Final Year Project On Solar Water Heater

Solar Water Heater Employing Heat Pipe Senior Project
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT...........................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................................iv
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................v
Objective................................................................................................................................................vi
Methodology.........................................................................................................................................vii
1. INPUT DATA.............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Hot Water Consumption in a Cafeteria.................................................................................................1
1.2 Daily Sunshine Hour..............................................................................................................................2
1.3 Temperature...........................................................................................................................................3
1.4 Wind Speed............................................................................................................................................3
1.4 Solar intensity........................................................................................................................................4
2. Literature Review of the Previous Project...............................................................................................5
3. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................6
3.1 Benefits of Solar Water Heating Systems..............................................................................................7
3.1.1 Economical Benefits......................................................................................................................7
3.1.2 Environmental Benefits.................................................................................................................7
3.1.3 Sustainability Benefits...................................................................................................................7
3.2 Types of Solar Collectors.......................................................................................................................8
3.2.1 Glazed Flat-Plate Collectors..........................................................................................................8
3.2.2 Unglazed Collectors.......................................................................................................................8
3.3 Design Aspect of Solar Collectors.........................................................................................................9
3.3.2 Some Design Consideration In Solar Collectors...........................................................................9
3.3.3 Some of the Problems Inherent In the Nature of Solar Radiation...............................................10
3.3.4 Flat Plate Collectors.....................................................................................................................10
3.4 Fin Efficiency, Fe.................................................................................................................................15
3.5 Fin Efficiency Factor, Fl.....................................................................................................................15
4. BOILING AND CONDENSATION.......................................................................................................17

4.1 Boiling Heat Transfer..........................................................................................................................17
4.2 Condensation Heat Transfer................................................................................................................17
4.3 Film Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes.......................................................................................18
5. HEAT PIPE THEORY............................................................................................................................19

5.1 The Operation of a Heat Pipe..............................................................................................................20
5.2 Heat Pipe Merits..................................................................................................................................21
5.3 Limitations of Heat Pipes....................................................................................................................22
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5.4 Applications of heat pipes....................................................................................................................22

6.1 Fluid, Wick Structure, and Materials for Heat Pipes..........................................................................23
6.1.1 Fluid Selection.............................................................................................................................23
6.1.2 Wick Selection.............................................................................................................................24
6.3.3 Material Selection........................................................................................................................24
6.2 Heat Pipe Design Procedures.............................................................................................................25
6.2.1 Heat Pipe Diameter......................................................................................................................25
6.2.2 Design of Heat Pipe Containers...................................................................................................26
6.2.3 Wick Design.................................................................................................................................26
6.2.3.1 Wick Design Procedures...........................................................................................................26
6.2.4 Limitation In Heat Pipe................................................................................................................28
7. ANALYSIS OF HEAT PIPE...................................................................................................................31
7.1 Design of Heat Pipes.........................................................................................................................31
7.1.2 Working Fluid Selection..............................................................................................................32
7.1.3 Heat Pipe Material Selection.......................................................................................................32
7.2 Wick Selection......................................................................................................................................32
7.3 Checking Against Heat Pipe Limitations.............................................................................................33
7.3.1 Checking Whether the Fluid in the Heat Pipe Is In the Incompressible State Using the Assumed
Values of Dv..........................................................................................................................................33
7.3 .2 Capillary Limitation....................................................................................................................33
7.3 .3 Sonic Limitation..........................................................................................................................35
7.3. 4 .Entrainment Limit......................................................................................................................35
7.3.5 Boiling Limitation........................................................................................................................35
7.4 Design of Heat Pipe Container............................................................................................................36
8. FIN (COLLECTOR) DESIGN................................................................................................................38

8.1 Calculation of Losses...........................................................................................................................38
8.2 Fin Efficiency, Fe.................................................................................................................................40
8.3 Fin Efficiency Factor, Fl.....................................................................................................................41
9. INSULATION DESIGN..........................................................................................................................45
9.1 Heat Pipe Insulation............................................................................................................................45
9.2 Tanker Insulation.................................................................................................................................45
10. MANUFACTURING.............................................................................................................................49
10.1 Heat Pipe...........................................................................................................................................49
10.2 Glass Cover.......................................................................................................................................49
10.3 Absorber (Collector Fin)...................................................................................................................49
10.4 Side Frames of Collector...................................................................................................................49
10.5 Front and Back Frames of the Collector...........................................................................................50
10.6 Insulation...........................................................................................................................................50
All insulations are made of urethane foam................................................................................................50
10.7 Preparation of Main Support Frame.................................................................................................50
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10.8 Preparation of the Collector Frame..................................................................................................51

10.9 Tanker................................................................................................................................................51
11. CLEANING OF PARTS........................................................................................................................52

11.1 Cleaning.............................................................................................................................................52
11.2 Evacuation and Charging..................................................................................................................52
12. COST ANALYSES.................................................................................................................................53
13. Differences between this and the Previous Project on solar water heater employing heat pipes. .54
14. ASSEMBLY............................................................................................................................................55
15. Conclusions and Recommendation.......................................................................................................56

15.1 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................56
15.2 Recommendation................................................................................................................................57
Reference.......................................................................................................................................................58
Appendix....................................................................................................................................................59
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Acknowledgement
We are highly indebted to Mulu Bayray (Ph.D.) whose inquisitive and magnificent advice
right from the outset has given us the impetus to complete this project. Further more, we
are very glad to thank Mr. Frether the chief manager of the cafeteria for his good will in
allowing us to collect data from the cafeteria.
A word of thank also goes to Mr. Habteab Hagos a data collector in Mekelle
university metrological office for supplying us the needed data.
At last but not least we have a special gratitude to Mr. Michael, the technical
assistant at the thermal laboratory, and other individuals for their keenest support when
ever we are in need of help.
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to design solar water heater employing heat pipes. Solar
energy is a clear abundant energy resource that can be used to supplement various energy
requirements such as domestic water heating and space heating. In addition, solar energy
has got economical, environmental, and sustainability benefits. Ethiopia being in the
tropical hemisphere has reserves of solar energy which still has not been exploited.
In solar collectors, the solar intensity is collected by aluminum fins. The design of solar
collector uses a heat pipe as main heat transfer unit from the evaporator to the condenser.
Heat pipes are force fully corrugated so that heat transfer will be efficient. So, the main
parts of this design are collector, heat exchanger (fin) and the hot water storage thank.
In heat pipes, Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced to below
its saturation temperature, Tsat. This is usually done by bringing the vapor in to contact
with a solid surface whose temperature Ts is below the saturation temperature Tsat of the
vapor. In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film on
the surface that slides down under the influence of gravity. The thickness of the liquid
film increases in the flow direction as more vapors condense on the flat surface. Based on
boiling and condensation inside the heat pipes the rate of heat transfer is to the water is
responsible for heating.
Heat pipe limits are factors that limit the heat transfer capability of heat pipes. These
include capillary pumping capacity (capillary limit), chocking of vapor flow (sonic
limitation (sonic limitation), tearing of the liquid off the liquid vapor inter face by vapor
flowing at high velocity (entrainment limitation), and disruption of the liquid flow by
nucleate boiling the wick (boiling limitation).
Working fluid, heat pipe material, and wick are the three components of a heat pipe. The
selection of these materials is the basic thing for heat pipe performance. So the design of
heat pipe includes this in addition to its diameter, container, checking heat pipe limitation
and insulation of its adiabatic region.
Manufacturing of heat pipe includes cleaning, degassing, evacuation and charging.

Tanker frames and insulations are manufactured using the common machining processes.
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Objective
The key objective of this project is to design solar water heater employing heat pipes for
students’ cafeteria consuming 4m3 of hot water in one cafeteria. The hot water is used for
cooking, tea, washing and Enjera preparation (‘absit’).
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Methodology
In general to do this project the following procedures were under taken.
 Necessary input data such as amount of hot water, temperature, wind speed,
sunshine hour, and solar intensity for design were collected.
 In accordance with the above data heat pipe was designed by checking its
heat transfer limits.
 Following heat pipe design collector (fin) was designed to give the
necessary useful energy.
 Using the concept of boiling and condensation inside tubes (in this case
heat pipe) film condensation heat transfer coefficient was determined from
which the heat transfer rate of condensation is found.
 Subsequent to the above, temperature change in the tanker of 120 liter
volume is analyzed.
 Insulation and other fixture were added.
 Finally the heating capacity of one panel, number of panels needed for the
mentioned volume of water, cost analysis and other necessary tasks is
performed.
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1. INPUT DATA
1.1 Hot Water Consumption in a Cafeteria
As it was studied in April, 2006 in the older cafeteria total water is used for different
purposes. These are:
 Washing service goods=1200 liter per day

 Cooking =1200 liter per day
 Enjera preparation (‘absit’)=1400 liter per day
 Tea preparation=600 liter per day
About 4000-4500 liter of hot water is needed per day.
The rate of consumption per two hours from 6 am to 8 pm is put in the following graph
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1.2 Daily Sunshine Hour
From the metrological data of Mekelle University of 2005, the following data are
obtained
Mean monthly sunshine hour
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug. Sep Oct Nov Dec .
.
9.5 10.21 9.35 9.66 9.3 8.23 5.5 5.97 8.18 10.3 10.32 10.27
Maximum sunshine hour =14.86 February 24

Minimum sunshine hour=1.05 at July 17
To be clearer for design purpose the sun shine hour is put in the following graph .the
graph shows the following
In year 2005
178 days have sunshine hour grater than 10 hours
147 days have sunshine hour grater than 6-9 hours
43 days have sunshine hour less than 6 hours
Thus the water heater is not feasible for 43 days.
A
C
B

1.3 Temperature
Minimum Mean Monthly Temperature (in degree centigrade)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug.

