powder. So, the synthetized mesoporous silica exhibited a
highly ordered hexagonal structure, according to the XRD pattern ob­
tained, with spherical nanoparticles of size ranging from 30 until to 50
nm, type IV isotherm, narrow pore size distribution, high surface area,
large pore volume, and good pore diameter.
2.8. Sedge ash (SA)
Sedge is a known type of plant, which is part of the genus Carex,
however, like some biomass already mentioned, the sedge is treated as
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
an agricultural waste and is commonly used as fuel from the burning of
its organic elements [187]. On the other hand, sedge ash (SA) obtained
from sedge burning is treated as a by-product, but as this SA has a high
silica content, it can be used for extraction of amorphous silica in the
synthesis of mesoporous materials of technological interest. In this
context, Ghorbani et al. [187] synthetized the MCM-41mesoporous sil­
ica from the use of treated SA as an amorphous silica source obtained of
calcination of sedge waste at 600 ◦ C for 6 h. So, the SA calcined at 600 ◦ C
for 6 h showed the SiO2 content of 93.82, 87.25, and 98.05% after the
acid treatment by reflux, leaching, and leaching with reflux, respec­
tively. The sodium silicate solution was extracted from SA with a NaOH
solution at 80 ◦ C for 24 h, and then the solution was used as an amor­
phous silica source for the synthesis of MCM-41 mesoporous silica via
hydrothermal method. The synthetized MCM-41 material presented a
narrow pore size distribution with surface area value of 1174 m2 g⁻1,
total pore volume of 0.98 cm3 g⁻1, and pore diameter value of 4.1 nm, as
well as, MCM-41 exhibited a one-dimensional hexagonal mesoporous
architecture, high thermal stability, and typical type IV isotherm and
Si–O–Si bands due to the amorphous framework from SA.
2.9. Miscanthus ash (MA)
According to Lanzerstorfer [188], energy production from biomass
residue combustion represents enormous potential for sustainable en­
ergy production. One of the main biomasses used for this purpose are the
Miscanthus species, a perennial C4 herbaceous grass, which have
enormous potential for producing high biomass yields [189,190] and is
distributed widely in Asia and Pacific Islands [191]. On the other hand,
the combustion of Miscanthus biomass to produce energy can become an
environmental problem due to the high amount of ash produced, espe­
cially when no proper disposal is given for this agricultural residue. On
the other side, Miscanthus ash (MA) has high silica content and can be
used as a low-cost and eco-friendly silicon source for the synthesis of
silicon-based mesoporous materials. In this sense, Dodson et al. [190]
prepared the MCM-41 mesoporous matrix from the use of Miscanthus
bottom ash as an amorphous silica source, and then potassium silicate
solution was extracted from Miscanthus bottom ash via simple hydro­
thermal process with potassium hydroxide solution under reflux for 24
h. The synthetized mesoporous array presented interesting textural
features with surface area, pore volume, and pore diameter of 1020 m2
g⁻1, 1.09 cm3 g⁻1, and 4.2 nm, respectively. In addition, so-called MBA
MCM-41 material exhibited a well-ordered framework, typical type IV
isotherm with narrow mesopores open, and hexagonal array with uni­
form mesopores distribution.
2.10. Natural clay
Natural silicates are quite attractive to be used as a silica source and/
or matrix for the synthesis of silica-based mesoporous materials, mainly
due to their abundance and high silica and aluminum contents, among
which we can highlight the natural clays such as rectorite, attapulgite,
bentonite, montmorillonite, diatomite, halloysite, kaolin, attapulgite,
and others [192–195]. In this sense, it is possible to observe that the
natural clays present interesting silica content values, for example:
Ali-Dahmane et al. [193] showed that Algerian bentonite has 60.5% of
silica, Yang et al. [196] found a silica content between 53.64 and
74.31% for natural attapulgite, a silica content of 66.50% for bentonite
was obtained by Yang et al. [197], and 46.90% for natural kaolin was
obtained by Du and Yang [198].
