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Introduction

Water hammer is caused by change in fluid momentum. The most common cause of
this change in momentum is sudden closure of a valve on a pipeline. When this occurs,
a loud hammer noise can be produced and vibrations can be sent through the pipe
(Water Hammer). The pressure wave produced from this event can cause significant
damage to pipe systems. The large increase in pressure can cause pipes to crack and in
some cases burst. It also causes cavitation within pipe lines and if is severe enough can
cause the pipe line to implode (Water Hammer).

Water hammer can be induced intentionally for various applications. A hydraulic ram
can be created using a water hammer, and is commonly used in mining practices to
break through rocks. In addition, the water hammer effect creates an increase in
pressure within a pipe line and is then used to detect leaks within the pipe line the
increased pressure causes water to shoot out of the pipe at a leak site, which is then
easily identified. Despite water hammer being useful at time, it is generally an
undesired phenomenon that must be considered when designing pipe lines (Water
Hammer).

Water Hammer is an undesirable event, when it occurs its consequences can be very
costly and even sometimes deadly. In general, it may be encountered in the penstocks
of hydropower plants, water transmission lines, water networks etc. In practice, the
order of water hammer wave speed changes from 100 to 1400 m/s and the flow
velocity is of the order 1 to 10 m/s. Mohamed S. Ghidaoui, Ming Zhao, Duncan A.
McInnis and David H. Axworthy.

Water hammer in the penstock of hydropower plants produces due to rapid change of
velocity, valve closure or turbine load rejection. It is normally associated with long
penstock where the pressure wave does not return from the end of the penstock before
the valve is fully closed. A pressure wave up to 2100 feet head is possible in hydro
plants, if the valves are closed too rapidly. Negative pressure from gate or valve open
require even more cases, if the pressure in the penstock goes below the vapor pressure
of the water then it will vaporize similar to water boiling or cavitation. The extreme
vacuum will collapse penstock and other conveyance facilities.

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 The surge tank or surge shaft is a structure, which is an essential part of the
conveyance pressure conduit system. Surge tanks are usually associated with high
power development schemes where water is taken to the powerhouse through tunnel.
A surge tank is apparently a sizeable water receptacle interposed between the
powerhouse and the high-pressure penstock on one side and low pressure tunnels and
reservoir on the other side. The main function is to protect the low-pressure conduit
system from high internal pressure.

Whenever there is an abrupt load rejection by the power system, the mass of water in
the conveyance system intern get suddenly decelerated and the process give rise water
hammer phenomenon.

The object of surge tank is to intercept and dampen the high-pressure waves and not
allow them in low pressure system. Due to surge tank the entire pressure condition the
upstream side of surge tanks can be designed as low-pressure system while the
penstock between the surge tanks and the powerhouse will be designed as conduits,
which resist high water pressure. We can say that surge tank is a buffer that absorbs
shock pressure arising due to sudden load change in power turbine.

The surge tank also serves a secondary function, which may be called as storage
function like an accumulator. It can absorb the access discharge from the reservoir or
provide extra water in emergency through turbine whenever needed. This storage is
needed when the turbine is switching over from one steady state to another steady
state.

a) Function of the surge chamber

The surge chamber functions in three ways:

I. It reduces the distance between the turbine inlet and the nearest free water surface,
and there by greatly reduces the intensity of the free water waves. Moreover the
water hammer effects in the aqueducts above the surge chambers are reduced to
such degree that they can in many cases be neglected in practical design, and only

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 the short length of the conduit below the surge chamber must be designed to
withstand them.

II. With a reduction of load the surge chamber acts as releaf opening into which main
conduit flow is partly or wholly diverted. The water level in the chamber therefore
rises until it exceed the level in main reservoir thus retarding the main conduit
flow and absorbing the surplus kinetic energy.

III. Finally, when starting up or when increasing load, the chamber acts as a reservoir
which will provide sufficient water to enable the turbine to pick up their new load
safly and quickely, and to keep them running at the increased load until the water
level in the surge chamber has fallen below its original level. Sufficient head is
thereby created to accelerate the flow of water in the conduit until it is sufficient
to meet the new demand.

Water hammer is a phenomena due to pressure change in closed pipes caused

when flowing water in pipe lines is accelerated or decelerated by closing or
opening a valve or changing the velocity of water rapidly in some other
means.

There are basically two approaches for the water hammer problem. In first
compressibility of water are neglected, the resulting analysis is called rigid
water hammer theory. In other theory elastic effects are taken into account
and are called elastic water hammer theory.

