Chapter-II

Precipitation Measurement and Analysis

A hydrologic system is an area surrounding by a boundary called watershed. The rain or

precipitation (Precipitation is defined as water in solid or liquid from the falls from to the
Earth’s surface) falls on watershed it interact with watershed some of precipitation is lost and
remaining is converted into flow called runoff. The amount and intensity of precipitation is
depends on perceptible water in atmosphere or air column.

Perceptible water is defined as the amount of water produced when all the water vapour in a
column of air is condensed. The air column is assumed to extend from the earth’s surface to
the troposphere and the condensed water is described in units of depth. Condensing all the
water vapour within the troposphere would produce a layer of water that would cover the
entire Earth’s surface to an average depth of only about 25 mm (1 in). Average precipitable
water depths decrease with latitude from more than 40 mm (1.6 in.) in the humid tropics to
less than 5 mm (0.2 in.) near the poles. Besides the familiar rain and snow, precipitation also
occurs as drizzle, freezing rain, ice pellets, and hail.

2.1 Forms of Precipitation

There are different forms of Precipitation depending on existing meteorological conditions.

As hydrologist we are only concerned with the precipitation that falls to the ground, the forms
of rain, snow, hail etc., other forms of precipitations that are not included in hydrological
process are damp haze, fog, ice, fog, drifting snow, blowing snow, and frost. Major forms of
precipitation that fall to the ground include the following:

Drizzle

Drizzle is a fine sprinkle of small and rather than fine water drops that have a diameter less
than 0.02 inch (0.05 mm). The drops are so small that they seem to float in the air and follow
the irregularities of the air motion. To qualify as a drizzle, the drops must not only be small,

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but they must also be numerous. It usually falls from stratiform clouds, and its intensity less
than 0.04 inch per hour.

As drizzle consists of small water drops that drifts very slowly toward the Earth’s surface.
The relatively small size of drizzle drops stems from their origin in stratus clouds. Stratus
clouds are so low that droplets originating within them they only a limited opportunities to
grow by coalescence. Drizzle is associated with fog and poor visibility, but never with
convective clouds.

Rain

Rain is precipitation of rain water in which drops are larger than in drizzle. On occasion, the
drops may be of drizzle size, but they are then few and far between. This distinguishes them
from drizzle. It is usually reported in three intensities, light for rates of fall from a trace to
0.01, moderate from 0.11 to 0.30, and heavy over 0.30 in/hr.

Rain falls mostly from clouds, and the bulk of rain originates as snowflakes (or hailstones),
which melt on the way down as they encounter air that is above 0 °C (32oF). Because rain
originates in thicker clouds having higher bases, raindrops travel farther than drizzle and
undergo more growth by coalescence. Most commonly, raindrop diameters are in the range of
1 to 6 mm; beyond this range, drops are unstable and tend to break up into smaller drops.
Meteorologists reported numerous raindrops of 4 to 5 mm diameter and some as large as 8
mm diameter. How fast rain is falling is classified according to the rate or precipitation.
Very light rain precipitation rate is < 0.25 mm/hour
Light rain precipitation rate is between 0.25mm/hour and 1.0mm/hour
Moderate rain precipitation rate is between 1.0 mm/hour and 4.0 mm/hour
Heavy rain precipitation rate is between 4.0 mm/hour and 16.0 mm/hour
Very heavy rain precipitation rate is between 16.0 mm/hour and 50 mm/hour
Extreme rain precipitation rate is > 50.0 mm/hour

Snow

Snow is a precipitation of solid water, mainly in the form of branched hexagonal crystals
resulting from condensation of water vapor directly to ice. Since ice crystals directly reach
the ground, but usually a number of them combine and fall as snowflakes. Even at

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temperature below freezing, the crystals carry a thin coating of liquid water, and when they
collide, they stick together, becoming large flakes.

Snow is an assembling of ice crystal in the form of flakes. Snowflakes size depends on the
availability of water vapours concentrations. It also depends on collision efficiency as the
flakes drift towards the ground. At relatively high temperature, snowflakes are wet and wet
and readily stick together after stick together after colliding, so that flakes diameters may
eventually exceed 5 cm (2 Inch). The appearance of such large flakes is usually a signal that
the snow is about to turn to rain.

Normally the snow occurs when temperature is at freezing point. But snow can be possible
when the air temperature near the earth’s surface is well above the freezing point. Snow can
fall even when the surface air temperature is as 10 ºC (50 ºF). The only requirement is that
the wet bulb temperature remains below 0ºC (32 ºF), which also means that the relative
humidity is very low. For example in the air temperature is 5 ºC (41 ºF), the relative humidity
must be lower than 32 percent for the wet bulb temperature to be subfreezing. Initially, some
snowflakes tap heat vaporize and other snowflakes melt as they fall through very dry air that
is above freezing. Vaporization and melting of snowflakes tap heat from the ambient air and
hence the temperature of the air surrounding the snowflakes drops. With sufficient
vaporization and melting the air eventually cools to the wet bulb temperature, that is, below
the freezing point. And, what started out as rain (or a mixture of rain and snow) turns to
snow.

Ice Pellets

Also known as sleet is actually frozen raindrops. They develop in much the same way as
freezing rain with this difference: the surface layer of cold air is so deep that raindrops freeze
before striking the ground. Sleet can be distinguished readily from freezing rain, because
sleet bounces when it strikes the ground and freeze rain does not. Accumulation of ice pellets
of freezing rain can cause very hazardous walking and driving countries.

Hail

The hail consists of rounded or jagged lumps of ice, often characterized by concentric
internal layering resembling the internal structure of an onion. Hail develops within intense
thunderstorms as strong convection currents transport ice balls upward, into the middle and

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upper reaches of a cumulonimbus cloud. Along the way, ice balls grow larger by collecting
super cooled water droplets and eventually become too heavy to be supported by convective
updrafts. Ice balls then descend through the cloud, exit the cloud base and enter air that is
typically above the freezing point. The ice balls begin to melt, but if large enough to start,
with some ice survive the journey to the ground as hailstorm. Most hail consists of harmless
granules of ice less than 1 cm in diameter, but violet thunderstorm may spawn destructive
hailstones size of the golf ball or larger.

2.2 Mechanism Producing Precipitation

Three mechanisms are needed for formation of precipitation.

Lifting and Cooling - Lifting of air mass to higher altitudes causes cooling of air
Condensation - conversion of water vapor into liquid droplets.
Droplet Formation - Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in a cloud is
to reach ground against the lifting mechanism of air.

2.3 Types of Precipitation

Depending upon the way in which the air is lifted and cooled so as to cause precipitation, we
have three types of precipitation, as given below:

2.3.1 Frontal Precipitation:

It results from the lifting of warm and moist air on one side of a frontal surface over colder,
denser air on the other side. A front may be warm front or cold front depending upon whether
there is active or passive accent of warm air mass over cold air mass.