Among the mesoporous materials that have been synthesized from
natural clay as a silica source, we can highlight the MCM-41-based
mesoporous structures. Yang et al. [197] used natural bentonite as a
silica source in the preparation of Al-MCM-41. Initially the natural
bentonite was mixed with sodium hydroxide at 600 ◦ C for 2 h, after the
mixture was dispersed in deionized water at room temperature, then the
solution was used as a silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al) sources in the
8
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
hydrothermal synthesis of Al-MCM-41, which presented a high surface
area, large pore volume, and good pore diameter, as well as, the syn­
thetized mesoporous array exhibited a well-ordered architecture with
good formation of amorphous framework from natural clay. Du and
Yang [198] also prepared the Al-MCM-41 from a natural clay as a silica
source, in this case the acid-leached kaolin was used directly in the
hydrothermal synthesis of mesoporous silica. The natural kaolin pre­
sents SiO2 and Al2O3 as main components, as shown by the chemical
composition analysis performed, in a disordered structure. However, the
prepared mesoporous array exhibited a regular mesoporous structure
with pore structure parameter (a0) of 4.57 nm, thickness of pore wall of
1.86 nm, and high hydrothermal stability. While Jin et al. [194] used the
natural diatomite as a silica source in an one-step hydrothermal syn­
thesis of Pt/MCM-41, firstly, the mixture prepared at 600 ◦ C for 2 h of
natural diatomite with NaOH was dissolved in deionized water a room
temperature (16 h) and used as a silica precursor. The prepared meso­
porous array presented a well-ordered mesostructure, as proven by XRD
analysis, high surface area, large pore volume, and adjustable pore
diameter, according to the N2 adsorption and desorption results.
In turn, Chen et al. [192] used the suspension of natural rectorite
mineral treated with NaOH (50 ◦ C for 12 h) as a silica source in the
preparation of Al-MCM-41 mesoporous silica. The prepared mesoporous
silica exhibited a hexagonal array with well-structured mesopores ar­
chitecture, narrow pore size distribution, high surface area, large pore
volume, suitable average pore diameter, and hydrothermal stability of
amorphous framework. Xie et al. [195] synthetized the Al-MCM-41
mesoporous structure from natural halloysite calcined at different
temperatures and treated with NaOH solution at 80 ◦ C for 100 min as a
silica source. The prepared mesoporous material presented the main
peak reflections correspond to well-ordered array with hexagonal ar­
chitecture of P6mm space-group symmetry, as well as, the Al-MCM-41
exhibits a type IV isotherm with surface area and pore volume values
of 509.4 m2 g⁻1 and 0.489 mL g⁻1, respectively. Ali-dahmane et al. [193]
prepared the MCM-41 nanomaterial using natural bentonite as a silica
source. In this work, the supernatant of clay used in the hydrothermal
synthesis of mesoporous material was obtained from mixture of NaOH
powder with water. So, the prepared mesoporous material exhibited
pore diameter, surface area, mesoporous volume, and wall thickness
values of 3.80 nm, 494 m2 g⁻1, 0.72 m2 g⁻1, and 0.60 nm, respectively. In
addition, the MCM-41 mesoporous material from bentonite presented
the pure and well-ordered hexagonal mesoporous array with uniform
pore size and type IV isotherm.
2.11. Ore tailing
To improve some properties of mesoporous materials, such as
adsorption, catalytic activity or selectivity, some syntheses of silica-
based mesoporous materials can be performed in the presence of a sil­
ica source rich in metallic species. Thus, solid waste from ore tailings can
be an interesting alternative to be used simultaneously as a low-cost and
eco-friendly silica and metal ion sources, since many of these industrial
mineral wastes have high levels of these two components and generate
an enormous amount of tailings during the mineral beneficiation pro­
cess. In most cases, these residues have mainly high levels of SiO2,
Fe2O3, Al2O3, so on, which can be used simultaneously as an inexpensive
silicon, iron, and aluminum sources in the synthesis of nanostructured
mesoporous arrays [199–201].
