CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of the sun’s energy is nothing new and dates back to the beginning of time. In recent

years however, the focus on energy consumption worldwide rapidly encourages the research and development

of an alternative fuel source including the sun, wind, hydro, wave, geothermal, hydrogen and other forms of

energy. And today, because of that focus, the use of solar energy is expanding by leaps and bounds especially

since sunlight is free, unlimited, readily available, clean and reliable. A solar power system is one which is

capable of converting the absorbed sun energy; store it in a lead acid cell to be used on the load. In this part of

the world, where power supply is not effective and efficient, the use of solar power supply is of immense value

and advantage considering the fact that we are blessed or rich in sun light i.e. high degrees of temperatures

which is the main thing that feeds a solar power supply unit for uses. It is low cost compared to other alternative

sources of power supply in this society e.g. the use of generators which consume fuel or diesel and are really

expensive, and its life span is better and reliable when used under or within or above the stipulated rating of the

solar power device. (Ezugwu 2012)

Power inverters in the range of KVA, requires huge current transferring capabilities for

implementing the required operations as per the desired specifications of the unit. Transformer

being the main power making component of such an inverter, requires high current handling

secondary winding if the used battery voltage is at the lower side, for example 12 or 24volts. In

order to optimize the transformer at lower currents, the voltage needs to be pushed at higher

levels which again becomes a problem, because higher voltage means putting batteries in series.

The above problems can definitely demoralize any new electronic hobbyists or anybody who
might be planning to make a rather big inverter design, may be for controlling the whole house

electrical. An innovative approach for making things simpler even with huge power inverter

designs has been discussed which uses smaller discrete transformers with individual drivers for

implementing a 2000 VA inverter circuit. He studied the circuit diagram below and its operations

with the following points: Basically the idea is to divide the power into many different smaller

transformers whose outputs can be fed to individual sockets for operating the relevant electrical

appliances. This method helped him to avoid the need of hefty and complicated transformers,

and the proposed design becomes feasible even for an electronic novice to understand and

construct. Four IC4049s have been employed in this design. A single 4049 consists of 6 NOT

gates or inverters, so in all 24 of them have been used here. Two of gates are wired up for

generating the basic required square wave pulses and the rest of the gates are simply held as

buffers for driving the next relevant stages. Each transformer utilizes a couple of gates and the

respective high current Darlington transistors which function as the driver transistors. The

associated gates conduct alternately and drive the transistors in accordance. The MOSFETs

which are connected to the driver transistors respond to the above high current

signals and start pumping the battery voltage directly into the winding of the respective

transformers. Due to this an induced high voltage AC starts flowing through the complementary

output winding of all the involved transformers, generating the required AC 220 V or 120 V at

the respective outputs. These voltages become available in small sockets, so only the relevant

magnitude of power can be expected from each of the transformers. The 555 section takes care

of the square wave output generated from the oscillator stage such that these are broken into

section sand optimized for replicating a modified sine wave output. Though using many

transformers instead of a single transformer might look like a small drawback, the actual need of
deriving 2000 VA using ordinary parts and concepts finally becomes easily achievable from the

above design. (SwagatamMajumdar2012) 

Ezugwu (2012) designed and constructed a 200W solar system. The 200W solar system was determined by

load assessment, solar panel number determination, battery requirement and then inverter sizing. A complete

solar panel rated at 200w was however purchased, together with 2number 150A solar battery, 1500W inverter

and also 10A charge controller. These were assembled together with necessary protective gadgets like cut out

switches; to give the 200W expected. The solar panel was mounted outside a building to allow for maximum

collection of sun energy. It is expected that the system will help her department meet up with its office duties

even when central power is not available.

2.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF 1KVA SOLAR

ENERGY EMERGENCY POWER UNIT

(Engr C.O Ezeagwu et al, 2019) designed and constructed a solar conversion system which

consist of a solar panel an inverter and a battery. The solar panel traps the sunlight and converts

it into direct current which is used to charge the battery through the charging circuit. The inverter

converts the direct current power into alternating current power. The battery is being charged

from either solar panel or power mains. The components that make up the system and their

arrangement into sections or circuits are discussed. A test was done to ascertain its effectiveness.