Sep Oct Nov Dec
. .
10.32 12.45 14.48 14.97 14.92 14.75 14.15 13.55 12.9 12.35 12.28 9.65
Maximum Mean Monthly Temperature
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug. Sep . Oct Nov Dec .
25.48 27.56 27.77 27.63 27.94 28.32 23.56 24.34 26.08 24.77 24.3 23.92
1.4 Wind Speed
The monthly mean wind speed(m/s )in 2005 is as follows
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug. Sep. Oct Nov Dec.
3.27 4.59 4.29 4.94 3.45 2.56 1.83 1.47 1.88 3.63 4.38 4.59

1.4 Solar intensity
Since there is no data for Mekelle University concerning solar energy intensity, the
data is taken by measuring using pyranometera. The result of measurement is plotted in
following graph. The following data is taken in May, 2006 in Mekelle University using
the pyranometer instrument. The instrument measures both direct and diffused radiation.

2. Literature Review of the Previous Project

The previous (1997 E.C) senior project on” Solar Water Employing Heat Pipes “is
summarized as follows.
First the project begun on the concept of solar energy and related topics like solar
heating system, from solar energy, types of solar collectors, and their working principle,
and the limitation of solar energy. In addition it uses solar radiation analysis to estimate
average solar radiation to Mekelle University. This took in to account the distribution of
clear and cloudy days and hours, beam and diffused components of hourly radiation,
estimation of hourly radiation on sloped surfaces. The result shows I=920w/m2.
The other core concept on the project was the heat pipe theory, which covers heat
transport limitations like capillary, sonic, entrainment, and boiling limitations. The
working fluid was selected to be water with it working temperature equal to 100 oC .
Material for heat, collector, header fin and pipe was copper.
The analysis was done for student s’ cafeteria to provide daily consumption of 3000 liter
of hot water. To do these five panels were assumed to heat this water up to 50 oC, each
panel heating 600 liter of water. The design is based on header fin and header tube type.
This means the water to be heated is pumped through the header tube. In this case the
header fin being in contact with the collector receives the solar energy from the
evaporator and transfers it to the water, the main heat transporter being the working fluid.
Each panel consists of 15 heat pipes of length 2m with a header fin and collector area
1.08m2 and 7.2 m2 respectively.
Evaluation of the prototype of solar water heater using experimental results done with the
defined procedures was done and achieved an efficiency of 17.6%. This low efficiency
was accounted for inefficiency of the insulator, less care in evacuating and charging, the
prototype is a batch type and the like as was cited in the paper.
Using header has manufacturing complexity in addition to its pump requirement which
increase the cost of the panel.
Designing the heat pipe based on working fluid temperature of 100 oC has its own
drawback in that the collector takes much time to bring the working fluid temperature to
saturation vapor temperature due the solar energy density is less.
At the end, assembly procedures, charging and evacuation of heat pipes and other related
topics were part of the paper.

3. INTRODUCTION
As much as air and water, human beings require energy for existence. Now a days in the
most advanced countries the cleanness of the air the people breath, the water they drink,
and the type of energy consumed measure the level of development.
In the last century even though the global development solely depend on non
renewable energy sources, there have been significant effort to utilize renewable energy
sources: hydro, solar, biomass, geothermal, wind and ocean waves.
The sun is indirectly responsible for the cycle generation of energy

resource .renewable energy resources such as hydropower potential, wind and fuel are
generated by a process that utilizes soar energy.
Electricity can be generated from intermittent renewable sources and biomass.

Solar thermal power plants concentrate large amount of sun light on to a small area to
permit the build up of high temperature heat that can be converted in to electricity. In a
few years, sun systems expected to generate about 30 Giga Wat of electricity. In early
90s for example, commercial solar plants in united state generated more than 350 MW of
electricity.
Studies indicate that Ethiopia has immense renewable energy resources. These
include biomass, solar, wind, and geothermal energy. The exploitable resource potential
of biomass, solar, hydro, wind, and geothermal energy in tetra joule is estimated at 1129;
7432; 573; 901; and 12 respectively.( Reference 11)
However, except the biomass which is 53.5%, hydropower about .9% and
negligible amount of geothermal energy (about 8 MW), and energies the potential reserve
are not exploited. No significant effort has been under taken especially to exploit the
solar and wind energy potential of the country, and the resources are not made ready to
be consumed to day.
The country’s natural forest which was estimated to have once 40% (45 million
hectares of the total land area now covers only 2.7 %( 3 million hectares). The total
available woody biomass resource is estimated to be around 1389 million ton standing
stock and about 26 million ton in terms annual sustainable yield.
Ethiopia because of its proximity to the equator the country enjoys receiving
adequate sunshine through out the year. Ethiopia has 7466232 Tetra Joule potential
reserve of solar energy, from that 7432 is exploitable resource. This energy can be used
for heating water which is used for different purposes. Solar water heaters are widely
used in countries like Israel and Australia .while the experience of these countries shows
solar energy can be competitive with conventional sources of energy in certain areas of

application in sunniest part of the world. (Source- Proceeding of Energy

Conference 2002)
The application of heat pipes for the purpose of water heating has not much
experience, but from the stand point of heat pipe property and working principle the use
in this field is promising.
Mekelle being part of Ethiopia has adequate sun shine hour which is about 900w/m2.
The design of solar water heater employing heat pipes is targeted to supply the required
amount of hot water for student’s cafeteria and to minimize biomass energy consumption
thereby decreasing the rate of deforestation.
3.1 Benefits of Solar Water Heating Systems
3.1.1 Economical Benefits
Solar water heating is generally a worth while economical investment whenever there is a
combination of the following availabilities.
 Average to above sunshine
 Average to above to average cost of heating fuel (electric)
 Average to above average need for heat
From large economic point of heat, solar water heating becomes very compiling when the
hidden “economic and environment cost benefits” as well as subside we are considered.
3.1.2 Environmental Benefits
Because most heating system burns fossil fuel which create pollution, all the energy
saved by solar water heating system eliminates the pollution that would otherwise add to
our problems of poor air quality, poor health smog and global climate change.
3.1.3 Sustainability Benefits
World petroleum supplies at the current year of consumption will not last a baby born
today past his/her 40th birth day. Many believe the current consumption will not stay
constant, but will rise in the future Shortening in the 40 years period. Solar water heating
is one way to help stretch this limited supplies.
Many solar water heaters use a small solar electric (photovoltaic) module to power the
pump needed to circulate the heat transfer fluid through the collectors. The use of such
module allows the water heater to operate even during a power outage.

Solar water heater can also be in other applications, for example, car washers, hotels, and
motels, restaurants swimming pools, and laundry mats.
There are many possible designs for a solar water heater. In general, it consists of three
main components:
1. Solar collector, which converts solar radiation into useable heat.
2. Heat exchanger (heat pipe) module, which transfers the heat from the solar
Collector into the portable water, in our case the heat pipe.
3. Storage tank to store the solar heated water.
3.2 Types of Solar Collectors
3.2.1 Glazed Flat-Plate Collectors
This type of collector is contained with in an insulated box to prevent heat loss and is
covered with a sheet of glass. It contains tubes attached to a metal absorber plate.
Individual sealed vacuum tubes surround a metal absorber plate in this type of collector.
The vacuum prevents heat loss effectively, like a thermal jug, and these collectors are
commonly used in very cold climates.
3.2.2 Unglazed Collectors
These collectors, usually made of rubber or ultraviolet (UV) stabilized polymers, are
most often used for low-temperature applications such as swimming pool and aquaculture
process water heating.
Flat-plate collectors are the most commonly used type of collector today and it is selected
for this design. They are arrays of solar panels arranged in a simple plane. They can be of
nearly any size, and have an output that is directly related to a few variables including
size, facing, and cleanliness. These variables all affect the amount of radiation that falls
on the collector.
One or more collectors are mounted on a southerly-facing slope or roof and connected a
storage tank. When there is enough sunlight, a heat transfer fluid, such as water or glycol,
is pumped through the collector. As the fluid passes through the collector it is heated by
the sun. The heated fluid is then circulated to a heat exchanger, which transfers the
energy into the water tank.
A glazed flat-plate collector consists of a shallow rectangular box with a flat black plate
behind a temperature glass cover. The plate is attached to a series of parallel tubes
through which the working fluid, water or another liquid (such as an antifreeze solution)
passes.