Deng et al. [199] used the sodium silicate solution extracted from
iron ore tailings as a silica source for the hydrothermal synthesis (100 ◦ C
for 48 h) of MCM-41 mesoporous silica. So, the prepared mesoporous
material exhibited a surface area, pore volume, and pore diameter
values of 882 m2 g⁻1, 1.019 cm3 g⁻1, and 3.06 nm, respectively, as well
as, type IV isotherm with a typical H1 hysteresis according to the N2
adsorption/desorption analysis. In addition, MCM-41 also presented a
well-ordered hexagonal structure in amorphous walls with spherical
mesoparticles. Yilmaz et al. [201] prepared the MCM-41 mesoporous
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570

molecular sieve using the gold mine tailings slurry via sol-gel method. Table 1
Thus, the synthetized mesoporous sieve showed a well-ordered two-di­ The main sources, content, and extraction methods of silica used in the synthesis
mensional hexagonal architecture and hydrothermal stability of amor­ of mesoporous materials.
phous framework. On the other hand, Fu et al. [200] used sodium Silica source Silica extraction method in Silica content Reference
silicate derived from copper ore tailings in the hydrothermal synthesis of the preparation of (%)
MCM-41 mesoporous silica, and then the prepared mesoporous silica mesoporous material

showed a regular hexagonal structure typical of M41S family with high Bamboo leaf ash Extraction with NaOH 83.3 [169]
specific surface area, large mesopore volume, and narrow pore size solution
Coal fly ash Extraction with NaOH 51.64 [206]
distribution in a well-architectured amorphous framework from the
solution
silica source. Coal fly ashes Fusion of fly ash with sodium 46.15–56.52 [207]
hydroxide and dissolution in
2.12. Electronical waste (e-waste) water
Coal bottom ash Bottom ash was mixed with 47.7 [173]
NaOH powder and fused at
The world population growth has caused a high demand for elec­ 550 ◦ C
trical and electronic equipment, as well as promoting rapid industrial Coal fly ash Fusion of fly ash with sodium 52.98 [178]
growth, especially in the most developed countries. On the other hand, hydroxide and dissolution in
electrical and electronic equipment have a short life cycle or are quickly water
Coal fly ash The alkali fusion method 58.5 [179]
replaced by newer equipment by the population, thus leading to the
Coal fly ash Fusion of flay ash with sodium 46.15–54.77 [208]
generation of a huge amount of electrical and electronic waste (e-waste). hydroxide
According to The Global E-waste Monitor [202], the global production Coal fly ash The alkali fusion method 60.16 [209]
of e-waste was estimated at 44.7 million metric tons in 2016 and is Coal bottom ash The alkali fusion method 37.35–44.14 [171]
expected to grow to 52.2 million metric tons in 2021. Improper disposal Stem of common Extraction with NaOH 84.02 [186]
reed ash solution
of e-waste, such as mobile phones, radios, air conditioners, laptops, Agulhinha rice Extraction with NaOH 80.88–99.37 [121]
notebooks, refrigerators, copying equipment, sensors, and TVs, can pose husk ash solution
serious risks to the environment and human health due to the e-waste Cateto rice husk Extraction with NaOH 83.65–97.12 [121]
can release toxic substances [202,203]. ash solution
Rice husk ash up to 80 [210]
Nowadays, according to Liou and Lai [204] the main methods of
–
Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 93.2 [130]
treatment of e-waste are reuse, recycling, remanufacturing, incinera­ solution
tion, and landfilling. Nevertheless, e-waste components have high silica Rice hull ash Calcination and reaction of 93.914 [211]
content and can be used as a silica source in the synthesis of mesoporous RHA with glycerol
materials. Liou and Jheng [203] used the sodium silicate solution from Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 93 [212]
solution
electronic packaging resin waste as a silica source for the synthesis of Acid leaching rice The alkali fusion method 95.44 [213]
mesoporous silica, firstly the sodium silicate solution was extracted from husk ash 88.52
packaging resin ash (PRA) calcined at 800 ◦ C and treated with HCl, and Rice husk ash
then the PRA was mixed with NaOH solution at 100 ◦ C for 6 h to obtain Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 99.7 [214]
solution
the sodium silicate solution, which was used as a silica source in the
Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 93.2 [215]