Figure 1(a). Cold front and warm front

phenomena

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2.3.2 Cyclonic Precipitation:

If low pressure occurs in an area (called

cyclone), air will flow horizontally from the surrounding area (high pressure), causing the air
in the low-pressure area to lift. When the lifted warm-air cools down at higher attitude, non-
frontal cyclonic precipitation will occur.

In the case of a cold front, a colder, denser air mass lifts the warm, moist air ahead of it. As
the air rises, it cools and its moisture condenses to produce clouds and precipitation. Due to
the steep slope of a cold front, forceful rising motion is often produced, leading to the
development of showers and occasionally severe thunderstorms.

In the case of a warm front, the warm, less dense air rises up and over the colder air ahead of
the front. Again, the air cools as it rises and its moisture condenses to produce clouds and
precipitation. Warm fronts have a gentler slope and generally move more slowly than cold
fronts, so the rising motion along warm fronts is much more gradual. Precipitation that
develops in advance of a surface warm front is typically steady and more widespread than
precipitation associated with a cold front. Warm front precipitation is generally light to
moderate.

Figure 1(b). Non-frontal phenomena

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Figure 1(c). Cyclonic precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation is caused by lifting of an air mass due to the pressure difference.
Cyclonic precipitation may be either frontal or non-frontal cyclonic precipitation. Cyclone
Precipitation results from the lifting of air converging into a low pressure area, or cyclone
(figure 2). A cyclone is defined as an area of low pressure with a counter-clockwise
(Northern Hemisphere) circulation of the air around it usually inward, towards the center.
This type of precipitation can also be classified into non-frontal and frontal. Non-frontal
precipitation can occur in any kind of barometric depression or barometric low. The lifting of
the air is caused by horizontal convergence of air flowing from an area of high pressure into
the low pressure area. Frontal precipitation is the result of lighter warm moist air over more
dense cold air. Generally, most storms in the Great Plains state are cyclonic.

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2.3.3 Convectional Precipitation/ Thermal Convection:

Convective precipitation is caused by natural rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser
surroundings. Generally, this kind of precipitation occurs in tropics, where on a hot day, the
ground surface gets heated unequally, causing the warmer air to lift up as the colder air
comes to take its place. The vertical air currents develop tremendous velocities. Convective
precipitation occurs in the form of showers of high intensity and short duration.

(figure 3).

Figure 2. Convection precipitation

2.3.6 Orographic Precipitation:

Orographic precipitation is caused by air masses which strike some natural topographic barriers like
mountains, and cannot move forward and hence rise up, causing condensation and precipitation. All
the precipitation we have in Himalayan region is because of this nature. It is rich in moisture because
of their long travel over oceans

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Lifting an air mass occurs when air flows up and over a topographic feature such as mountain
barrier (figure 4). Orographic barriers often supply the lift to set off precipitation. For this
reason, precipitation is heavier on windward slopes, with rain shadows (areas of lighter
Precipitation) on leeward slopes. Orographic precipitation not associated with cyclonic or
convective action tends action tends to be of low intensity with relative long duration.

Figure 3. Orographic storm

2.4 Runoff

Runoff or rainfall excess is the portion of the rainfall that is not lost to interception,
evapotranspiration, or infiltration. It runs off over the ground surface and into streams,
ditches, and other storm water management structures. Thus, runoff is the hydrologic
component of primary interest in storm water conveyance modeling. The methods and
models available for computing runoff are numerous. They range from simple peak discharge
calculations for sizing pipes to more complex hydrograph methods that account for total
runoff volume and the change in discharge over time. The rational method is an example of
the former; the unit hydrograph method is an example of the latter. Methods for computing
runoff from snowmelt, which may be a consideration in some cases, are also available.
Spreadsheets can assist in runoff hydrograph calculation, and many computer programs for

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automating the calculations are also available. Computer programs such as HEC-HMS and
PondPack (Haestad, 2003a) offer several models from which the user can choose. Runoff is
that part of precipitation that appears as stream flow. Three types of runoff are:

 Surface runoff is water that reaches the stream by travelling over the soil surface.
 Interflow or quick return flow is water that moves through upper soil layer and returns
to the surface or appears in stream promptly, i.e. not ground water.
 Base flow is water that flows into the stream from natural storage. In most streams, base
flow comes largely from ground water. Direct runoff is a term of you will quite often.
This is a runoff that enters a stream promptly (contributes to a flood) and consists ,mainly
a surface runoff and interflow.

2.5 Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is the general term for all forms of moisture originating from clouds and falling
to the ground. It is that portion of the hydrological cycle in which atmosphere water vapor is
condensed, forming water droplets sufficiently large gravity causes them to fall to earth.

The Ancient Greeks were the first people to monitor rainfall at around 500 b.c. They were
followed by the Country of India, around 100 years later, using bowls to collect the
water.

2.5.1 Rain Gauge:

“A rain gauge (also known as a udometer or a pluviometer or an ombrometer or a cup) is a

type of instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount
of liquid precipitation (solid precipitation is measured by a snow gauge) over a set period of
time”.

Measuring the rainfall give the Greeks and Indians an idea to collect the
data, and then tax there citizens, according to how much growth of
pastures from the rainfall. According to history, the first known rain
gauge was made by a man called Cheugugi from Korea, but we also find
other sources that credit Jang Yeong Sil to be the first person to develop

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 a rain gauge, by refining an existing gauge. On the right picture you can see one of the many
sizes of rain gauge available during the latter part of the 19th century; the most convenient
were the five inch and eight inch diameter gauges. The collecting funnel sat at the top of a
cylinder set firmly in the ground, and a collecting jar and measuring cylinder completed the
kit.

2.5.2 Principles of Rain Gauges:

Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres. The level of rainfall is
sometimes reported as inches or centimetres. Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or
by AWS (Automatic Weather Station). The frequency of readings will depend on the
requirements of the collection agency.

2.5.3 Limitations of Rain Gauges

i. Attempting to collect rain data in high wind (hurricane conditions) can be nearly
impossible and unreliable due to wind extremes preventing rain from entering the gauge.
ii. Rain gauges only indicate rainfall in a localized area.
iii. For virtually all gauges, drops will stick to the sides of the collecting device, resulting in
slightly underestimated measurements.
iv. When the temperature is close to or below freezing, rain may fall on the funnel and freeze
or snow may collect in the gauge and not permit any subsequent rain to pass through.
v. Rain gauges should be placed in an open area where there are no obstructions, such as
building or trees, to block the rain. This is also to prevent the water collected on the roofs
of buildings or the leaves of trees from dripping into the rain gauge after a rain, resulting
in inaccurate readings.