At the evaporator stage the working fluid absorbs the heat from sunlight falling on the
collectors. The heated liquid then enters the condenser pipe section and exchangers its
heat with the water to be heated.
Although flat-plate solar collector is less efficient in cold weather than in warm, they can
still supply 25 to 35 percent of a company’s annual hot water need. These systems are
best suited to applications that require medium to high temperatures.
3.3 Design Aspect of Solar Collectors
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy
to the fluid passing through it .utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors .these
are generally of two types:
I. Non concentrating or flat plate collectors
II. Concentrating solar collectors
The fundamental process now in use for heat conversion is the green house effect.
Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light, a short wave
radiation .when this radiation strikes a solid or a liquid, and it is absorbed and
transformed in to heat energy the material becomes warm and stores the heat, conducts it
to the surrounding materials.
Glass easily transmits short wave radiation, but it is a very poor transmitter of long
wave radiation. Once the sun’s energy passed through the glass windows and has been
absorbed by some material inside, the heat will not be reradiated back out side glass there
fore act a heat trap, a phenomenon which has been recognized in the construction of
green house, which can get quite warm on sunny days.
Solar water heating system requires regular maintenance, have a relatively high initial
cost and a long pay back period unless the cost of water heating is high. Solar panels may
be aesthetically unacceptable to some..
Reference -13
3.3.2 Some Design Consideration In Solar Collectors

 Check that collector area matches the application claimed
 Check math between collector tilt angle ,latitude and collector
used
 Check collector azimuth
 Check collector location for potential shading and exposure to
accidental damage
 Check access for cleaning covers
 Check mounting for stability in high winds
Reference - ASHREA Handbook

3.3.3 Some of the Problems Inherent In the Nature of Solar Radiation
1. It is relatively low intensity. As a result large amount need

numerous collectors.
2. it is intermittent because of variation in solar radiation
intensity(zero at down ,maximum at noon and again zero at
sunset)
3. subject to unpredictable interruptions like cloud, rain snow ,dust,
hail etc
3.3.4 Flat Plate Collectors
Where temperature below about 90 oC as they are for space and service water heating flat
plate collectors , which are of the non-concentrating type ,are particularly convenient.
They are made in rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9 m 2, in area and are relatively
simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse
solar radiation; they are consequently effective even on cloudy days when there is no
direct radiation. The majority of the flat plate collectors have five main components as
follows
1. a transparent cover (sheet of glass or radiation transmitting plastic

film or sheet)
2. Tubes, fins, passage or channels are integral with the collector
absorber plate or connected to it which carry the fluid.
3. the absorber plate (black)surface
4. insulation at the back and sides
5. The casing or container which encloses the other components and
protects them from the weather.

Solar radiation Absorber
Heat transport fluids

Insulation
Transparent
cover
The front covers are generally glass (may be one or two) that is transparent to
incoming solar radiation and opaque to the infrared re radiation from the absorber. The
glass acts as a convective shield to reduce the losses from the absorber plate
beneath .thickness of 3 or 4 mm are commonly used. The advantage of second glass is

losses due to air convection in windy areas is further reduced

Radiation losses in the infrared spectrum are reduced further by
25%.
Advantages of flat plate collectors
 They use both beam and diffused radiation
 Do not require orientation to wards the sun
 They require little maintenance
 They are mechanically simpler than concentrating collectors
The performance of solar collectors is described in energy balance that indicates the
distribution of incident solar radiation in to the useful energy gain and various losses .the
thermal losses can be separated into three components
Reference -13

1. Conductive losses
2. Convective losses
3. Radiation losses
Under steady state conditions, the useful heat delivered by solar collector is equal to
the energy absorbed in the metal surface minus the heat losses from the surface directly
and indirectly to the surrounding. This principle can be stated in the relation ship
------------------------3.1
Where
Useful energy delivered by collector
Collector area
Effective transmittance absorbance product of cover system
Over all heat loss coefficient,
= ------------------------3.2
Average absorber temperature
Ambient temperature
The heat losses from the surface are the following
A) Top Loss ( )
This loss occurs through the glass covers taking in to consideration the emitance
of plate and glass, wind convective heat loss. Mathematically can be expressed by
----------------------3.3

Where
N number of glasses
Collector tilt angle

Emmitance of glass (.88)
Emmitance of plate
Mean plate temperature
Ambient temperature
= wind heat transfer coefficient, with wind speed,

= Stefan Boltzman constant
To calculate the mea plate temperature, steady state heat conduction from the plate to
the fluid is used, which latter is iterated until similar result is obtained with the correct
useful energy.
------------------------3.4
Where
Local film heat transfer coefficient
=300w/m2 oc for natural circulation
Useful energy from collector
Evaporator length
Heat pipe internal diameter
B) Bottom (back) loss,

This loss accounts the convective and conductive loss through the insulation.
Mathematically:
---------------------3.5
Where
Thickness of insulation
K thermal conductivity of insulation
Convective heat transfer coefficient of between bottom insulation
and the environment.
Recommended value is from 12.5 to 25w/m2- k
C) Edge loss,
This heat dissipation comes from the edge loss to thee environment. It is given
by
------------------------3.5
Where
A perimeter area of edge
=.5w/m2 –k
Know the total heat loss, ( ) is
----------------------3.6
3.4 Fin Efficiency, Fe
Fin efficiency of the collector is given by the following relation;

Fe= ---------------------------3.7
Me= -----------------------------------------3.8
Ul= -------------------------------------------3.9
Where
W fin width
D o outer diameter of heat pipe.
U l over all heat loss coefficient of the collector
K fe thermal conductivity of fin
Fin thickness
3.5 Fin Efficiency Factor, Fl
Fl = ----------------3.10
(Ul)fe= -----------------------------------------3.11
(UA) he= -------------------------------3.12
Where
Ae evaporator area
Le evaporator length
Ke,e thermal conductivity of fin
(UA) fe evaporator fin conductance
(UA)he= evaporator heat pipe conductance

Lc = condenser length

To get the useful energy from the fin
Qu= Fl (I( )-------------------------------------------------------3.13

Reference - 13 & 14
4. BOILING AND CONDENSATION

4.1 Boiling Heat Transfer

Boiling occurs when a liquid is in contact with a surface maintained at a

temperature Ts sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid.
Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling depending on the presence of bulk
fluid motion. Boiling is pool boiling in the absence of fluid motion and flow boiling in its
presence. Pool and flow boiling are further classified as a sub cooled boiling and
saturated boiling depending on the bulk fluids temperature. Four different boiling regimes
are observed: natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film
boiling. In nucleate boiling, the rate of heat transfer strongly depends on the nature
nucleation (the number of active nucleation sites on the surface, the rate of bubble
formation at each site, etc), which is difficult to predict .the type and the condition of the
heated surface also affect the heat transfer.
4.2 Condensation Heat Transfer
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced to below its

saturation temperature, Tsat. This is usually done by bringing the vapor in to contact with
a solid surface whose temperature Ts is below the saturation temperature Tsat of the
vapor. But condensation can also occur on the free surface of a liquid or even in a gas
when the temperature of the liquid or the gas to which the vapor is exposed is below Tsat
in the latter case, the liquid droplets suspended in the gas form a fog.
Two distinct forms of condensation are observed: film condensation and film
condensation .in film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid
film on the surface that slides down under the influence of gravity. The thickness of the
liquid film increases in the flow direction as more vapors condense on the film. This is
condensation occurs in practice. In drop wise condensation, the condensed vapor forms
droplets on the surface instead of a continuous film, and the surface is covered by
countless droplets of varying diameter.
In film condensation, the surface is blanketed by a liquid film of increasing

thickness, and this liquid wall between solid surface and the vapor serves as resistance to
heat transfer. The heat of vaporization hfg released as the vapor condenses must pass
through this resistance before it can reach the solid surface and be transferred to the
medium on the other side. In drop wise condensation, how ever, the droplets slide down
when they reach a certain size, clearing the surface and exposing it to vapor. There is no
liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer. As a result, heat transfer rates that are more
than 10 times larger than those associated with film condensation can be achieved with
drop wise condensation. There fore, drop wise condensation is the preferred mode of
condensation in heat transfer applications, and people have long tried to achieve
sustained drop wise condensation by using various vapor additives and surface coating.
These attempts have not been very successful, how ever, since the drop wise
condensation achieved did not last long and converted to film condensation after some
time. There fore, it is common practice to be conservative and assume film condensation
in the design of heat transfer equipment.

4.3 Film Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes
Most condensation processes encountered in refrigeration and air conditioning

applications, how involve condensation on the inner surface of horizontal or vertical
tubes. Heat transfer analysis of condensation inside tubes is complicated by the fact that it
is strongly influenced by the vapor velocity and the rate of liquid accumulation on the
walls of the tubes.
For low vapor velocities, Chato recommends the following expression for
condensation
----------------------------------4.1
Where
hinternal internal heat transfer coefficient
µ l liquid viscosity
Liquid density
Vapor density
Specific heat of liquid
Enthalpy of vaporization
For
------------4.2
Where
The Reynolds number of the vapor is to be evaluated at the tube inlet conditions
using the internal diameter as the characteristic length.
Reference 8
5. HEAT PIPE THEORY

A heat pipe is a simple device with no moving parts that can transfer large quantities of
heat over fairly large distances essentially at constant temperature with out requiring any
power input. A heat pipe is basically a sealed cylinder tube containing a wick structure
lined on the inner surface and a small amount of fluid such as water at the saturated state
as shown in the figure.
It is composed of three sections :the evaporator section ,where heat is absorbed and fluid
is vaporized ;a condenser section at the other end ,where vapor is condensed and heat is
rejected; and the adiabatic section in between, where vapor and liquid phases of the
fluid flowing opposite directions through the core and the wick ,respectively complete
the cycle with no significant heat transfer between surrounding medium.
The type of fluid and the operating pressure inside the heat pipe depend on the
operating temperature of the heat pipe. For example, the critical and the triple point
temperature of water are .01 deg.cent and 374.1 deg.centg. ,respectively there fore ware
can under go a liquid- to- vapor or vapor - to- liquid phase change process in this
temperature range only, and thus it will not be suitable fluid for applications involving
temperature beyond this range. further more ,water will under go a phase –change
process at specified temperature only if its pressure equals the saturation pressure at that
temperature .For example, if a heat with water as the working fluid is designed to remove
heat at 70 oC ,the pressure inside the heat pipe must be maintained at 31.2 kpa ,which is
the boiling pressure of water at this temperature .Note that this value is well bellow the
atmospheric pressure of 101 kpa ,and thus the heat pipe operates in vacuum environment
in this case. If the pressure inside is maintained at atmospheric pressure instead, heat
transfer will result in an increase in temperature of water instead of evaporation.
Reference 8
5.1 The Operation of a Heat Pipe