A solar conversion system is recommended to be used in homes, offices and industries. It is very

expensive but it is hoped that the cost will reduce owing to the on-going research in the field.

(Cyprian Oton et, al 2020) Designed a stand-alone Solar PV Power System for a Secondary

School in Nigeria. This project presents the load analysis and design of stand-alone solar PV

system for Uyo High School, Uyo, Akwa Ibom state in Nigeria. The solar potential of this
location is 4.71 kWh/m2 /day. The load analysis of the school was carried out in BEopt by

varying the schedule to accommodate a building like a school. The system was designed for a

load of 7.5 kW and the proposed system will satisfactorily meet the power needs of the school.

The dynamic simulation was carried out in MATLAB/Simulink and the system performance was

evaluated. A storage battery system was incorporated into the system to provide backup and

ensure continued supply to load during bad weather and periods of poor solar insolation. The

research indicates that the designed system can meet the power need of the school satisfactorily.

(Andrew Bastian et al, 2019) designed a portable emergency lamp utilizing thin film solar cell

and inflatable case. Lighting is an essential thing in performing daily activities and without

sufficient lighting we will be difficult to see clearly. The problem is when there is no electricity,

for example when we go to a cave or a forest or when there is a natural disaster that shuts down

all the electricity. A portable lamp that can be charged by exposing the lamp to sun light can be

one of the solution to overcome this problem. Energy Harvesting is a concept where an energy is

captured, stored, and used with several technologies including solar technology. Energy

Harvesting technology is used in many applications such as calculator, electrical cars or day-to-

day lighting This paper will discuss about an application of solar panel in portable LED lamp,

that can be used in the night and can be charged during daytime with solar panel. The solar

panel, LED, and the battery is integrated in one circuit so there will be more space convenient for

user. Solar emergency lamp can be used to illuminate the pathway in mountain or caves and the

lamp can float in the water because it case is inflatable. Rechargeable Li-ion Battery 3.7 V 500

mAh and 10 LED SMD is used in this lamp. The proposed design is using a transparent PVC for

the case of the lamp. The lamp can be turned on approximately for 4 hours from fully charged

battery with 10 LED lamp. The illumination of solar portable emergency lamp was measured
using lux meter. The illumination average of the solar portable emergency lamp is 17.58 lux with

a deviation of 7.3 lux with medium bright mode. The illumination average of the solar portable

emergency lamp is 32.85 lux with a deviation of 12.4 lux for the full bright mode. The

Illumination is measured in 50 cm below the solar portable emergency lamp with 9 measured

point consisting of 3 rows and 3 columns.

(Olusegun O et al, 2014) designed and constructed a 1000Watts (1KW) 220 Volts Inverter at a

frequency of 50Hz. This device is constructed with locally sourced components and materials of

regulated standards. The basic principle of its operation is a simple conversion of 12V DC from a

battery using integrated circuits and semiconductors at a frequency of 50Hz, to a 220V AC

across the windings of a transformer. An additional power supply to the public power supply

with the same power output is thus provided at an affordable price.

(Mohd. A et al, 2015) illustrated on the Design and Parameter Estimation of a Solar

Photovoltaic UPS and Supplementation System. The project aims to demonstrate the application

of solar energy as source for battery bank charging to provide backup power to 40 desktop

computers (primary load) of a computer lab whose total energy consumption is estimated to be

8KW-hr for approximately 30 min using the existing 10KW Inverter Charger UPS and battery

bank with capacity of 8.064 KW-hr (16 batteries x 12V per battery x 42Ahr) supplemented by an

additional setup of 3KW inverter. This demonstration is provided by obtaining the theoretical

computation of output power, output current and output voltage developed due to solar

irradiance. The project also aims to directly feed power to the 40 Desktop computers i.e. primary

load when the battery bank is fully charged with the power generated from solar panels. The

proposed conceptual design also provides solution to switch over the power to secondary load if

the primary load is not in use.