2. Problem Statement

In the design of water conveyance system of hydropower project, special

consideration has to be given to transient flow condition, particularly if the
conveyance system is long such transient conditions are due to governor operation of
the turbine resulting in an altered value of discharge. In case of penstock pipes such
change in the steady state normal discharge triggers off a high-pressure wave, which

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 sweeps the penstock and may cause damage to the pipe. The designs of the pipe are
channel has to be safe against such transient phenomenon.

3. Objectives

Followings are the main objectives to be achieved by this study

 Study of transient flow in penstocks

 Study the design of surge tank used in hydropower plant

 Sensitivity analysis of surge tank

 Application of surge model for design of surge tank

 Optimal design of surge tank using surge model

 To review the various options available for the selection of surge system

4. Literature Survey

Sudden shutdown of hydro electric plant or change in water flow through hydraulic
turbine may cause problem ranging from rupture of penstock due to water hammer to
runner speed changes that cause the line current of the generator to vary from the
desire frequency. The water hammer theory was mainly developed by L.
Allievi(1925) and independently by N. Joukowsky(1925) around the beginning of the
twentieth century. Since that time analysis of the water hammer phenomena since
then it is undergoing a continuous refinement. Computerized solutions are available
now available for most of the problems.

Mohamed S.Ghidaoui et al (2005) has presented an overview of both historic

developments and present day research and practice in the field of hydraulic
transients. In particular, it discusses the mass and momentum equations for one-
dimensional flow, wave speed, numerical solutions for one-dimensional problems;
mass and momentum equations for two-dimensional flow, wave speed, numerical
solutions for two-dimensional problems, boundary conditions and transient analysis

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software. He discusses the assumptions and restrictions involved in various governing
equations so as to illuminate the applicability as well as limitations of these equations.

The following approaches shall be implemented for the analysis of water hammer and
for the investigation of the best-suited geometry and dimensions of the surge tank and
the relevant appurtenances

The following continuity and momentum equations will be used as explained in

Chaudhry (1987), Wylie and Streeter (1993) and Parmakian (1963)

Continuity Equation

dZ 1
= ( Q −Qtur ) (4.1)
dt A s tun

And momentum equation is

dV tun g
= ¿ (4.2)
dt L1

Where

As = Cross Sectional area of surge tank (m2)

Qtun = Flow rate in tunnel (m3/s)

Qtur = Turbine flow rate (m3/s)

Z = Fluctuations in surge tank with respect to static water level in reservoir

(m)

Vtun = Velocity of water in tunnel (m/s)

L1 = Length of the tunnel from reservoir to the surge tank (m)

Ce = Co-efficient of entrance loss (0.5)

Ct = Co-efficient of frictional losses in tunnel

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Cdc = Co-efficient of confluence of diversion of flows due to either filling or
emptying of surge tank

Corf = Co-efficient of losses in orifice due to either inflow or outflow

Vs = Velocity of water in surge tank (m/s)

L2 = Length of the penstock from the surge tank to the turbine (m)

KL1 = Friction co-efficient of tunnel from upper reservoir to surge tank

RL1 = Hydraulic radius of tunnel from upper reservoir to surge tank

and the velocity of the pressure wave in a pipe is given by following formula

√
Kf
ρ (4.3)
a=
K D
1+c f
eE

Where

a = Velocity of the pressure wave

ρ = Density of water

Kf = Bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid

e = thickness of the pipe

E = young modulus of elasticity,

An c = 1-vp/2 for a pipe anchored at its upstream end only

c = 1-vp2 for a pipe anchored throughout from axial movement

c = 1 for a pipe anchored with expansion joints throughout

vp = Poisson’s ratio

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Araki and Kuwabara (1975) have written differential equation for elastic theory of
water hammer and introduced a term for considering head loss simplification of the
equation using finite difference method for solving the equation by inserting
appropriate boundary conditions. This is normally done with special computer
programs. Typical of this computer program was WHAMO, a special program that
was prepared for the U.S. Corps of engineer.

Streeter and Wylie (1979) presented similar equation for solving water hammer
transients in simple pipeline with an open reservoir upstream and a valve at a
downstream point. They have used the method of characteristics to develop a basic
computer program printed in FORTRAN language.

Mosonyi and Seth (1975) Restricted orifice surge tank analysis was introduced by
have developed equations to solve the problem that arise when the restricted orifice
surge tank operates and water hammer causes significant pressure head rise in the
penstock upstream of the surge tank Mosonyi and Seth (1975) developed the theory
and tasted it in a laboratory in Germany for a particular cross sectional area of surge
tank (Warnick. C .C .1984).