2.6 Types of Rain Gauges

2.6.1. Standard Rain gauge

There are two types of rain gauges in use at

the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest.  The
more common type is the standard rain gauge
which is essentially a can that fills up with

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water until it is measured and emptied manually.  The other type is a more complicated
weighing rain gauge which weighs water as it falls and records that information continuously
on a chart.  Both types are described in detail below.  The tall platform, accessible by ladder,
is necessary to raise the gauges above the level of winter snow accumulation. The standard
rain gauge consists of a metal container open at the top. Inside the top is a funnel which
drains into a narrow cylinder. The ratio (the funnel cross-sectional area divided by the
cylinder cross-sectional area) is 10 to 1 so for every one inch of rain that falls from the
sky collected in the cylinder. This allows accurate measurements down to 0.01 inches of
rain (10 X 0.01 = 0.1 inches that actually collect in the cylinder).  Measurements are made
with a specially calibrated ruler, in English or metric units, that takes into account this ratio. 
The cylinder can hold 20" of water, so for rain events greater than 2", the cylinder overflows
into the container.  Once the full cylinder is emptied, this overflow water can be carefully
poured into the cylinder and the measurements added together.  To prevent evaporation, a
small amount (0.01 inches) of light gauge oil is added to the cylinder weekly.  The oil floats
on the water surface, trapping water molecules that might otherwise evaporate.  The 0.01
inches is then subtracted from the weekly precipitation measurement.

2.6.2 Ordinary rain gauge

The most common rain gauge is the ordinary rain gauge, which simply consists of a collector
place above a funnel that leads into measuring cylinder, where the rainwater is stored
between observations. The measuring cylinder is specially graded to give the rainfall
measurement in mm. alternatively, where rainfall can be particularly heavy, a large container
is used to collect the rainwater. Readings are made by pouring the rainwater out of the
container into measuring cylinder so that the rainfall could be measured.

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2.6.3. Non-Recording rain Gauge

The graduated cylinders or standard rain gauges are the non-recording rain gauges. These are
called non-recording rain gauges because they indicate but do not record the amount of
precipitation captured.

The standard rain gauge, developed around the start

of the 20th century, consists of a funnel attached to a
graduated cylinder (2 cm in diameter) that fits inside
a larger outside container (20 cm in diameter and 50
cm tall). If the water overflows the inside graduated
cylinder, the outside larger container will catch it.
When measurements are taken, the height of the
water in the small graduated cylinder is measured
and the excess overflow in the large container is
carefully poured into another graduated cylinder and
measured to give the total rainfall. In most cases the
cylinder is marked in mm and in the picture above
will measure up to 25 mm (0.98 in) of rainfall. Each
horizontal line on the cylinder is 0.2 mm (0.007 in).
The larger container collects any rainfall amounts
over 25 mm that flows from a small hole near the
top of the cylinder. A metal pipe is attached to the container and can be adjusted to ensure the
rain gauge is level. This pipe then fits over a metal rod that has been placed in the ground.

2.7. Recording type rain Gauge:

This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge. This type of rain gauge
has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph
paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall. From this
mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of rainfall at any instant
during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined. The gauge is
installed on a concrete or masonry platform 45 cm square in the observatory enclosure by the
side of the ordinary rain gauge at a distance of 2-3 m from it. The gauge is so installed that

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the rim of the funnel is horizontal and at a height of exactly 75 cm above ground surface. The
self-recording rain gauge is generally used in conjunction with an ordinary rain gauge
exposed close by, for use as standard, by means of which the readings of the recording rain
gauge can be checked and if necessary adjusted. 

2.7.1Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge:

A tipping bucket rain gauge is a meteorological device that measures the amount of
precipitation, or rain that has fallen. It is one
of the most common tools used to measure
rainfall. The tipping bucket rain gauge
stemmed from the technique used by Sir
Christopher Wren in his rain gauge invention
of 1662. All tipping bucket rain gauges today
has two small specially designed buckets to
collect the rainwater. The buckets are chosen
to hold specific amounts of rainwater before
they tip, typically 0.1, 0.2 or 0.5 mm of
rainwater. When one bucket tips, the other
bucket quickly moves into place to catch the
next amount of rainwater. Each time a bucket
tips, an electronic signal is sent to a recorder,
which also records the time the bucket
tipped. This way, the instrument could not
only record how much rain has fallen but also when rain started, ended or how much rain
over any period of time without having anyone at the site. Most tipping bucket rain gauges
today drains the water out of the bottom so it does not require manual emptying making it
ideal for automated systems.

A tipping bucket rain gauge has several components that allow it to accurately measure of
rainfall. As rain falls it lands in the funnel of the tipping bucket rain gauge. The rain travels
down the funnel and drips into one of two very carefully calibrated ‘buckets’ balanced on a
pivot (like a see-saw).

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The top bucket is held in place by a magnet until it has filled to the calibrated amount
(usually approximately 0.001 inches of rain). When the bucket has filled to this amount, the
magnet will release its hold, causing the bucket to tip. The water then empties down a
drainage hole and raises the other to sit underneath the funnel.

The tipping of the bucket actuates on electric circuit which causes a pen to move on a chart
wrapped round a drum which revolves by a clock mechanism. This type cannot record snow.

Modern tipping rain gauges consist of a plastic collector balanced over a pivot. When it tips,
it actuates a switch (such as a reed switch) which is then electronically recorded or
transmitted to a remote collection station.

The tipping bucket rain gauge is not as accurate as the standard rain gauge because the
rainfall may stop before the lever has tipped. When the next period of rain begins it may take
no more than one or two drops to tip the lever. This would then indicate that 0.2 mm (0.007
in) has fallen when in fact only a
minute amount has.

The advantage of the tipping bucket

rain gauge is that the character of the
rain (light, medium or heavy) may be
easily obtained. Rainfall character is
decided by the total amount of rain
that has fallen in a set period (usually
1 hour) and by counting the number
of 'clicks' in a 10 minute period the
observer can decide the character of
the rain.

The display counts the number of

times the switch is triggered. Because
it knows how much rain is needed to

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fill the bucket, the display can calculate the rainfall. Rainfall is measured in inches; 1" of rain
would fill a container with straight edges to a level of 1".

Precautions: 

The rain gauge must be positioned on a flat surface – if the surface isn’t flat, the see-saw may
tip before the bucket has filled to the calibrated level, or not tip at all. If the bucket doesn't tip
at the calibrated level, the rainfall calculated will not be correct. Use a spirit level to
determine whether a surface is flat, and then fix the gauge to the flat surface to ensure you are
getting an accurate reading.

The rain gauge must be positioned on a surface that does not vibrate – surfaces such as a
porch or fence can move and vibrate. The tipping bucket is very sensitive and any vibrations
could cause the gauge to tip even if it is not raining.

The instrument must not be positioned near trees – being positioned near trees could allow
leaves or pollen to fall inside the funnel and block it, causing an inaccurate reading.

It must not be positioned in a sheltered area – Being positioned in a sheltered location (such
us beside your house or a fence) could significantly increase or decrease the amount of rain
depending on the wind direction, and cause an inaccurate reading. The gauge should be
positioned at least twice as far away from the object as the object’s height (e.g. if the fence is
6 feet high, the gauge should be positioned at least 12 feet away).

2.7.2 Weighing Precipitation

Gauge:

A weighing-type precipitation gauge

consists of a storage bin, which is
weighed to record the mass. Certain
models measure the mass using a pen on
a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating
wire attached to a data logger. The
advantages of this type of gauge to
tipping buckets is that it does not

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underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation, including rain,
hail and snow. However, these gauges are more expensive and require more maintenance
than tipping bucket gauges.