The operation of a heat pipe is based on the following physical principles:
 At specified pressure, a liquid will vaporize or vapor will condense at a

certain, called the saturation temperature. Thus fixing the pressure
inside fixes a heat pipe fixes the temperature at which a phase change
will take place.
 At specified pressure or temperature the amount of heat absorbed as a
unit mass of liquid vaporizes is equal to the amount of heat rejected as
that vapor condenses.
 The capillary pressure developed in a wick and the hydrostatic pressure
will move a liquid.
 A fluid in channel flows in the direction of decreasing pressure.
Initially, the wick of the heat pipe is saturated with liquid and the core section is
filled with vapor. When the evaporator of the heat pipe is brought into contact with a hot
surface, heat will flow in too the heat pipe. Being at a saturated state the liquid in the
evaporator end of the heat pipe will vaporize as a result of this heat transfer, causing the
vapor pressure there to rise .this resulting pressure difference drives the vapor through
core from the evaporator to the condenser. The condenser is in a cooler environment, and
thus its surface is slightly cooler. The vapor that comes in to contact with this cooler
surface condenses, realizing the heat of vaporization, which is rejected to the surrounding
medium. The liquid the returns to the evaporator end through the wicks a result n\of
capillary action in the wick, completing the cycle. As a result, heat is absorbed at one end
of the heat pipe and is rejected at the other end, with the fluid inside serving as transport
medium for heat.
The boiling and condensation process associated with extremely high transfer
coefficients and thus it is natural to expect the heat pipe to be an extremely effective heat
transfer device, since its operation is based on alternate boiling and condensation of the
working fluid. Indeed heat pipes have effective conductivities several hundreds times that
of copper or silver .that is replacing copper bar between two mediums at different
temperature by a heat pipe of equal size can increase the rate heat transfer between those
two mediums by several hundred times .A simple heat pipe with water as working fluid
has an effective thermal conductivity of the order of 10000w/moC compared with about
400 w/moc for copper.
There e is a small pressure difference between the evaporator and the condenser ends,
and thus a small temperature difference between the two ends of the heat pipe .This
temperature difference is usually between 1 oC and 5 oC . Reference 8
5.2 Heat Pipe Merits

Large quantities of heat can be moved with a small drop in temperature as

the heat is carried away by evaporation and dissipated in the form of latent
heat by condensation.
Heat pipes are capable of transporting heat over appreciable distances,
thus permitting separation of heat source and heat sink. The price paid for
this separation in terms of temperature loss is also minimal, usually only a
few degrees.
The outstanding feature of heat pipe is the ability of the heat pipe to accept
heat non- uniformly .for example, the heat input to the heat pipe from the
flame (heat source) is extremely non-uniform. The heat pipe can accept
this non uniformity since the evaporation rate of working fluid will be
high in the area of heat density and low in less intense heat. This heat
distribution allows the isothermal characteristics of the heat pipe to be
preserved so hat the heat is delivered to the thermal load with the same
uniformity when the heat input to the heat pipe is more uniform. Thus the
heat pipe has effectively flattened the thermal profile of the heat source
and made possible an out put with a high degree of uniformity.
The heat pipe is relatively light in weight since the volume consists
essentially of a vapor.
It requires no power source to accomplish its function.
The absence of gravity doesn’t affect the operation of the heat pipe
detrimentally. Liquid flow doesn’t depend on gravity.
It is an ideal device for removing heat from a concentrated heat source or
from low temperature heat source .this feature is very much useful for
space applications.
The heat pipe transmits heat form the heat source to the heat sink
essentially isothermally. Other means of transmitting heat results in
temperature drop s that requires correspondingly larger radiation to
dissipate equivalent quantities of heat at lower temperatures.
Since the vapor is used for transporting latent heat of vaporization
between the heat source and sink, quite small vapour flow rates can
produce large heat fluxes .the vapor pressure gradient and there fore the
temperature gradient, need to produce these fluxes is very small.
The weight of heat pipe is considerably smaller compared with any other
heat transfer equipment .it is hardly. Reference 1
5.3 Limitations of Heat Pipes

Like any other device the heat pipe also has limitations as listed below
Undesired increase in the point to point temperature differential along
the heat pipe can lead to damage to the evaporator section
The heat pipe is normally rated in terms of the thermal power that can
be transferred at the given temperature .if this is exceeded, an increase
in the temperature difference along the heat pipe is exhibited .its
further effect occurs quite abruptly as the pumping capacity of the
wick is exceeded which causes starvation of fluid-flowing the extreme
of the evaporator and its temperature rises rapidly.
The cost of a given heat pipe tend to reach a minimum in the 70 oC to
120 oC temperature range.
5.4 Applications of heat pipes
Heat pipes are extensively used in many modern computer systems, where increased
power requirements and subsequent increases in heat emission have resulted greater
demands on cooling systems. Heat pipes are typically used to move heat away from
components such as CPUs and GPUs to heat sinks where thermal energy may be
dissipated into the environment.
Heat pipes are also being widely used in solar thermal water heating applications in
combination with evacuated tube solar collector arrays. In these applications, distilled
water is commonly used as the heat transfer fluid inside a sealed length of copper tubing
that is located within an evacuated glass tube and orientated towards the Sun.
In solar thermal water heating applications, an evacuated tube collector can deliver up to
40% more efficiency compared to more traditional "flat plate" solar water heaters.
Evacuated tube collectors eliminate the need for anti-freeze additives to be added as the
vacuum helps prevent heat loss - these types of solar thermal water heaters are frost
protected down to more than -35 degrees C and are being used in Antarctica to heat
water.
Heat pipes have been used for many applications:

 Remote heat rejection from a concentrated source (e.g. computer chip)
 Obtain uniform temperature
 Efficient heat exchangers
Reference -www.cheresources.com/htpipe.shtml
6. HEAT PIPE DESIGN

These are intended to provide information on the selection of the pipe working fluids,
wick structures, container materials, and to present a systematic design theory procedure
for a given set of data.
6.1 Fluid, Wick Structure, and Materials for Heat Pipes
6.1.1 Fluid Selection

For the successful operation of a heat pipe, its working fluid must be in the liquid state.
That is, the selected fluid for the heat pipe must have a melting point temperature below
and a critical point temperature above the pipe operating temperature. Several fluids can
often be used for a given operating temperature. The relative merits of different fluid can
best be observed by examining heat pipe theory as follows:
For comparison of the relative merits of various fluids for heat pipes, an approximate
theory is developed for a simple cylindrical heat pipe .The following simplifying
assumptions are made:
1. The pipe is capillary limited.
2. Vapor pressure losses are negligible.
3. Wick thickness tw is much smaller than the vapor core radius.
4. Heat flux density is uniform at the evaporator or condenser surface.
5. Thermal conductivity of the liquid –saturated wick is proportional to that of the
liquid.
The heat transport factor (QL) c, max, under these assumptions, can then be calculated by
the following equation;
(QL) c, max= or------------------------------------6.1
(QL) c, max = …………………………………6.2
Here, the terms in parentheses represent, form left to right, the liquid property, the wick
property, and the wick cross-sectional area, respectively. The above equation indicates
that for a pipe of fixed wick structure and dimensions its heat transport factor (QL) c, max is
directly proportional to the liquid transport factor, which is defined as .
For a minimum temperature gradient of a heat pipe, the temperature drop across the
liquid-saturated wick must be minimum. And from the above examination, it can seen
that for heat pipes with a large heat transport capability but a small temperature gradient ,
one may select fluids that have a large liquid transport factor and conductance factor , as
their working fluids. In addition, toxicity and flammability of the fluid may also have to
be considered in certain applications.

6.1.2 Wick Selection

The purpose of a heat pipe wick is three fold:
i. To provide the necessary flow passages for the return of liquid from the
condenser to the evaporator.
ii. To provide surface pores at the liquid-vapor interface for the development of
capillary pumping pressure.
iii. To provide a heat flow path from the wall of the container to the liquid-vapor
interface.
It can be seen from equation 6.2 that, for a large heat transport capability, the wick
structure must have large permeability K and small capability pore radius r c. The wick
permeability is calculated form the following equation:
…………………………………………6.3
Where; is the wick porosity

; is the hydraulic radius defined as twice as the cross-section area divided by
the wetted perimeter .
From equation 6.3 it can easily be seen that high performance wicks have large values for
and but small rc values.
However, other considerations such as self-priming, i.e., the capability of filling the wick
with liquid without external assistance , boiling susceptibility of the liquid in the wicks ,
static rising height of the liquid in the wick , and cost of wick must also considered in the
selection of structures. In addition, the effects of wick structure on the pipe temperature
gradient may also be important.
6.3.3 Material Selection

A major factor in the selection of material for heat pipe wicks and containers is
compatibility with working fluids. This is an important consideration because heat pipes
are subject to continuous performance degradation as a result of chemical or
decomposition of the working fluid and corrosion or erosion of container or wick.
Chemical reaction or decomposition of the working fluid may give rise to non
condensable gas evolution. A specific example of this is the hydrolysis of water yielding
hydrogen gas in a water-aluminum heat pipe. In a convectional heat pipe, all non
condensable gas is swept to the condenser end, thus inactivating a portion of the
condenser.
Corrosion and erosion of the container and wick may result in a change of the fluid
wetting angle and the permeability or capillary pore size of the wick. Solid particles
resulting from corrosion and erosion are transported by the flowing liquid to the
evaporator region and deposited there. This leads to an increased resistance to fluid flow
in the evaporator, which results in a decreasing heat transport capability for the heat pipe.