hydrothermal synthesis of mesoporous silica. Thus, the MCM-48 meso­ solution
porous array exhibited surface area, total pore volume, and mesopore Rice husk Gasification process 99.76 [216]
volume values of 1153 m2 g⁻1, 0.851 cm3 g⁻1, and 0.851 cm3 g⁻1, Rice husk ash 95.62
respectively. Liou and Lai [204] also prepared the MCM-48 using the Rice husk ash – 95.95 [128]
Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 93 [217]
sodium silicate solution extracted from ash obtained of electronic solution
packaging resin wastes. In this work, the sodium silicate solution was Rice husk ash Extraction with NaOH 93 [218]
obtained from the pretreated RHA using NaOH solution at 100 ◦ C for 6 solution
h, and then this solution was used as a silica source in the synthesis of Sugarcane Extraction with NaOH 53.10–88.13 [139]
bagasse ash solution
so-called PRA-MCM-48. The synthetized PRA-MCM-48 showed inter­
esting textural and structural features in a cubic framework. While Kim Silica source Silica extraction method in Silica Reference
et al. [205] used silicate waste solution as silica source in the syntheses the preparation of content (%)
mesoporous material
of recycled MCM-41, MCM-48, SBA-15, and SBA-16 mesoporous silicas,
which presented values of 710, 1260, 750, and 620 m2 g⁻1 of surface Sugarcane leaf – 84.56 [140]
ash Ash after alkali fusion method 77.75
area; 1.06, 1.32, 1.09, and 0.93 cm3 g⁻1 of mesopore volume; and 3.0,
Ash after modified alkali 69.5
2.6, 6.2, and 4.9 nm of pore diameter, respectively. In addition, all fusion method
mesoporous materials exhibited high values of N2 adsorption and Sugarcane leaf Alkali fusion method 80.14 [219]
well-architectured amorphous frameworks due to the amorphous silica ash
source used from silicate waste solution. Table 1 catalogues the main Stem cane ash Extraction with NaOH 86.50 [141]
solution
sources, content, and extraction methods of silica from wastes used in Copper ore tailing The alkaline molten-salt 68.23 [200]
the synthesis of silica-based mesoporous materials. method
Wheat stem ash Extraction with NaOH 99.02 [147]
3. 3.Application of nanostructured mesoporous materials from solution
Sedge ash Extraction with NaOH 87.25–98.05 [187]
eco-friendly silica source
solution
Sedge ash Extraction with NaOH 98 [220]
As already mentioned here, the nanostructured mesoporous mate­ solution
rials are applied in the most different technological areas, mainly due to Miscanthus fly Extraction with KOH solution 6.6 [190]
their textural and structural properties, so we will now summarize the ash 63.0
Miscanthus
main applications of eco-friendly mesoporous arrays prepared from a bottom ash
low-cost silica source used in the literature. One of the most common
(continued on next page)
uses of mesoporous materials is in the adsorption technology, mainly in

9
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
Table 1 (continued )
Silica source Silica extraction method in Silica content Reference
the preparation of (%)
mesoporous material
Algerian Alkali fusion method 60.5 [193]
bentonite
Natural The acid-leached method 53.64–74.31 [196]
Attapulgite
Bentonite Alkali fusion method 66.50 [197]
Natural kaolin The acid-leached method 46.90 [198]
Palm oil fuel ash Extraction with NaOH 47.62 [158]
Leached palm solution 67.76
oil fuel ash
Palm oil fuel ash Alkali fusion method 47.71 [159]
Leached palm 85.46
oil fuel ash
the adsorption of organic, inorganic, and gas compounds. So it was
observed that Chandrasekar et al. [170] used the PEI-SBA-15 and
SBA-15 materials prepared from CFA for CO2 removal, the authors found
the adsorption capacities of 120 and 314 mg CO2 g⁻1 at atmospheric
condition (75 ◦ C) and high pressure of CO2, respectively. Panek et al.
[178] obtained 13.08 wt% of CO2 removal using MCM-41 (PFA-1
60%)-based mesoporous material synthetized from pulverized CFA.
While Chen et al. [173] obtained CO2 removal efficiency of 169 mg g⁻1
using SBA-15 mesoporous array functionalized with poly(ethylenimine)
(PEI) from bottom ash in a power plant. On the other side, Bhagiya­
lakshmi et al. [221] reported the CO2 adsorption values of 70, 50, and
40 mg g⁻1 using MCM-48/TREN, MCM-41/TREN, and SBA-15/TREN
mesoporous materials prepared from RHA as silica source, respectively.
Among the main organic compounds that are constantly studied in
removal essays, we can highlight the dyes, polycyclic aromatic hydro­
carbons (PAHs), phosphates, sulfates, and others. In this way, Thu et al.