Another way of determining how much rainwater has been collected is to weigh the water
inside the container. In these instruments, the container sits on top of a scale and this weighs
the container together with the rainwater inside continuously. The scales may be adjusted for
the container making the reading to be only the collected rainwater. The measurements are
usually recorded onto charts by pen and ink but later systems uses digital scales that could
record the measurements electronically. Typically, this type of rain gauge does not empty
itself and requires routine attention.

The weighing rain gauge has the advantage that all forms of precipitation are weighed and
recorded as soon as they fall into the gauge. No heater is needed to melt the snow, except to
prevent snow and ice build-up on the rim of the gauge, alleviating the problem of evaporation
of snow found with the heated tipping bucket gauge. Antifreeze is often used to melt the
snow in the bucket. However, the weighing gauge requires more frequent tending than the
tipping bucket gauge, and is more sensitive to strong winds causing spurious readings. The
weight of precipitation is recorded on a chart mounted on a clock-driven drum for later data
reduction. Weighing systems are also available which provide an electrical signal for digital
processing.

2.7.3 Float type Rain Gauge:

In this type, as the rain is collected in a float

chamber, the float moves up which makes a pen to
move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven
drum. When the float chamber fills up, the water
siphons out automatically through a siphon tube
kept in an interconnected siphon chamber. The
clockwork revolves the drum once in 24 hours. The
clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a week
when the chart wrapped round the drum is also
replaced.

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2.8 Disdrometer:

A disdrometer is an instrument used to measure the drop size distribution and velocity of
falling hydrometeors. Some disdrometers can distinguish between rain, graupel, and hail. The
uses for disdrometers are numerous. They can be used for traffic control, scientific
examination, airport observation systems, and hydrology. The latest disdrometers employ
microwave or laser technologies. 2D video
disdrometers can be used to analyse individual
snowflakes.

The instrument transforms the vertical momentum

of an impacting drop into an electric pulse whose
amplitude is a function of the drop diameter. A
conventional pulse height analysis yields the size
distribution of rain drops. The disdrometer for
measuring precipitation consists of two units: the
sensor, which is exposed to the rain and the processor for analogue processing and digitizing
of the sensor signal, linked by a cable to connect the two units.

2.9 Optical Rain Gauge:

These have a row of collection funnels. In an enclosed

space below each is a laser diode and a phototransistor
detector. When enough water is collected to make a
single drop, it drips from the bottom, falling into the
laser beam path. The sensor is set at right angles to the
laser so that enough light is scattered to be detected as a
sudden flash of light. The flashes from these photo
detectors are then read and transmitted or recorded.

A snow gauge is a type of instrument used by

meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure
the amount of solid precipitation (as opposed to liquid precipitation that is measured by a rain

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gauge) over a set period of time. The snow gauge consists of two parts, a copper catchment
container and the funnel shaped gauge itself. The actual gauge is mounted on a pipe outdoors
and is approximately 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high, while the container is 51.5 cm (201/4 in) long.

When snow has fallen the container is removed and replaced with a spare. The snow is then
melted, while still in the container, and poured into a glass measuring graduate. While the
depth of snow is normally measured in centimetres, the measurement of melted snow (water
equivalent) is in millimetres. An estimate of the snow depth can be obtained by multiplying
the water equivalent by ten.

Limitations:

 The snow gauge suffers from the same problem as that of the rain gauge when
conditions are windy. If the wind is strong enough, then the snow may be blown across
the wind gauge and the amount of snow fallen will be under-reported. However, due to
the shape and size of the funnel this is a minor problem.

 If the wind is very strong and a blizzard occurs then extra snow may be blown into the
gauge and the amount of snow fallen will be over-reported. In this case the observer
must judge how much of the water is from snow blown into the container and how much
is fallen snow.

 Another problem that occurs is when both snow and rain fall before the observer has
time to change the gauge. In all of these cases the observer must judge how much of the
water is snow and how much is rain.

Remote reading gauges, such as used by weather stations, work similarly to rain gauges.
They have a large catch area (such as a drum sawn in half, top to bottom) which collects
snow until a given weight is collected. When this critical weight is reached, it tips and
empties the snow catch. This dumping trips a switch, sending a signal. The collection then
repeats. If the catch container has a heater in it, it measures the snow weight accurately. It is
also possible to tip based on volume instead of weight, with appropriate fill sensing.

2.10 Snow Pillow:

Another snow sensor called a snow pillow looks like a round bag laying on the ground. Inside
the pillow is a liquid such as environmentally safe antifreeze. Usually the snow pillow will be

18
connected to a manometer. The manometer reading will vary based on how much snow is
sitting on the pillow. This type of sensor works well for many locations but is more difficult
to use in areas of hard blowing snow.

2.11 Hail Pads:

Hail originates when colliding drops of water freeze

together in the cold upper regions of a thunderstorm.
Hail can cause considerable damage to agricultural
regions, depending on the size and intensity of the hail
storm. At 12:15, May 30, 1985 45 cm of hail fell in
Leamington (Canada) causing damage to plants and
greenhouses. A hail pad consists of a 12" by 12" square
of Styrofoam covered in Heavy Duty Aluminum foil.
You can easily make your own hail pad.

2.12 Laser Precipitation Monitors (LPM):

There are few specific instruments that measure

hail. A rain gauge for measuring precipitation
with a wide mouth is still in general use.
However, the new Laser Precipitation Monitors
(LPM) measures the amount, intensity and type
of precipitation with great accuracy. The LPM
is capable of measuring precipitation down to
0.16 mm diameter and can provide a drop size
distribution with 400 classes. The system
calculates intensity, volume (as water
equivalent) and the spectrum of precipitation
(diameter and velocity), the reduction to
visibility in precipitation (MOR) and the radar reflectivity (Z). The LPM uses laser-optics to
detect and discriminate different kinds of precipitation including: drizzle (DZ) • freezing
drizzle (FZDZ • rain (RA) • freezing rain (FZRA) • hail (GR) • snow (SN) • snow grains (SG)
• ice needles (IC) • soft hail (GS) • ice grai

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2.13 Snow
Measurement

During the winter months,

November through March,
the funnels and cylinders
are removed from the rain
gauges and a carefully
measured volume of anti-
freeze put in the canister. 
Snow falls directly into the
canister and melts in the
anti-freeze.  Once a week,
when the gauges are
checked, the whole
apparatus is weighed and
put back in place without emptying.  Precipitation for the week is obtained by subtracting the
current week's weight from the last week's weight, and converting weight to inches.  When
the canister weight exceeds 20 lbs, it is emptied, recharged with anti-freeze, weighed, and put
back in place.