Hence, for these reasons material compatibility, weight, temperature characteristics and
material costs are important considerations for the selection of materials.
6.2 Heat Pipe Design Procedures
Methods of selecting heat pipe working fluids, wick structures, wick materials, and
container materials are discussed previously. And these physical properties of fluids,
wicks, and materials together with the problem specifications form the input for the
design theory. Design theory developed in this project is used to determine the container
and wick details so that the pipe will operate as specified. The procedures that are
followed are given below:
1. Pipe diameter is first determined and the vapor velocity is checked not to
be excessive.
2. Mechanical design is used to determine the container details.
3. Wick details are designed considering the capillary limit.

4. Other heat transport limits, i.e. entrainment and boiling limits, are
Checked to ensure that heat pipe is operating within all limits.
6.2.1 Heat Pipe Diameter

Although heat pipes can be made of different cross-sectional shapes, the round shape is
the most common configuration .Round tubes and pipes of many materials are readily
available, and they are most efficient configuration from the stress point of view. The size
of the pipe diameter necessary for a given application should be determined so that vapor
velocity is not excessive. For convenience, the heat pipe can be designed so that its
maximum Mach number in the vapor flow passage does not exceed 0.2. Under this
condition, the vapor can be considered incompressible and the axial temperature gradient
negligibly small.
For a heat pipe whose heat transport mode requirements and consequently maximum
axial heat flux Q max are known, the required vapor core diameter dv , at vapor Mach
number Mv equal to 0.2 , can be from the following equation, that is
dv= ----------------------------6.4
Where dv = vapor core diameter

Q max= maximum axial heat flux
= vapor density
= vapor specific heat ratio
= latent heat of vaporization
Rv= gas constant for the vapor
Tv=vapor temperature

6.2.2 Design of Heat Pipe Containers

The most widely used design technique for heat pipe containers that must withstand
vapor pressure is the ASME code for unfired pressure vessels. The ASME code specifies
that the maximum allowable stress at any temperature be one-quarter of the material’s
ultimate tensile strength ftu at that temperature. For round tubes in which the wall
thickness is less than 10% of the diameter, the maximum pressure stress is closely
approximated by the simple expression as follows:
fmax= --------------------------------------------6.5
Where fmax=maximum hoop stress in the wall

p=pressure differential across the wall
do=tube outside diameter
t=tube wall thickness
For design calculations, the internal pressure of the pipe is equal to the saturation vapor
pressure of the pipe working fluid at its operating temperature or its maximum cyclic
pressure whichever is larger.
6.2.3 Wick Design

The purpose of this selection is to determine the proper dimensions of the commonest
types of heat pipe wicks, namely, the wrapped-screen wicks.
6.2.3.1 Wick Design Procedures

The general procedures for the design of the wrapped-screen wick for a heat pipe
operating in the heat pipe mode are as follows:
1. Knowing the inside pipe diameter di, total length Lt, and titling angle , the
hydrostatic pressure is calculated as follows:
pg = ------------------------------------6.6
Where = liquid density
g = gravitational acceleration
di = inside pipe diameter
Lt = total pipe length
2. The required mesh number for the wick is chosen recalling that pc should not
be much smaller than twice the pg calculated above.
3.It can be assumed that the wick thickness t w for the pipe and a vapor core
diameter dv equal to ( di – 2 tw).Liquid and vapor frictional coefficients , Fl and
Fv , can then be calculated using the following formula:
Liquid frictional coefficient for the liquid flow, Fl

Fl = ------------------------------------6.7
With wick permeability K being calculated by the following equation:

K= ---------------------------------6.8
Where d = wire diameter of the wire cloth
= wick porosity, which can be calculated by the following
equation:
-----------------------------6.9
Where N = mesh number
Vapor frictional coefficient for the liquid flow, Fv
Fv = --------------------------------------6.10
where =coefficient of drag

=16 (for circular vapor flow passages)
= vapor viscosity
rh,v=hydraulic radius
Av=vapor flow area
=vapor density
=latent heat of vaporization
4. The heat transport limit for the pipe with the assumed wick thickness can now
be calculated as follows:
(QL) c,max= -----------------------6.11
5. Check if the (QL) c, max calculated above is greater than the required (QL) for
the problem under consideration .If so, the assumed wick thickness is satisfactory. If not
a large wick thickness is to be used and steps (3) and (5) are repeated until a satisfactory
wick thickness is chosen.
6.2.4 Limitation In Heat Pipe
Heat pipes undergo various heat transfer limitations depending on the working fluid, the
wick structure, the dimensions of the heat pipe, and the heat pipe operational temperature.
The type of the limitations restricting the heat transport capability of a heat pipe is
determine by which limitation has the lowest value at the temperature of under
considerations. The following figure gives a qualitative description of the various heat
transfer limitations, which includes sonic, entrainment, capillary, and boiling limitations.
The composite curve enclosing the shaded region in figure gives the maximum heat
transfer of the heart pipe as a function of the operational temperature .The figure shows

that as the operational temperature increases, the maximum heat transfer rate of the heat
pipe is limited by different physical phenomena. As long as the operational heat transfer
rate falls within the shaded region, he heat pipe will function properly.
Entrainment
Axial Capillary limit
heat limit
flux
Sonic
velocity Boiling
limit limit
Temperature
6.2.4.1 Sonic Limitation
The sonic limitation occurs in heat pipes during start- up at low temperature. The low
temperature produces a low vapor density there by reducing the speed of sound in the
vapor core. Thus a sufficiently high mass flow rate in the vapor core causes sonic flow
conditions. And generate a shock wave that chocks the flow and restricts the pipe ability
to transfer heat to the condenser. An expression that agrees very well with experimental
data for the sonic limitation is given by:
Qs, max=0.474Av h, fg ( --------------------------------------------------6.12
The sonic limitation should be avoided because large temperature gradient occurs in heat
pipes under chocked-flow condition.
6.2.4.2 Entrainment Limitation

The entrainment limitation in heat pipes develops when the vapor mass flow rate is large
enough to shear droplets of liquid off the wick surface causing dry out in the evaporator.
A conservative estimate of the maximum heat transfer rate due to entrainment of liquid
droplet is given by:

Qe,max = -----------------------------------------6.13
6.2.4.3 Capillary Limitation
The capillary limitation in heat pipes occurs when the net capillary forces generated by
the vapor-liquid interfaces in the evaporate and condenser are not enough to over come
the frictional pressure loses due to fluid motion. This causes the heat pipe evaporator to
dry out and shuts down the transfer of heat from the evaporator to the condenser, for most
heat pipes, the maximum heat transfer rate due to the capillary limitation is expressed as:
Qc,max= ------------6.14
For most practical operating conditions, this limitation can be used to determine
maximum heat transfer rate in heat pipes.
Boiling Limitation
The boiling limitation in the heat pipes occurs when the degree of liquid superheat in the
evaporator is large enough to cause the nucleation of vapor bubbles on the surface of the
wick or the container. Boiling is usually undesirable in heat pipes because local hot spots
can develop in the wick, obstructing the flow of liquid in the evaporation are given as:
Qb,max= ----------6.15
Where Keff is the effective conductivity of the composite wick and working fluid
Tv is the vapor saturation temperature (K)

ri is the container radius (m)
rn is the nucleation radius (equal to 2*10-6 in the absence of non condensable gas)
Reference 12

7. ANALYSIS OF HEAT PIPE

From the data collected from the cafeteria, the maximum hot water consumption occurs
in the early morning i.e. from 12-2 am local time .how ever this need can not be fulfilled
due to the absence of solar energy (radiation) in the night. So, our analysis is based on the
consumption of hot water between 4 and 6 am in local time which is 960 liter. The total
numbers of panels are 8, 120 liter being heated in one panel.
The average sunshine hour is taken to be 8 hours which is from 8 am to 4 pm. At
this time feasible solar radiation intensity can be found. The sunshine has been divided in
to two shifts .these are
I. From 8 am to 12 am
II. From 12 am to 4 pm