[222] used silica mesoporous from RH for methylene blue dye removal
and then the authors obtained a removal efficiency of 91.9% in only 5
min of adsorption. Abukhadra and Shaban [126] found an adsorption
capacity of 55.25 mg g⁻1 in the safranin dye removal using MCM-48
synthesized from RHA. While Mobarak et al. [223] used the MCM-41
silica/rice husk composite in the malachite green removal, and was
found a maximum adsorption capacity (Qmax) of 285 mg g⁻1, the same
author obtained a maximum removal efficiency of 99% in the methyl
orange dye adsorption using as-synthesized MCM-48/RHA composite
[224], and Sohrabnezhad and Mooshangaie [124] achieved 99.04% of
Eriochrome Black-T removal using the RH/MCM-41 composite with
1.48% AgBr loading in nanocomposite. On the other side, an adsorption
capacity of 277.78 mg g⁻1 in the methylene blue removal was obtained
by Zhou et al. [206] using the spherical mesoporous Al-MCM-41 from
CFA as silica source.
In this sense, Li et al. [179] used the ordered mesoporous silica
(MCM-41) prepared from CFA in the phosphate removal, and then the
authors found Qmax values of 142.0, 94.2, and 90.4 mg g⁻1 at tempera­
tures of 298, 308, and 318 K, respectively. Seliem et al. [225] achieved
Qmax value of 21.01 mg g⁻1 in the phosphate removal by MCM-41-based
mesoporous silica from RH as a silica source. On the other hand, Castillo
et al. [226] used the mesoporous silica synthetized from fly ash in the
sulfate removal in aqueous media, whose maximum adsorption capacity
value obtained was 146.1 mg g⁻1. While Seliem et al. [227] used the
composites of RH with MCM-48-based mesoporous array for the
perchlorate removal, whose the removal efficiency values obtained were
of 86.9, 12.5, and 18.8% by MCM-48, MCM-48 on carbonized RH, and
MCM-48 on untreated RH, respectively.
Our research group has been developing some eco-friendly silicon-
based mesoporous materials from the use of RHA as a silicon source to be
used in the PAHs removal. In this sense, the MCM-41 (RHA) [112],
MCM-41-NH2 (RHA) [125], and PABA-MCM-41 (RHA) [111] showed a
removal efficiency of i) 79.94, 94.34, 95.32, and 98.25%; ii) 81.20,
94.25, 94.87, and 98.14%; and iii) 89.08, 93.85, 94.54, and 97.80% in
10
Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 309 (2020) 110570
the naphthalene, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, and benzo[b]
fluoranthene removal, respectively. On the other hand, Grisdanurak
et al. [228] used mesoporous molecular sieves synthesized from RH for
the chlorinated volatile organic compounds removal, and then the
calculated adsorption energy values of 35.6, 35.9, and 58.4 kJ mol⁻1
were found in the trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and carbon
tetrachloride removal by RH-MCM-41 mesoporous structure, respec­
tively. Jin et al. [194] used the Pt/MCM-41-based mesoporous material
synthetized from natural diatomite for the hydrogen storage, thus the
mesoporous material presented a hydrogen adsorption capacity of 2.32
wt% at 2.5 MPa in a temperature of 25 ◦ C.
Some works are dedicated to the removal of inorganic compounds
because these compounds have a considerably high environmental
contamination and can cause serious environmental problems and
compromise human health. In this sense, Ghorbani et al. [220] obtained
maximum bed capacities of 14.53, 16.59, and 11.38 mg g⁻1 for the
cadmium ions removal, respectively, in the Cd(II) concentrations of 50,
100, and 150 mg L⁻1 using the NH2-MCM-41 mesoporous material pre­
pared from SA as silica source. Sun et al. [229] showed that the
Al-MCM-41-based composite material synthetized from natural clay
removes up to 84% of cesium ion. While Li et al. [177] used the
SBA-15-based mesoporous material from fly ash of the thermal power
plant for the lead ion removal, and then the NH2-SBA-15 material
showed the Qmax value of 121, 127, and 131 mg g⁻1 in the adsorption
temperatures of 20, 25, and 30 ◦ C, respectively. Zhang et al. [176] ob­
tained an adsorption capacity of 117 mg g⁻1 at pH 6 in the Nd3+ removal
using the mesoporous silica foams synthetized from fly ash.