Snow depth and water equivalent of the snowpack are measured with a Mt. Rose snow tube. 
Until 1979, snow courses were located within the forest near most of the rain gauge
clearings.  Since then, in the interest of saving time, snow courses were reduced to one high
elevation and one low elevation course on either side of the Hubbard Brook valley, and one
course in the clearing at the Forest Service building.  Each week, ten samples are taken 2 m
apart along a transect in each snow course.  The following week a parallel transect is used, 2
m from the last transect.  For each sample, the tube is driven into the snow to obtain a core. 
Snow depth is measured and the entire snow core is weighed in the field using a specially
calibrated scale to determine water content of the snow pack.

For snow chemistry, the funnel and bottles of the bulk precipitation collector is replaced with
a 21 litre bucket to collect falling snow.  These samples are collected weekly, melted, and
analyzed and archived in the same manner as rainwater.

20
Tips on Choosing a Rain Gauge

Any type of simple, plastic rain gauge will do for this project. The rain gauge should be able
to hold at least 6 inches of rainfall. Below are illustrations of several common types of
home/garden rain gauges.
 Wedge Type – easier to read for smaller amounts of precipitation
 Simple Cylinder or Rectangular Catch – have basic construction and are inexpensive
 Funnel Catch

Reading the Tru-Chek Gauge

Read the water level at the vertical line down the center of the gauge, to the nearest two
decimal places (i.e. 0.35 inch). The smallest line divisions are hundredths of an inch for
precipitation measuring 0.00″ to 0.20″, then two hundredths of an inch from 0.20″ to 1.00″,
and finally five hundredths of an inch from 1.00″ to 6.00″. Within the 0.20″ to 1.00″ range,
read to the nearest 0.01″ by counting measurements that are halfway between the lines.

2.14 Installation Guidelines

The most critical issue in collecting
good rainfall data is the location of
your gauge. Site your gauge in an
open area away from obstructions
such as trees or overhangs, and in an
area protected from high winds.

21
Mount your gauge on a post at a height of 3 to 5 feet with the gauge extending several inches
beyond the post. Make sure that the top of the gauge is level. Make sure the post is not in an
area where rainwater can indirectly splash from sheds, equipment, carports, etc. If you have a
large area, consider installing several rain gauges. Mount gauge several inches above top of
post Bevel top of post to prevent splash-in 3 to 5 feet high Site the gauge away from trees,
overhangs, and structures
Ideal rain gauge installation

2.15 RADAR
Radar (Radio Detecting And Ranging)
operates on the principle that an
electromagnetic wave will be partially
reflected by objects or particles encountered
by the wave. Generally, a radar system
consists of a transmitter, which generates
electromagnetic pulses; a movable dish
shaped antenna, which serves both to transmit
the electromagnetic pulses and receive
reflected signals; a receiver that detects and
amplifies the reflected signals; and a device
to process and display these signals. The
radar antenna transmits electromagnetic pulses into the atmosphere slightly above horizontal.
These pulses travel at the speed of light. As the pulses encounter raindrops (or other objects),
the signal is partially reflected towards the antenna. The power and timing of the received
signal (or echo), relative to the transmitted signal, are related to the intensity and location of
rainfall.

Weather Radar
Weather radars generally employ electromagnetic pulses with a fixed wavelength of between
3 and 20 cm. A radar with a shorter wavelength is capable of detecting fine rain particles, but
the signals will be absorbed or attenuated when they encounter larger storms. A longer
wavelength radar will have little signal attenuation, but it cannot detect low-intensity rain.

Doppler radars

22
Doppler radars can detect a “phase shift” (a slightly different frequency of the pulse than
when transmitted) of a returned pulse. The velocity of the atmospheric particles which
reflected the pulse can be calculated from this phase shift. This information is very important
in detecting and predicting severe storm phenomena such as tornados but is not generally
useful in computing rainfall intensity.
The rainfall rate “R,” can usually be computed from the reflectivity “Z,” which is related to
the amount of power in the returned pulse, using the formula:
Z = 200 * R1.6
where
Z = reflectivity, measured in units of mm6/m3
R = rainfall rate, given in mm/hr
The constant (200) and the exponent (1.6) vary depending on the size and type of
precipitation encountered. If hail or snow are encountered by the pulse, the reflectivity will be
much higher than that for rain. f. There are several factors which can cause erroneous rainfall
rates to be computed from radar data. The more prevalent problems are:
(1) Anomalous propagation, where atmospheric conditions cause the radar beam to bend
toward the earth. The beam may be reflected by the ground or objects near the
ground, producing false echoes and indicating rainfall (usually heavy) where there are
none. Anomalous propagation can be screened by using cloud cover information from
satellites or from a knowledge of the atmospheric conditions in the area.
(2) Incorrect parameters in the reflectivity-rainfall rate formula (or “Z-R relation”).. The
parameters given have been determined for “typical” rainfall drop size distributions,
and may vary considerably, depending on the storm. Also, if the beam encounters
other types of precipitation, such as snow or hail, these parameters would greatly
overestimate the rainfall amount if not modified to match the precipitation type.
(3) Attenuation is the reduction in power of the radar pulse as it travels from the antenna
to the target and back and is caused by the absorption and the scattering of power
from the beam. Attenuation from precipitation usually appears as a “V” shaped
indentation on the far side of a heavy cell and causes the rainfall to be underestimated
in this region.
(4) Evaporation and air currents that cause the rainfall rate in the atmosphere, measured
by the radar are different than the rate at ground level. Evaporation is the most
prominent at the leading edge of a storm, when the air mass near the surface is
relatively dry.

23
 (5) Hills and buildings near the radar site can reflect the beam and cause ground clutter.
This clutter may also reduce the effectiveness of the radar for areas beyond these
objects. Typically, a weather radar is ineffective within a 15- to 20-mile radius.
The effect of these factors is that rainfall amounts computed for an area with radar data will
typically be inaccurate. However, rain gauge data can be combined with the radar data to
estimate rainfall amounts that are superior to either radar or rain gauge data alone. It should
be noted that a correct method must be applied when combining the two data sets or the
combined set may be more erroneous than either set alone.

2.16 Environmental satellites

Environmental satellites, such as the GOES system, can provide rough estimates of
precipitation over a region. Such satellites cannot measure precipitation directly, but can
measure spatial cloud cover and cloud temperature. The approximate height of the top of
clouds can be calculated from the temperatures measured by the satellite. The colder a cloud
is, the higher the top of the cloud is. In general, clouds with higher tops will yield more
precipitation than those with lower tops. If the cloud temperature satellite image is correlated
with a rain gauge on the ground, an approximate spatial distribution of the rainfall amounts in
that area can be estimated. However, rain gauge data alone provide a more accurate
measurement of rainfall over an area than that which is estimated with satellite and gauge
data. j. Satellites can be useful in estimating rainfall amounts in regions where little or no rain
gauge data are available, such as areas in Africa. In these regions, estimates of rainfall may
be calculated for hydrologic studies, such as sizing a dam, using satellite data (which may
have many years of data recorded) when there are no rain gauge data available

2.17.1 Measuring Precipitation with Weather Radar

A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate
its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity. Weather radars
are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to
intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of
storms and their potential to cause severe weathe

24
2.18 Measuring Precipitation Using Weather Satellites

A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and
climate of the Earth. These meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and
cloud systems. City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow
cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., are other types of
environmental information collected using weather satellites.