As a result, the panels function twice a day .this means 1800 liter of water can be
heated in 8 panels in one day. The hot water consumption in the early morning is
achieved by taking sunshine our of 8, and preparing 13 separate panel and tanker.
Geographically Mekelle is situated in 14o latitude. Thus the tilt angle of the solar
collector is taken to be 15o to attain maximum solar radiation intensity.
Based on the solar radiation intensity collected from 8 am to 4 pm, the average
intensity is found to be, I= 923.33w/m2. But for design purpose I=900w/m2 is taken.
The temperature the water fed to the tanker measured by thermometer is found to
be 22 C and the average ambient temperature from the metrological data of Mekelle
o
University is 23oC.
Since wind speed is significant in Mekelle, the design takes into account the
convective heat loss due to wind .From the data of the metrology the average wind speed
is 3.4m/sec. But for design purpose the wind speed is taken to be 5m/sec.
Mekelle is found in the northern hemisphere .this makes the facing of the solar
collector to be to wards south as the apparent movement of the sun is slightly inclined to
wards the southern hemisphere .
The design aims to heat 120 liter of water in one panel up to 60oC and for the stored
water to 80 oC. This achieved by installing two heat pipes in one panel.
7.1 Design of Heat Pipes
 Working of the heat pipe fluid ,Tv=60oC=333.15K

 Condenser length is 15o above the evaporator
7.1.2 Working Fluid Selection

For a pipe operating temperature of 333.15K; ammonia, water, and methanol are suitable
fluids. But water is chosen due to the following advantages
Better liquid transport capability
Higher thermal conductivity
Low cost availability
Hence water is the working fluid.
Properties of water at Ta=23oC
Density = 996.86 kg/m3
Viscosity =9.392e-4 kg/m-s
Specific heat of vaporization=4179J/kg-k
Thermal conductivity =.6074w/m2-0C

7.1.3 Heat Pipe Material Selection

Having water as working fluid titanium, nickel and copper are compatible materials. How
ever, copper has superior conductance at 333.15 K, in addition to its availability and low
cost. Thus copper is selected as a heat pipe material.
The configuration of a heat pipe is selected to be round as this is the most efficient
configuration from stress point of view. In addition round tubes and pipes of many
materials are readily available.
7.2 Wick Selection
Wrapped screen is selected since it is simple and satisfy the performance specification.
Material for wick is preferred to be copper for reasons cited above.
Properties of water at the saturation temperature Tv=333.15K
Liquid density, =983.15 kg/m3
Liquid viscosity =.467e-3 kg/m-s

Surface tension, =6.63e-2N/m
Heat of vaporization, =2.358e6 J/kg-k
Vapor viscosity, =1.093e-5 kg/m-s
Vapor density =.13 kg/m3
Vapor specific heat ratio, =1.33

Liquid thermal conductivity=.654w/m2-k
Specific heat of a liquid =4185J/kg-k
Assumptions
 Outer diameter of heat pipe ,Do=20 mm
 Inner diameter of heat pipe, Di=18 mm
 Vapour core diameter Dv = 15 mm
 Screen wick thickness tw =1.5 mm
 screen wire diameter, d=2.54e-4m
 wire screen mesh number, N=1.96285e3 m-length of evaporator, , Le=2000 mm
 length of condenser ,L c=57 5 mm
 length of adiabatic section, La=200 mm
 total length of heat pipe, Lt = 2775 mm
 the amount of energy transformed from the evaporator, Qe=400w

7.3 Checking Against Heat Pipe Limitations
Now using the above assumed values, the incompressibility the working fluid, capillary
limitation, sonic limitation, boiling limitation, and entrainment limitation are checked if
they are enough to cause failures.
7.3.1 Checking Whether the Fluid in the Heat Pipe Is In the Incompressible
State Using the Assumed Values of Dv
Using equation 6.4
Where Qmax= Qe=400w
Substituting the values
Dv=6.033e-5m
Since the calculated value is much smaller than the assumed value, the fluid
is incompressible and the assumed value Dv=15 mm is okay.
7.3 .2 Capillary Limitation
hydrostatic pressure, Pg
Pg= g( Dicos -Ltsin ) -------------------Using equation 6.6
=-6321.6n/m2
maximum capillary pressure, Pcm
, where
521.3N/m2
Since, the heat pipe is gravity assisted; the direction of hydrostatic pressure
and capillary action is the same .so the wick thickness and mesh number
acceptable.
Liquid frictional coefficient, Fl

Wick cross sectional area, Aw=.25 (Di2-Dv2)

=7.775e-5m2
Wick porosity, -------------------- Using equation 6.9
=.59
Wick permeability, ------------------Using equation 6.8
=6.46e-6m2
---------------------------------- Using equation 6.7
=4 N/m/w-m
Vapor frictional coefficient Fv
For wrapped screen for circular vapor flow passage the coefficient of
drag; =16
Vapor flow area, Av=.25 Dv2

=1.767e-4m2
Where ,
-----------------------------Using equation 6.10

=2.634e-6 N/m/w-m
Capillary heat transfer factor,
-------------------- Using equation 6.11
= 1707.89w/m
Capillary heat transfer limit,
----- Using equation 6.14
=1148.2w

7.3 .3 Sonic Limitation, Qs, Max
QS, MAX = ------------------ Using equation 6.12
Vapor specific heat ratio Yv=1.33

Vapor constant =467
QS, MAX =11.36 KW

7.3. 4 .Entrainment Limit Qe, Max
QE, MAX= ------------ Using equation 6.13
rh,s=wick surface hydraulic radius

= N=1.968*103
=1.27*10-4
QE, MAX=2.426 KW
7.3.5 Boiling Limitation, Qb, Max
QB,MAX= ----------------- Using equation 6.15
Where Ke =
Kl =0.649
Kw=385
Ke=1.55
rn=2.54*10-7 m

Substituting all these values;
QB, MAX =9.274 Kw

From the above calculation, all the limits are above the amount of the
energy needed at the evaporator stage. This means the energy at the evaporator
stage can be transferred without any failure in the heat pipe.
7.4 Design of Heat Pipe Container
The following are taken into consideration for the design of the heat pipe:
Material of heat used for the heat pipe is copper

Working fluid temperature =333.15K
Ultimate tensile strength of copper at 333.15K =186.135*106

= 186.165 MP
The ASME code specifies that the maximum allowable stress at any temperature (UTS)
at that temperature.
I.e.
For rounded tubes in which the wall thickness is loss than 10% of the diameter, the
maximum pressure stress is closely approximated by simple expression
fmax= ---------------- Using equation 6.5

Where fmax is the maximum hoop stress in the wall
P is pressure differential across the wall
do is tube outside thickness
Substituting the following values to the above equation
do =20 mm Pamb=101.235 KPa Psat @60oc =19.94 KPa

t=1mm P=101.325-19.94=81.385 KPa
Hence the above formula can be used

fmax=
To check
229 4
The above result indicates that the assumed heat pipe container dimensions are
acceptable.
8. FIN (COLLECTOR) DESIGN

The following parameters are taken into consideration for design of this part:
-Available thickness of the fin material =0.8 mm
-Fin material selected for this purpose is Aluminum because of the following two
reasons;
 Low cost
 Easily corrugated to hold heat pipes

-Thermal conductivity of aluminum Kfe =221

-Collector clip diameter Dc =21.6 mm
-Energy at the evaporator stage = 400W=Qe
-Emmitance of glass
-Ambient temperature Ta=23 oc
-Emitance of plate =0.27
-Working fluid temperature =333.15 K= Tv
-Average wind speed, Vw=5
-Collector tilt angle =15o=B
-Incident solar radiation I = 900
-Effective transmittance absorbance = 0.9
-Number of glass covers is taken to be 2 to prevent high convection losses
Assumptions taken for this design are:

-Wind of fin =0.45m
-Heat flow through a cover is one dimensional
-There is one dimensional heat flow through back insulation
-Dust and dirt on the collector are negligible
8.1 Calculation of Losses
(a) TOP LOSS, Qt
Qt =
------------- Equation 3.3
TPM-mean plate temperature

A=Le*W=0.9 m2
hw- wind heat transfer coefficient

hw= 5.7+ 3.8Vw =24.7

f=(1-0.04 hw +0.00005 hw2)(1+0.091N)

=0.375
C=365.943(0.00883S-0.0001298S2)
=37.3
To determine Tpm using steady state heat conduction from the plate to the fluid the
following formula is used;
Tpm=Tfm + ------------- equation 3.4

Where L=Le
n=number of heat pipes
Di=internal diameter of heat pipe
hfi= 300 w/m2 k
Qe= 400W
Tfm= 333.15 K
Substituting all these values;
Tpm= 345 K
Again substituting all these values;
Qt =75.9W
(b) BOTTOM LOSS ,Qb
Qb= ------------------------- equation 3.5
Where
is thickness of insulation
K=thermal conductivity of insulation of insulating material (urethane foam)

=18
hb= convective coefficient between bottom of the insulation and the environment
(Recommended value =12.5 to 25)
Qb=9.776W
(c)EDGE LOSS , Qe
Qe=heA (Tpm-Ta) --------------------- equation 3.6

he=0.5
A=0.245m2
Substituting these values to the above equation
Qe= 6W
Total loss Qtotal = Qt +Qb +Qe

= 91.67W
8.2 Fin Efficiency, Fe
Fin efficiency of the collector is given by the following relation;
Fe= --------------------- equation 3.7
Me= ------------------------------------- equation 3.8
Ul= A=2.045
Substituting these values
Ul=0.915
Me=2.33
Fe=0.924
8.3 Fin Efficiency Factor, Fl
Fl = ----------- equation 3.10

(Ul) fe= ------------------------- -------- equation 3.11

(Ul)fe=17234.773
(UA) he= ---------------------------- equation 3.12
Substituting these values;

ro =10 mm
ri =9 mm
rv =7.5 mm
Kp =385
Ke=2.4
(UA) he=164.82
Hence inserting to equation 3.10;
Fl=0.923
Now useful energy gain given by;
Qu=Fl (I ( ) -------------------------- equation 3.13