Thoma and F. Vogt first established stability conditions of the surge system. They
stated that in order to prevent the development of unstable oscillations the cross-
section of the surge tank should exceed a certain critical magnitude. Later
investigations the impracticability of a general criterion and the necessity of
specifying separate conditions for small and for great amplitudes. According to the
Thoma formula suggested in case of small oscillations, the limit cross-sectional area
of the surge tank is

lf
F =n 2 gβH
0 (4.4)

Where,

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 n = factor of safety

β = The resistance factor of the tunnel

l = the length of the tunnel

f = the tunnel section

Ho = H -β vo2 = the net head (by neglecting the head loss in the penstock)

Damping of great surges should be investigated by one of the more accurate

mathematical methods. Exceptional care should be devoted to the network load. It
should be finally emphasized in complicated and delicate cases the surge tanl<,
respectively, the entire oscillation system should be preferably be investigated by
model tests. Methods suitable for experimentation have been developed by A. Stucky,
B. Gentilini, E. Scimemi.

An approximate mathematical approach for determining any point of the oscillation

curve was elaborated by W. E. Muller in the thirties, viz. by using jacobi's elliptical
functions and taking into account the first four members of the exponential sequence.
In the same time, based on this study, M.Hampl dealt with the calculation of the
accurate value of the oscillation period. In 1968 J. Gieseck presented another genuine
procedure for computing any point of the surge oscillation in a cylindrical tank.

5. Methodology

a) Brief Description:

This study consists of numerical simulation of surge tank used in high head
hydropower project. Hydraulic design of surge tank concerns itself with two main
aspects, its height and cross-sectional area. The height of the surge tank should be

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such that both the upsurge and down surge should be contained within the surge
tank height.

Data Collection:

The data required for hydraulic analysis of High Head Hydropower Project by
using the surge model is obtained from HEPO,W APDA office. The maximum up
surge .

I and down surge evaluated during extreme operating, conditions of the turbine i,e
Instantaneous complete closure and instantaneous complete opening of the
turbine's governors are calculated. The required data will be collected from
relevant department/project.

b) Experimentation: NO

c) Experimental Setup: NO

d) Theoretical Studies:

A comprehensive attempt will be made to study maximum related material and

guide lines for water hammer analysis and hydraulic design of Surge Tank.
Different conditions will be studied and finally most and hydraulically suitable
Surge Tank will be finalized.

e) Result Expected:

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  Criteria for optimum efficient and cost effective design will be
incorporated in detail design of structures.

 Efficient Surge System offering maximum capacity of absorbing the surge

waves will be proposed inline with the requirements of the project.

6. Utilization of Study / Research Work

The high head hydropower development is very essential for northern areas of
Pakistan. There is great potential for high head hydropower for the local areas. This
research will be very beneficial for the planers and engineers for development of high
head hydropower projects.

Numerical model will help in optimal design of surge tank before physical model
study and actual fabrication at site. The numerical model is economical and less time
consuming as compared to physical model. This study will provide in depth
knowledge to the personnel involved in hydropower development and planning.

7. Research Time Table:

Literature Review 4 weeks

Data Collection 6 Weeks

Data Analysis and computations 6 Weeks

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 Report Writing 6 Weeks

Final Submission 2 Week

Total Time 24 Weeks

8. Reference

 Allievi L "Theory of water hammer" E HaImes transproceedings, American society

of mechanical engineering, 1975

 Jaeger. C: “Present Trends In Surge Chamber Design”, Proc. Inst. Mech. E., Vol. 108,
1954

 Mosonyi .E and H.B.S. Seth "The surge tank a device for controlling water hammer"
Water power and Dam construction. Vol 27 No 2 & 3 1975

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 U. S. Army Crops of Engineers "water hammer and mass oscillation simulation
program" user manual CEG 002 Washington D. C Office of chief Engineers

 U. S. Department of interior "training course for power operating personnel lesson

3 .Governor for hydraulic turbines" Denver Colo. V. S .Department of interior Bureau
of Reclamation 1975.

 Warnick. C. C "Hdropower Engineering"

9. Comments of Supervisor

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 SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR SIGNATURE OF STUDENT

Endst. No. CED/ ___________________________ Dated:

_____________/2008

The above proposal duly recommended by the Committee for the Post Graduate
Studies in Civil Engineering in the meeting held on_____________ forwarded to
the Director of Research for the approval of Vice Chancellor.

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 CHAIRMAN

Civil Engineering Department

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore.

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