Visible-light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret
even by the average person; clouds, cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes,
forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog, dust and haze are
readily apparent. Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement
from successive photos.

Many satellite services have two types of satellite images: infrared and visible. Visible
images are just like those that a normal video camera (black and white) would see looking
down at the earth - the brightest clouds are usually the thicker ones low down in the
atmosphere and the duller clouds are the thin ones such as cirrus. Infrared (IR) images
convert the temperature of the cloud, or land or sea (whichever the satellite can see at each
point) to a shade of grey. The warmest points are at the ground and are black. The coolest
points are high in the atmosphere (cirrus cloud) and are white. In between are shades of grey
which become brighter as the cloud becomes colder (higher). The dull grey cloud which you
see on the IR images is low to middle cloud. Sometimes the differences in temperature of the
ground can also be seen as different shades of grey. This type of information does not show
actual rainfall, rather it is inferred from the type of cloud cover.

25
The

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (or TRMM) is a NASA satellite that provides more
information both to test and to improve climate models. TRMM is particularly devoted to
measuring precipitation in the tropics and subtropics of the earth. Among the three primary
instruments on TRMM, the most innovative is the Precipitation Radar. The Precipitation
Radar, built by the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, will be the first
space borne instrument designed to provide three-dimensional maps of storm structure. The
measurements should yield invaluable information on the intensity and distribution of the
rain, on the rain type, on the storm depth and on the height at which the snow melts into rain.

2.19 Basic Rainfall Characteristics

For the design engineer, the most important characteristics of rainfall are
• The depth, or volume, of rainfall during a specified time interval (or equivalently,
 its average intensity over that time interval)
• The duration of the rainfall
• The area over which the rainfall occurs
• The temporal and spatial distributions of rainfall within the storm
• The average recurrence interval of a rainfall amount

26
2.20 Depth and Intensity

The depth of rainfall is the amount of rainfall, in inches or millimeters, that falls within a
given duration or time period. The rainfall intensity represents the rate at which rainfall
occurs. The average intensity for a period is simply the rainfall depth divided by the time
over which the rainfall occurs.

2.21 Temporal Distributions

The temporal rainfall distribution means occurrence of rainfall with respect to time. It is a
good visualization tool for demonstrating how rainfall intensity can vary over time within a
single event. The y-axis is represented by a simple rain gauge that fills over a certain period
of time, which is shown on the x-axis. Total depth is simply the final depth in the gauge.
Average intensity during any segment of the storm is represented by the slope of the rainfall
curve. A steeper slope for a given curve segment corresponds to a greater average intensity
during that segment. The temporal distribution shown in Figure 4.7 can also be represented
using a bar graph that shows how much of the total rainfall occurs within each time interval
during the course of an event. A graph of this nature is called a rainfall hyetograph.
Hyetographs can be displayed in terms of incremental rainfall depth measured within each
time interval (Figure 4.8), or as the average intensity calculated for each interval by dividing
incremental depth by the time interval (Figure 4.9). The latter approach, shown in Figure 4.9,
is recommended.

2.22 Spatial Distributions

The spatial distribution of rainfall relates to the issue of whether the rainfall depths or
intensities at various locations in a drainage basin are equal for the same event. The spatial
aspect of rainfall is not covered in detail in this text because, in practice, spatial variations for
relatively small drainage basins can be neglected. However, areal rainfall reduction factors
are presented later in this chapter to demonstrate the adjustment of point rainfall values for
application with large drainage areas.

27
2.23 Recurrence Interval
The probability that a rainfall event of a certain magnitude will occur in any given year is
expressed in terms of recurrence interval (also called return period or event frequency). The
recurrence interval is the average length of time expected to elapse between rainfall events of
equal or greater magnitude. It is a function of geographic location, rainfall duration, and
rainfall depth. Although recurrence interval is expressed in years, it is actually based on a
storm event’s exceedance probability, which is the probability that a storm magnitude will be
equalled or exceeded in any given year. The relationship between recurrence interval and
exceedance probability
is given by

T=1/P

where T=return period (years)

P=exceedance probability
For example, a 25-year return period represents a storm event that is expected to occur once
every 25 years, on average. This does not mean that two storm events of that size will not
occur in the same year, nor does it mean that the next storm event of that size will not occur
for another 25 years. Rather, a 4-percent chance of occurrence exists in any given year.

2.24 Estimation of Missing Data and Adjustment of Records

For frequency analysis of rainfall data a sufficiently long period record is required. It may
happen that a particular rain gauge is not working for certain period of time, may be broken
for some reason or shifted to other place. To have a sufficient record it is some time
necessary to supplement the missing record by one of the following methods.

Station-year method
In this method, the records of two or more stations are combined into one long record
provided station records are independent and the areas in which the stations are located
are climatologically the same. The missing record at a station in a particular year may be
found by the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison. For example, in a certain year
the total rainfall of station A is 75 cm and for the neighbouring station B, there is no

28
 record. But if the a.a.r. at A and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the missing year’s
rainfall at B (say, PB) can be found by simple proportion as:

75 P B
= ∴ P B=85.7 cm
70 80

This result may again be checked with reference to another neighbouring station C.

By simple proportion (normal ratio method)

This method is illustrated by the following example.

Example 2.1 Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm

Occurred. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5,
6.7and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations is 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm, respectively,
estimate the storm rainfall at station D.

Solution: By equating the ratios of storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each station, the storm
rainfall at station D (PD) is estimated as

8.5 6.7 9.0 P D

= = =
75 84 70 90

∴ The average value of P D = [

1 8.5
3 75
× 90+
6.7
84
× 90+
9.0
70 ]
× 90 = 9 .65 cm

(iii) Double-mass analysis.

Mass and double mass curves are very basic analysis tools. A mass curve is a plot of
cumulative values against time; a double mass curve is a plot of cumulative values of one
variable against the cumulation of another quantity during the same time period (Searcy and
Hardison 1960). The theory behind double mass curves is that by plotting the cumulation of
two quantities the data will plot as a straight line, and the slope of this line will represent the
constant of proportionality between the two quantities. Break in slope indicates a change in
the constant of proportionality (Searcy and Hardison1960).

Mass and double mass curves can be applied to numerous types of hydraulic and hydrological
data. The purpose of these curves is to check the consistency of data over time and to identify
changes in trends by changes in the slope. Mass and double mass analysis are often used to

29
adjust precipitation records. Precipitation data can be very inconsistent due to no
representative factors, such as change in location or exposure of the rain gage (Chow 1964).
Even though the double mass analysis is typically performed on precipitation data, this type
of analysis can be performed on many types of data such as sediment transport (Hindall
1991), reservoir sedimentation (Yanget al. 2002), and aquifer drawdown (Ruteledge 1985).
Figure 2-5 presents an example ofa double mass curve of flow and sediment load for the Rio
Grande.