2.3  Components used for the design of the construction of the Ezugwu et al solar

system

For this project to be completed there is a need to know the components used for the design. These include:

2.3.1  IC SG3524

2.3.1.1 Description

The SG3524 and SG2524 devices incorporate all the functions required in the construction of a regulating

power supply, inverter, or switching regulator on a single chip. They also can be used as the control element

for high-power-output applications. The SG3524 and SG2524 were designed for switching regulators of

polarity, transformer-coupled dc-to-dc converters, transformer less voltage doublers, and polarity-converter

applications employing fixed-frequency, pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques. The complementary

output allows either single-ended or push-pull application. Each device includes an on-chip regulator, error

amplifier, programmable oscillator, pulse-steering flip-flop, two uncommitted pass transistors, a high-gain

comparator, and current-limiting and shutdown circuitry. (Texas instrument 2014).

2.3.1.2 Features

1. Complete Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Power-Control Circuitry.

2. Uncommitted Outputs for Single-Ended or Push- Pull Applications.

3. 8mA Standby Current.

2.3.1.3 Overview

SG3524 is a fixed-frequency pulse-width-modulation (PWM) voltage-regulator control circuit. The regulator

operates at a fixed frequency that is programmed by one timing resistor, RT, and one timing capacitor, CT

(capacitor terminal). RT (resistor terminal) establishes a constant charging current for CT. This results in a

linear voltage ramp at CT, which is fed to the comparator, providing linear control of the output pulse duration
(width) by the error amplifier. The SG3524 contains an onboard 5-V regulator that serves as a reference, as

well as supplying theSG3524 internal regulator control circuitry. The internal reference voltage is divided

externally bya resistor ladder network to provide a reference within the common-mode range of the

erroramplifier as or an external reference can be used. The output is sensed by a second resistor divider

network and the error signal is amplified. This voltage is then compared to the linear voltage ramp at CT. The

resulting modulated pulse out of the high-gain comparator then is steered to the appropriate output pass

transistor (Q1 or Q2) by the pulse-steering flip-flop, which is synchronously toggled by the oscillator output.

The oscillator output pulse also serves as a blanking pulse to ensure both outputs are never on simultaneously

during the transition times. The duration of the blanking pulse is controlled by the value of CT.

2.3.2 IC 4066

2.3.2.1 General Description

The CD4066BC is a quad bilateral switch intended for the transmission or multiplexing of analog or digital

signals. It is pin-for- pin compatible with CD4016BC, but has a much lower “ON”resistance, and

“ON” resistance is relatively constant over the input-signal range

2.2.3 Variable Resistor

Variable Resistor is an electronic component. It is applied in an electronic circuit for adjusting circuit resistance

to control voltage or current of that circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical resistance is varied by sliding a

wiper contact along a resistance track. Sometimes the resistance is adjusted at preset value as required at the

time of circuit building by adjusting screw attached to it and sometimes resistance can be adjusted as when

required by controlling knob connected to it. The active resistance value of the variable resistor depends upon

the position of the slider contact on the resistance track. It mainly consists of a resistance track and a wiper

contact. The wiper contact moves along the resistance track when adjustable component is adjusted. There are
mainly three different types of resistance track used in this resistor they are carbon track, cermet (ceramic and

metal mixture) track and wire wound track. Carbon track and cermet track are used for high resistance

application whereas wire wound track is used for low resistance variable resistor. The resistance tracks

generally are of circular shape but straight track is also used in many cases. (Electrical4u 2014)

2.2.3.1 Variable Resistor Connection

It is used as a rheostat when one end of the resistance track and wiper terminal is connected to the circuit and

other terminal of resistance track remains open. In this case the electrical resistance between connected

terminal and wiper terminal depends upon the position of the wiper (slider) on the resistance track. A variable

resistor can also be used as a potentiometer when both ends of the resistance track are connected to the input

circuit and one of the said ends of resistance track and wiper terminal is connected to the output circuit. In this

case all three terminals are in use. Sometimes in electronics circuit there may be requirement of adjustable

resistance but this adjustment is required only once or very often. This is done by connecting preset resistors in

the circuit. Preset resistor is one kind of variable resistor whose electrical resistance value can be adjusted by

adjusting an adjustable screw attached to it. (John 2010)

2.2.3.2 Types of Variable Resistor

Resistance track wise there are mainly two types of resistance track available one is linear track and other is

logarithmic track. In linear track the resistance value varies linearly with changing slider position on the track.