=663W
Tpm is recalculated and the results obtained are;
Tpm=357.70C in the 1st iteration

Tpm=352.30C in the second iteration
Hence, taking Tpm as 352.3 C and
0
Qtotal =108.89W the useful energy gained is obtained as;
QU=649W
To find the surface temperature of the evaporator section of the heat pipe

Qu= ro,f=10.8 mm
ro=10 mm
Tp,e =352.30C
To get the surface temperature of the heat pipe using one dimensional heat conduction;
Thermal resistance of pipe wall at condenser
Rp, c=
Effective thermal conductivity of liquid saturated wick, Ke, e
Ke,e=1.56
Thermal conductivity of the wick structure at the condenser, Rw, c
Rw,c= =5.78*10-6
Thermal resistance of the wick and pipe wall at the evaporator can be calculated as
follows;
Rw,e= Rw,c* =1.736*10-6
Rp,e= Rp,c* =6.48*10-9

The over all heat transfer coefficient of the heat pipe ,UHP

UHP=
=1325554.3
Cross sectional area of the heat pipe;
Ap= m2
(Tp,e- Tp,c)=
=3280C
8.4 Film Condensation Inside the Condenser Tube
Since at specified pressure and temperature the amount of heat absorbed as a unit of mass
of liquid is equal to the amount of heat rejected as the vapor condensers. Considering film
condensation on the condenser the condensation heat transfer rate is calculated.
First the film condensation heat transfer coefficient, h is determined as follows;
h=
------------------ Equation 4.1

The above formula is used for low velocity Vapor which satisfies;
Re,vap= -------------------- equation 4.2
Re,vap=2564.08<3500
h= 3969.8
Tsat=333.15K
Ts=328K
The rate of heat transfer during condensation process, Q
Q=hA (Tsat-Ts) A=
Le=57.5 mm
Sustituting these values
Q=645.4W

The useful energy, Qu, from the evaporator is 649W so the need heat of vaporization to
working fluid can be achieved with 649W.
In four hours of sunshine (8-6AM), the total energy supplied to the heating water at 220C
is;
E=645.4*4*3600
=9288000J
In one panel there are two heat pipes, so the total energy from one panel
E=9288000*2
=18576000J
120 liter of water is going to be heated in the panel and the change temperature is then;
I.e. the water is heated to 600C.

Total number of panels for 960 liter is 8.
These five panels can be used again from (12-4) PM.
OVER ALL DESIGN RESULTS OF ONE HEAT PIPE WITH Its FIN
Inner pipe diameter =18 mm
Thickness of pipe wall=1mm
Vapor core diameter =15 mm
Screen wick thickness=1.5 mm
Screen wire diameter =2.54*10-4 mm
Wire screen mesh number =1.9685*103 mm
Length of evaporator, Le=2m
Length of condenser, Lc=57.5m
Length of adiabatic section =0.2m
Useful energy at the evaporator stage=649W
Width of the fin=0.45m
Thickness of the fin= 0.8 mm
Collector clip diameter= 21.6 mm
Thickness of back insulation = 80 mm
Edge thickness of fin when assembled = 50 mm

9. INSULATION DESIGN
9.1 Heat Pipe Insulation
In heat pipe there is an adiabatic section to be properly insulated to act as a heat proof.
The insulation is based on the critical radius of insulation. Locally available insulator is
urethane foam.
Insulation
Heat pipe
Given
Heat pipe outer diameter, r1=10 mm
Critical radius of insulation, rcr=?
Thermal conductivity of insulation, k =
Convective heat transfer coefficient of surrounding medium, h =25.4w/m2-k
Length of adiabatic section of heat pipe, La=200 mm
The Critical radius of insulation, rcr for cylindrical body is given by
rc r=K/h
=18/24.7
= .7mm
So thickness of insulation for adiabatic section of the heat pipe can be of any size.
9.2 Tanker Insulation
The tanker (hot water reservoir) should be insulated appropriately for two reasons
 While the tanker is heating during the sunshine hour, heat loss should not
be significant to reduce the temperature of the water.
 During the night, the hot water will be stored in the tanker for the use in
the next day in the morning. So, the heat loss should be minimized to
make temperature of the water in the desired magnitude.
The tanker is made of rectangular cross section to be suitable for the assembly
of the heat pipe .as a result the insulation is analyzed for the flat face of the
tanker.

The insulation material available is urethane foam with previously cited

properties.
The tanker has six faces with two of them identical in area. The dimensions
for one panel containing 120 liter of water are as follows.
.25 m
.8 m .7 m
Area of each face is

A1=.8*.7= 0.56 m2
A2=.7*.25= 0.175 m2
A3=.8*.25= 0.2 m2
Total area is Atot= 1.87 m2
 material for tanker is steel which is available in the workshop with

antirust paint its thermal conductivity , k=54w/m-k
 The minimum ambient temperature, Ta is taken to be 10 oC.
 Assumed thickness of insulation, L=40 mm.
 convective heat transfer to the environment, hw=25.7w/m2-k
 Surface temperature of the tanker, Tf is taken to be the maximum
temperature the water reaches i.e. 60oC for one shift heating and
90oC for water heating the whole day.
Now let us calculate the heat loss for four hours while heating and
for 21 hours during storage and heating.
For flat insulation the heat loss, Eloss is given by

Where
t= time the surface exposed to convective loss, cases
1) 4 hours for one shift heating (is not stored is directly used
2) 21 hour for two shift heating since this is stored the
whole night (12 hour) and exposed to air for 7 hours during sunshine.
1) For the first case
Eloss= 583426.11 Joule

The useful energy from the collector is
Eu=Qu*t*3600
=9518400 Joule
The net energy, Enet
Enet= Eu- Eloss

=18453374 Joule
The useful temperature change of the water will be
Where
=961*.06
= 38.29 oC
This indicates with the right insulation the decrement of the water temperature is
insignificant showing the thickness of insulation is sufficient.

2) For the second case
Following the same procedure as the above, the thickness of insulation is 40 mm with
temperature reduction of 8 oC.
Eu =33314400 Joule
Eloss =302400 Joule
Enet =30290400
Taking some allowance the change in temperature will be 60 oC i.e. the final
temperature of the water is
Tf =22+62=82 oC
Note that loss through joints is assumed negligible.
The demand is about 1500 liter having 80-90o C in the morning. So the temperature range
is satisfactory and volume of water is fulfilled by increasing the number of panels.
Incase of water demand at noon and evening the temperature of water is from 70 to
80 .How ever, since most of the water is used for washing and cooking purpose a
temperature of 60 oC is satisfactory. In addition, increasing panel number will meet the
demand.

10. MANUFACTURING
With the dimensions that we obtain from our analysis of the design the following are
going to be ready with the following manufacturing processes to several parts to satisfy
the main target of the project.
10.1 Heat Pipe
According to our design analysis two 2.8m long with a 20 mm outer diameter and 18 mm
inner diameter are going to be prepared together with its wick for one module for heating
120 liter of water. 0.8 m part of the heat pipe will be bent 15 0. This is the part that will be
inserted into the reservoir (i.e. the condenser section). And the remaining section will be
put in the corrugated part of the absorber. The absorber and the heat pipe should be in
close contact for effective transfer of heat energy from the absorber into the heat pipe.
10.2 Glass Cover
A two glass is going to be prepared for the fulfillment of the requirement

heating effect of the above mentioned volume of water to the required temperature. These
are then to be supported by the side frames of the collector frame.
10.3 Absorber (Collector Fin)
An aluminum sheet plate will be prepared according to the designed dimension value and
will be corrugated and painted with black paint. The corrugation is of 20 mm in inner
diameter. The heat pipe is fitted to the corrugation.
10.4 Side Frames of Collector
A wood will be prepared. With the help of machining the shape can be
obtained for the holding of the glass covers. Its detail dimensions are available on the
technical drawing.

10.5 Front and Back Frames of the Collector
A will be prepared. These wood materials placed on the shorter sides of

the collector to support the edge insulation. Two holes are drilled for heat pipe way of
22 mm in diameter in the heat pipe side frame.
10.6 Insulation
All insulations are made of urethane foam.
10.6.1 Back Insulation
A is going to be prepared.
10.6.2 Front Insulation
A is going to be prepared.
10.7 Preparation of Main Support Frame
The available material used for this utility is steel material and the parts of the support
frames are as follows;
LEG
These are standard beam materials of 40x 40 mm and 2 mm thickness square cross
section. These are needed for two purposes supporting the tanker and the panel. So, six
1425 mm and two 850 mm long beams are cut and made ready for assembly.
MAIN FRAME
Angel iron
These are four L-shape beams which are welded together to form rectangle so that the
panel will rest on it, sheet of wood and the insulation being behind it. Two of the angle
iron are 40x2x2122 mm and the other two are 40x2x1070 mm in dimension.
-STRIP METAL
 Two strip metals are going to be used for the reinforcement of wood
plate there by supporting the panel. And these parts are welded to the side angle
irons to form the main support frame.