Breaks in slopes within curves on the plots can be caused my many factors. Change in flow
magnitudes, construction, urbanization, increase/decrease in vegetation, climate changes, and
anything else that can effect sediment influx and discharge into data collecting gage can
cause slope breaks in sediment DMCs. If the DMC doesn’t have any breaks in slope it means
that the correlation between the two plotted values has not been changed or affected
significantly over the years. However, slope breaks are common in DMCs and help provide
added information about the relationship between the two variables. The most significant
information that a break in slope provides is an estimate of the time at which a change
occurred (Searcy and Hardison 1960). Once the date is known in which the change occurred
one can study the historical record of the gauging station and or river to see if any
anthropogenic changes to the river or sampling methods have been documented. If no
changes have been documented, it can be concluded that the change in slope is due natural
causes. It is a general rule to ignore breaks in slopethat persists for less than 5 years, if the
break continues for more than five years it is considered a trend and should be investigated
further (Searcy and Hardison 1960).

30
 Figure 4. Cumulative discharge vs. Cumulative suspended sediment load at Rio
Grande at Bernalillo and Rio Grande at Albuquerque (1956-1999, Sixta et al. 2000a).

The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly change after some years due to a
change in the environment (or exposure) of a station either due to coming of a new building,
fence, planting of trees or cutting of forest nearby, which affect the catch of the gauge due to
change in the wind pattern or exposure. The consistency of records at the station in question
(say, X) is tested by a double mass curve by plotting the cumulative annual (or seasonal)
rainfall at station X against the concurrent cumulative values of mean annual (or seasonal)
rainfall for a group of surrounding stations, for the number of years of record (Fig. 2.9). From
the plot, the year in which a change in regime (or environment) has occurred is indicated by
the change in slope of the straight line plot. The rainfall records of the station x are adjusted
by multiplying the recorded values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before
and after change in environment.

Example 2.2 The annual rainfall at station X and the average annual rainfall at 18
surrounding stations are given below. Check the consistency of the record at station X and
determine the year in which a change in regime has occurred. State how you are going to
adjust the records for the change in regime. Determine the average annual rainfall ( a.a.r) for
the period 1952-1970 for the changed regime.

Annual rainfall (cm)

Year Stn.X 18-stn.average

1952 30.5 22.8
1953 38.9 35.0
1954 43.7 30.2
1955 32.2 27.4
1956 27.4 25.2

31
 1957 32.0 28.2
1958 49.3 36.1
1959 28.4 18.4
1960 24.6 25.1
1961 21.8 23.6
1962 28.2 33.3
1963 17.3 23.4
1964 22.3 36.0
1965 28.4 31.2
1966 24.1 23.1
1967 26.9 23.4
1968 20.6 23.1
1969 29.5 33.2
1970 28.4 26.4

Solution:

Annual rainfall (cm)

Year Stn.X 18-stn.average

1952 30.5 22.8
1953 69.4 57.8
1954 113.1 88.0
1955 145.3 115.4
1956 172.7 140.6
1957 204.7 168.8
1958 254.0 204.9
1959 282.4 233.3
1960 307.0 258.4
1961 328.8 282.0
1962 357.0 315.3
1963 374.3 338.7

32
 1964 396.6 374.7
1965 425.0 405.9
1966 449.1 429.0
1967 476.0 452.4
1968 496.6 475.5
1969 526.1 508.7
1970 554.5 535.1

The above cumulative rainfalls are plotted as shown in Figure 5. It can be seen from the
figure that there is a distinct change in slope in the year 1958, which indicates that a change
in regime (exposure) has occurred in the year 1958. To make the records prior to 1958
comparable with those after change in regime has occurred, the earlier records have to be
adjusted by multiplying by the ratio of slopes m2/m1 i.e., 0.9/1.25.

Figure 5. Double mass analysis example

Cumulative rainfall 1958-1970

33
 =554.5-204.7 =349.8 cm
Cumulative rainfall 1952-1957
Adjustment for the changed environment

0.9
¿ 204.7 × =147 . 6 cm
1.25

Cumulative rainfall 1952-1970(for the current environment) =497.4 cm

Average Annual Rainfall (a.a.r) adjusted for the current regime

497.4 cm
¿ =26 . 2 cm.
19 years

2.25 Mean Areal depth of Precipitation (Pave)

The average depth of precipitation over a specified area is required in many hydrologic
problems. The three most commonly used methods for computing mean precipitation over an
area are:

1. The station-average method,

2. Thiessen polygon method and
3. The isohyetal method.

These methods are illustrated in figure, 2.02. In each of the methods, the accuracy with which
rainfall depth over an area can be estimated depends on the number and spacing of
precipitation stations. In general, the larger the area, the greater the number of sampling
points included within the area, and the greater the resulting accuracy of average depth
determine stations.

2.25.1 Station-Average Method

The simplest method to obtain the mean areal depth is to compute the arithmetic mean by
dividing the sum of the depths at all stations by the number of stations, as illustrated in fig,
2.02. This often is as accurate as is justified for the purpose or by the basic data. If stations
are spaced with reasonable uniformity and the individual gage catches do not vary widely
from the mean, the arithmetic average will usually suffice. In, most cases, however, the gages

34
are not uniformly spaced; the topographic and other influences produce a large variation in
the areal distribution of precipitation. In such cases, more precise methods are required.

For arithmetic average

P= ❑
❑

2.25.2 Thiessen Method

In the thiessen method, it is assumed that the amount of precipitation at any station can be
applied half way to the next station in any direction. A weighted process is used to
determining the area of influence associated with each station and assuming the occurrence of
uniform precipitation over each of these areas is equal to the measured station.
Given the coordinates of m precipitation stations along with their respective recorded
precipitation values ( i P ; i =1,…,m ), how can we determine the area-averaged ( avg P )
precipitation from these limited stations?

35
This problem is illustrated below, where avg P across the entire basin has to be estimated

from measured 1 P , 2 P , 3 P , and 4 P .

36
2.25.3 Isohyetal Method

A more accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area and, at the same time,
showing the areal variation, is the isohyetal method.

A precipitation depth contour map is determined by plotting station precipitation and

constructing lines of equal precipitation called isohyets as illustrated. Average depths are
obtained by measuring the areas between adjacent isohyets. Each increment of area is
multiplied by the estimated average precipitation depth of that area. The separate terms are
then added and the sum is divided by the total area to obtain the average depth. The isohyetal
method permits the use and interpretation for all available data and is well adopted for
display and examination. In constructing an isohyetal map, the engineer can make full use of

37
his knowledge of orographic effects and storm morphology, and in this way the final map
should represent a more realistic precipitation estimate than could be obtained from the
gauged amounts alone. The accuracy of the isohyetal method is, to a large degree, dependent
upon the skill of the engineer performing the analysis. If linear interpolation between stations
is used, the results will be essentially the same as those obtained with the Thiesson method.
In mountainous areas, systematic sampling errors result because of the preponderance of
stations at low elevation. Their average usually represents less precipitation than occurs on
the basin as a whole. In such regions, as isohyetal map can still be employed to advantage if
the effect of topography is taken into consideration in locating isohyetal lines.