That means the resistance and the position of slider, form a straight line characteristics curve. When the

resistance of variable resistor, varies logarithmically with position of the slider contact on the resistance track,

the track is referred as logarithmic track. The resistance value and type of track are marked on the resistor itself.

For example when a variable resistor is marked as 5K9 LIN means it has maximum 5.9 kilo Ω

resistance and has a linear resistance track. Again when a resistor is marked as 2M LOG, it will have
maximum 2megaΩ resistance and it has logarithmic track. Preset resistors are linear track type.But the

variable resistors used for volume control in sound system are mainly LOG type as our ears have logarithmic

response to the loudness. In GOL resistor, the resistance changes slowly at beginning and rapidly at towards

end of the track. (John 2010).

2.2.3.3 Uses of variable Resistors

A variable resistor can be used mainly in two different ways. When one end of resistance track and wiper

terminal is connected with circuit then current through the resistor limits according to the position of the wiper

contact on the resistance track. As the wiper contact slides away from the connected end of the resistance track,

the resistive value of the resistor increases and current goes down through the circuit. That means the variable

resistor behaves like a rheostat. Another use is as potentiometer. In this case the two ends of resistance track are

connected with avoltage source. Hence voltage drop across the resistance track is equal to the value of

voltagesource. Now the output or load circuit is connected across one end of the resistance track and

wipedterminal. Hence voltage across the load terminals is the fraction of source voltage and it dependsupon

the position of the wiper terminals on the resistance track. This is another widely usedapplication of variable

resistors. This is needless to say; potentiometers are used to control voltageswhereas rheostats are used to

control electric currents. (John 2010).

Electricity is the most versatile and generally accepted useful Energy available in the modern

world today. Electrical energy therefore is of paramount importance for the industrialization of

any nation. The use of electricity has gradually increased over the years. It now contributes about

60% of the total energy used in the whole world. Electricity used for illuminations, heating,

industrial electric motors, machines, railway tractors etc. has been extended to literally every

sector of the economy particularly for commercial and domestic use. The adequate generation of
electric power, the stability and efficiency of a power system give great strength to industries,

thus, improving the economy of the nation. The standard of living of a nation is improved due to

the availability of new jobs for the youths. Hence electrical energy generation and efficient

delivery will continue to be of fundamental importance to the technological advancement of any

nation including Nigeria (Abdullahi Babatunde Saka et al). Due to erractic supply of electricity

to residential buildings made most occupants/owners to source for alternative sources to

compliment epileptic supply from national grid. Assessing the level of awareness, adoption and

barriers as related to solar PV system in cities in Nigeria, large percentage of the residential

buildings make use of diesel/petrol generating set as an alternative to the national grid, the level

of awareness if solar PV is significantly low (Saka Abdullahi et al). The First-generation solar

cells ( Mono-crystalline cell, Poly-crystalline cell and Ribbon silicon) dominate the market with

their low costs and the best commercially available efficiency. They have a relatively mature PV

technology, with a wide range of well established manufacturers. The Second-

generation(Amorphous Silicon, Cadmium-Telluride, Copper-Indium Selenide); Thin film PV

technologies are attractive because of their low material and manufacturing costs. They are less

mature than first generation PV and still have a modest market share. The Third-generation

technologies are yet to be commercialized at any scale (Wikipedia). The solar system consists of

40 spaced solar cells made Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cells (CIGS) and of

cylindrical shapes. Due to its open design, the solar system allows the solar cells cooling by

natural ventilation. The measurement is taken for a horizontal (0°) and inclined panel (30°), and

for a gray and white soil. When experimented results showed the advantage of the inclined

system collects higher intensity of the solar radiation, resulting the higher electrical production of

pv panel. A higher electrical production will be obtained for the white soil which, unlike the gray
one, allows the panel to operate with an additional part of the solar radiation which is that

reflected by this soil. A 3D CFD model interpreting this solar system’ s operating was then

developed and simulation results showed a good agreement with the experimental data (Wael

Charfi et al 2018). This report documents the design of an inverter. The various applications of

the inverter are Wind/solar electrical systems, Back-up for power cells, Generator support

systems, Remote homes, Telecommunications, Computers, Tools, Security applications, Mobile

power, Boats and yachts, Airplane, Monitoring equipment, Emergency power and lighting etc.