Due to the interesting textural and structural features of silica-based
mesoporous arrays, they have been applied constantly as a catalyst and/
or catalytic support. In this sense, Endud and Wong [218] found catalyst
conversion between 50.2 and 68.2% in the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to
benzaldehyde using MCM-48-based molecular sieve from RHA. Artkla
et al. [230] there was a huge improvement in the photocatalytic
degradation of tetramethylammonium (TMA) with the use of MCM-41
as a support for deposition of TiO2 nanoparticles, here the material
synthesized from the RH. Dhokte et al. [209] obtained a catalytic per­
formance of 90% for the Mannich reaction using the MCM-41-based
mesoporous material prepared from coal flay ash. Appaturi et al.
[231] presented a styrene oxide conversion of 95.4% and a selectivity of
94% for 2-phenylamino-2-phenylethanol using the RHA-MCM-41 syn­
thetized from RHA. Arumugam and Ponnusami [219] used SBA-15
mesoporous array from sugarcane leaf ash as a support for lipase in
biodiesel production, and then the lipase from Candida Antarctica
immobilized on SBA-15 support showed a maximum percentage
immobilization (percentage yield of 97.6%). Ho et al. [129] found a
percentage conversion of benzyl chloride of 33.3, 89.2, and 100% for
benzene, toluene, and p-xylene, respectively, and 100% selectivity for
monoalkylbenzene (diphenylmethane) within 120 min of reaction time
using the SBA-16-based mesoporous material from RH.
In this way, many other works show the use of eco-friendly meso­
porous materials prepared from the alternative silica source that were
used in the catalase field, such as SBA-16 from stem cane ash [141],
Ca/SBA-15 from SCLA [140], acid-MCM-41 complex [232],
MCM-4-NHPhSO3H [233], copper-nickel/SBA-15 [234], RHA-MCM-41
[128], MCM-48/Ni2O3 [235], palladium-copper-zinc/MCM-41 [214],
and CuO@RHA/MCM-41 synthetized from RHA [236], WHA as silica
source for the preparation of MCM-41 [148], Mo/MCM-41 derived from
CFA [180], Fe–Mn/SBA-15 from CFA [172], Fe/MCM-41 from iron ore
tailing [199], MCM-41 nanoparticles from stem of CRA [186], MCM-41
from BLA [169], Ni/SBA-15 from POFA [158], and other. Finally, an
interesting application of eco-friendly mesoporous materials was
recently carried out by our research group, in this work, MCM-41-NH2
mesoporous material from RHA was used as filler material in mixed
matrix membrane used in the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hy­
drocarbons [119].
J.A.S. Costa and C.M. Paranhos
4. Conclusions
In this work, we have made an overview of the main nano-
architectured mesoporous materials synthesized by a low-cost and
eco-friendly processes from the use of alternative silica source, as well as
the recurrent application of silica-based mesoporous arrays in the sci­
ences of multifunctional materials. In view of interesting textural and
structural properties, such as different pore geometries and architec­
tures, the structured silica-based mesoporous materials have been
greatly studied in the literature. In this sense, we can highlight that the
main mesoporous materials studied by researchers are the mesoparticles
of the M41S, SBA-n, FDU-n, and KIT-n families. Based on our literature
search, the main alternative silica sources that are being used for the
synthesis of silica-based mesoporous materials are rice hush ash, wheat
husk ash, palm oil fuel ash, Miscanthus ash, e-waste, coal ash, reed ash,
sedge ash, Carex riparia, sugarcane ash, bamboo leaf ash, natural clay,
ore tailing, and others.
In addition, due to the interesting features of the eco-friendly silicon-
based mesoporous materials, the same have been applied in the most
different technological areas, such as adsorption technology (environ­
mental remediation), catalase area (catalyst and/or catalytic support),
membrane technology (filler material in mixed matrix membrane), so
on. Finally, this work demonstrates that the synthesis of silicon-based
mesoporous materials from the use of low-cost and eco-friendly silica
sources from the reuse of industrial wastes, in an attempt to minimize
the possible impacts on the environment and human health of inade­
quate disposal of these wastes, mainly because they are alternative,
abundant, renewable, low-cost, and eco-friendly silica sources.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São
Paulo (FAPESP, Grants 2014/05679-4, 2017/06775-5, and 2018/
18894-1), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Supe­
rior (CAPES, Grant 309342/2010-4), and Centro de Desenvolvimento de
Materiais Funcionais (CDMF, Grant 2013/07296-2) for the financial
support.
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