Where annual precipitation average varies appreciably over a basin and storm precipitation
usually reflects such variation (as in mountainous regions), an adjustment by use of long-term
averages can be made. The average storm precipitation for a basin is determined by
multiplying the weighted storm precipitation at each station by the ratio of the average annual
precipitation of the basin to the weighted average annual precipitation at that station. The
long-term average for the basin is determined by one of the methods previously discussed,
using all stations having appreciable record. Where average annual precipitation is not a good
infector of the areal variation of storm precipitation, average precipitation for the rainy
season, average storm precipitation, or storm precipitation amounts exceeded with the
specified frequency (such as ones in 10 years) can be used for this adjustment. The principal
advantage for this type of adjustment is that some information on normal area patterns is
obtained from stations that do not have records for a particular storm.

38
Figure.6

Computer program number 723-GI-L2260, “Basin Rainfall and snowmelt computation,”

described in Appendix 2, is designed to accept precipitation gage rainfall data for a specific
storm period and time interval for entire region, and to compute basin-mean values for any
number of basins in the region with output time intervals that are specified multiples or
fractions of the input time interval. These routines are also incorporated into computer
program, HEC-1, “Flood Hydrograph Package,” which is described in volume 1 of this
report.

39
2.26 Optimum Rain Gauge Network Design

The aim of the optimum rain-gauge network design is to obtain all quantitative data averages
and extremes that define the statistical distribution of the hydro meteorological elements,
with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. When the mean areal depth of rainfall is
calculated by the simple arithmetic average, the optimum number of rain-gauge stations to be
established in a given basin is given by the equation (IS, 1968)

( )
2
Cv
N=
p

Where N = optimum number of rain gauge stations to be established in the basin Cv=
Coefficient of variation of the rainfall of the existing rain gauge stations (say, n)p = desired
degree of percentage error in the estimate of the average depth of rainfall over the basin. The
number of additional rain-gauge stations (N–n) should be distributed in the different zones
(caused by isohyets) in proportion to their areas, i.e., depending upon the spatial distribution
of the existing rain-gauge stations and the variability of the rainfall over the basin.

Saturated Network Design

If the project is very important, the rainfall has to be estimated with great accuracy; then
network of rain-gauge stations should be so set up that any addition of rain-gauge stations
will not appreciably alter the average depth of rainfall estimated. Such a network is referred
to as a saturated network.

2.27 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Curves

Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over a large area; variations in intensity and total depth offal
occur from the centres to the peripheries of storms. From Fig. 2.13 it can be seen that the
average depth of rainfall decreases from the maximum as the area considered increases. The
average depths of rainfall are plotted against the areas up to the encompassing isohyets. It
may be necessary in some cases to study alternative isohyetal maps to establish maximum 1-
day, 2-day, 3 day (even up to 5-day) rainfall for various sizes of areas. If there are
adequateself-recording stations, the incremental isohyetal maps can be prepared for the
selected (or standard) durations of storms, i.e., 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 42, 48 hours etc. Step-by-
step procedure for drawing DAD curves:

40
(i) Determine the day of greatest average rainfall, consecutive two days of greatest average
rainfall, and like that, up to consecutive five days.
(ii) Plot a map of maximum 1-day rainfall and construct isohyets; similarly prepare isohyetal
maps for each of 2, 3, 4 and 5-day rainfall separately.
(iii) The isohyetal map, say, for maximum 1-day rainfall, is divided into zones to
represent the principal storm (rainfall) centres.
(iv) Starting with the storm centre in each zone, the area enclosed by each isohyet is
planimetered.
(v) The area between the two isohyets multiplied by the average of the two isohyetal values
gives the incremental volume of rainfall.
(vi) The incremental volume added with the previous accumulated volume gives the total
volume of rainfall.
(vii) The total volume of rainfall divided by the total area upto the encompassing isohyets
give the average depth of rainfall over that area.
(viii) The computations are made for each zone and the zonal values are then combined for
areas enclosed by the common (or extending) isohyets.
(ix)The highest average depths for various areas are plotted and a smooth curve is drawn.
This is DAD curve for maximum 1-day rainfall.
(x) Similarly, DAD curves for other standard durations (of maximum 2, 3, 4 day etc. or
(xi)6, 12, 18, 24 hours etc.) Of rainfall are prepared.

2.28 Graphical Representation of Rainfall

The variation of rainfall with respect to time may be shown graphically by (i) hyetograph,

(ii) Mass curve.(iii) Intensity-duration frequency curves

2.28.1 Hyetograph

A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall with respect to time (Fig. 7) and
is useful in determining the maximum intensities of rainfall during a particular storm as is
required in land drainage and design of culverts.

41
 Figure 7. Hyetograph

2.28.2 Mass curve

A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation) is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against
time (Fig. 8). From the mass curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any
instant of time can be found. The amount of rainfall for any increment of time is the
difference between the ordinates at the beginning and end of the time increments, and the
intensity of rainfall at any time is the slope of the mass curve (i.e., i= ∆P/∆t) at that time. A
mass curve of rainfall is always a rising curve and may have some horizontal sections which
indicate periods of no rainfall. The mass curve for the design storm is generally obtained by
maximising the mass curves of the severe storms in the basin.

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 Figure 8. Mass curve of rainfall

2.29 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

For a selected storm duration, a rainfall intensity exists that corresponds to a given
exceedance probability or recurrence interval. A rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curve
(also referred to as an IDF curve) illustrates the average rainfall intensities corresponding to a
particular storm recurrence interval for various durations. Figure 9 shows sample IDF curves
for 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-year storms. These curves are the result of the statistical
analysis of rainfall data for a particular area. Given the information on this graph, one can
determine that the average one hour rainfall intensity expected to be equalled or exceeded, on
average, once every 25years is 3.0 in/hr (76 mm/hr).

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 Figure 9. Sample intensity duration curves

IDF curves can also be used to determine the recurrence interval associated with observed
storm rainfall intensity. That is, if one were to observe the intense gauged rainfall event
shown in Figure 10, a set of IDF curves for that locale (shown in Figure 9) could be used to
estimate the recurrence interval associated with that storm event. The storm in Figure 4.22
has an overall average intensity equal to 5 in./4 hr =1.25 in/hr (32 mm/hr), but there would be
periods during the 4-hour duration with both higher and lower intensities than the average.
From Figure 9, an average intensity of 1.25 in/hr (32 mm/hr) over duration of 4 hours is
approximately a 50-year event.

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 Figure 10. Observation of intense gauged rainfall event

Computer programs commonly access IDF data in the form of an equation. Several forms
have been developed to analytically describe the graphical IDF relationships. The most
common forms of these equations are (Haestad, 2003):

a
i=
( b+ D )n

m
a ( R p)
i=
( b+ D )n

i=a+b ( lnD ) + c ( lnD )2 +d ( lnD )3

Where i= intensity of rainfall (in/hr, mm/hr)

D= rainfall duration (min)
RP= return period (year)
A, b, c, d, m and n are coefficients used to describe the IDF relationship

Exercise

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