The strip metal, angle iron, and angle irons form the main support frame for the panel.
10.8 Preparation of the Collector Frame
Wood is used as a material for the component parts of the collector section. And their
construction is as follows;
The side frames of the collector are joined with the bottom support frame with the help of
nail. And then the front and back frames will then be joined with the side and bottom
frames of the collector again with the help of nail. The front frame has a holes for the
passage of the heat pipe.
10.9 Tanker
The tanker is manufactured by shearing operation to cut the metal in to proper

dimensions and welding for assembly of the individual plates.
The plates are
 Two 1.5x.8 m
 Two .25x.7 m
The first two plates are bent 90o and welded with the second two plates to form theo
tanker. Before welding holes are drilled for heat pipe insertion and inlet and outlet
pipes.

11. CLEANING OF PARTS

11.1 Cleaning
The contaminants either in solid, liquid or gaseous state may be detrimental to heat pipe
performance. The no condensable gas tends to be accumulated in the condenser zone with
consequent loss of heat pipe conductance. As contaminants can affect the performance
and life of heat pipes in many ways, hat pipe parts must thoroughly cleaned prior to
assembly. If a heat pipe is subsequently exposed to air, smoke, dust, or other
contaminants, then the heat pipe must be reclined after assembly and before evacuation
and charging.
Cleaning of metal parts for heat pipe require a multi stage procedure that includes
L: degreasing, solid particle removal, deoxidizing and degassing.
Degreasing is used for removing oils, greases, waxes, and drawing compounds.
11.2 Evacuation and Charging
Degassing Process
Prior to charging, a heat pipe must be evacuated to remove materials that may
subsequently appear as unwanted non condensable, or that chemically react with the
working fluid forming undesirable corrosion products. Removal of free gases in the heat
pipe can be done simply by pumping down with a vacuum pump.
Fluid Charging
After evacuating the heat pipe using the vacuum pump, appropriate amount of
working fluid is pumped into the heat pipe.
Reference 12

12. COST ANALYSES
To know how much is the project feasible economically; cost analysis is done for one
panel. One panel contains the following components:
Two heat pipes of 2.8m long each
Two cover glasses 2100x4mm each
Angle iron of 9 meter length
Square bar of 10 meter length
2x1 m Aluminum sheet
Two 2x.9 m steel sheet
Ply wood
The unit cost of the above is :
Heat pipe =50 birr per meter

Cover glasses =300 birr for 2x1 m plate
Angle iron 100 birr per 6 meter
Square bar 150 birr per 6 meter
2x1 m Aluminum sheet =150 birr
2x.9 m steel sheet =90 birr
Depending on the above unit cost and adding some machining and other minute part in to
consideration, the total cost becomes
1500 birr per panel. 8 panels cost 12000 birr and 16 cost panels 24000 birr.
Recent data from the cafeteria indicate 15% of this wood is used for water heating; yearly
budget of the university is 44566.5 birr for heating water for one cafeteria. But out of 365
days 50 days have no sufficient sunshine hour, 178 days work regularly and 147 the
panels will work in one shift only. Taking this in to account the university’s budget for
heating water in the feasible sun shine days is 30708.15 birr.
The maximum numbers of panels needed are 22 having a total cost of 33000 birr.
As a result the institution expenses additional 2291.85 birr by using solar water heater
employing heat pipes for one year. How ever, after one year the university starts to
minimize expense by 92.5 %. In addition, the water heater has more than 10 years life
time. So, there will be more benefits in reduction of the expense.

13. Differences between this and the Previous Project on solar water heater
employing heat pipes
The basic differences are tabulated below.
previous Present
 Circulation of water needs  Water is stationery. The heat pipe is

a pump inserted to the tank.
 Collector material is  Collector material is aluminum
copper
 Water is designed to be  Water is designed to be heated to
heated to 50 C
o
60oC .
 Sunshine hour is taken 7  There are two shifts , four hours
hours to heat water to 50 each. And 7 hours for storage
o
C purpose.
 Designed 600 liter of  Designed 120 liter of water in one
water for one panel panel
 One panel’s area is 7.2m 2
 One panel’s area is 1.8m . there is
2
plus header fin area no header fin.

1.08m2.
 One panel contains 15  One panel contains 2 heat pipes.
heat pipes Each 2.8m long
 One glass cover
 Two glass covers
 No cost analysis
 Working fluid  There is cost analysis
temperature is 100 0C
 Working fluid temperature is 60 0

C

14. ASSEMBLY
1. The main support frame together with the collector frame is first made e ready on
the required place with specified proper position (i.e. 150 south).
2. The insulation will then be put on the top of the bottom support of the collector
frame.
3. On the top of the insulation the collector plate with the heat pipe inserted in the
corrugation will then be laid.
4. The grooved side and edge frames are then assembled.
5. Then in between the collector plate and the intermediate glass that will be inserted
on the groove of the side wood frame a side insulations will be placed.
6. The intermediate glass will then be inserted above the side insulation into the
grooved part of the side collector wood frame.
7. Side insulation will then be inserted in between the top of the glass and the
intermediate glass.
8. A glass will then be put on the top of the grooved part of the side collector frames.
9. On the four sides of the top glass some gasket iron sealing mechanism will be
used to make it air proof and make the glass attached tight.

15. Conclusions and Recommendation

15.1 Conclusion
Running out of energy resources such as petroleum and coal have led the world
community to find feasible alternatives. in addition to this using biomass energy such
as wood resulted in harsh deforestation which threatens the existence of human being .
Solar energy is one of the renewable energy resource i.e. Environmentally it is beneficial
adding no harmful byproduct to the globe.
Mekelle University is using wood as a source of energy for cooking and water heating
purpose. This is causing serious deforestation in the near by regions. As a result finding
possible solution is necessary to minimize the rate of deforestation.
Solar Water Heating Employing Heat Pipe is one of the possible solutions to over come
this problem. Consequently, gathering the necessary data, the design was performed.
Eve though the maximum consumption is in the early morning the analysis shows the
consumption of water can be satisfied at all time by using proper insulation of the
tankers. Eight panels are proposed to heat 960 liter of water in one shift and identical
volume in the same panels in the next shift satisfying the consumption in the day , the
temperature being 60 oC. To supply hot water in the morning separate 14 panels are
used of total volume 1680 liter which is adequate, these panels are heated for the whole
day achieving about 80 oC and then used in the morning.
When the cost analysis is observed it is advantageous to use solar energy since it saves
significant amount of money after one year in addition to reducing the rate of
deforestation. More ever, it minimizes labor cost.

15.2 Recommendation
The design was done on certain reasonable assumptions such as

 Working fluid temperature is not exactly known , but 60 C was
o
taken comparing with what certain literatures say and adding some
allowance
 The annual radiation intensity Mekelle University is not available ,
so we measured the intensity for two to three days and was took the
average
So the above concepts should be carefully studied and should be taken in to consideration
as they bring significant change in the over all performance of the water heater.
During installation, production and insulating of the components great care should be
taken to maintain the results of the design.
Since heat pipe is a new technology as compared to other types in the area of water
heating using solar energy, there are a few studies conducted up to now , so further
investigations should be under taken on the heat pipe and on the collector in general to
achieve better efficiency.
Making the number of covers one doubles the heat loss and this in turn decrease the
efficiency. So using two cover glasses is better.

Reference
1. ARORA. DOMKUNDWA” A course In Heat and Mass Transfer”, Gagan

KAPOORFOR DHANPAT TAI Publication, INDIA, 2000.
2. Amir Faghiri, “Heat Pipe Technology”, Taylor and Francis, USA, 1998.
3. Francis De Winter,”Solar Collectors, Energy Storage And Materials”,
Massachusetts Institute Of Technology, 1990.
4. Internet
5. JOHN A.DUFFIE&WILLIM A.BECK MAN”Solar Engineering of Thermal
Processes, 2nd edition, Wiley-Inter science publication, USA, 1991.
6. J.P. HOLMAN, “Heat transfer” 8th edition, Mc grew-Hill, INC., New York, 1997.
7. P.D.DUNN & D.A.REAY “Heat pipes’, 4th edition, Pergamon, Great Britain,
1994.
8. YENUS A. CENGEL, “Heat Transfer A Practical Approach”, Tata McGraw-Hill
Edition, NEW DELHI, 2002.
9. FRANK KREITZ, ”The CRC Handbook of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING”,
CRC Press, USA,1998.
10. ‘Water Heater Employing Heat Pipe’, 2005 SENIOR PROJECT
11. Proceedings Of Energy Conference 2002, UNCC, ADDIS ABABA
12. S.W.chi,” Heat Pipe Theory And PRACTICE “HEMISPHERE publishing
company, Washington London ,1976.
13. G.D.RAI,” Energy Resources”, 4th Edition ,KHANNA, NEW DELHI, 2004.
14. DUFF and BECHMAN, “Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes”, 2nd edition,
Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, 1991.

Appendix
Al Fe Ni Ti
fluids
Nitrogen C C C
Methane C
Ammonia C C C
Methanol I C C
Water I C C
Potassium C I
Sodium C I
C- Compatible I- incompatible blank- data not available
Table A-1 fluid-solid compatibility

Final Year Project On Solar Water Heater

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Solar Water Heater Employing Heat Pipe Senior Project

2. Literature Review of the Previous Project...............................................................................................5

4. BOILING AND CONDENSATION.......................................................................................................17

5. HEAT PIPE THEORY............................................................................................................................19

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer i

5.4 Applications of heat pipes....................................................................................................................22

8. FIN (COLLECTOR) DESIGN................................................................................................................38

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer ii

10.8 Preparation of the Collector Frame..................................................................................................51

11. CLEANING OF PARTS........................................................................................................................52

12. COST ANALYSES.................................................................................................................................53

15. Conclusions and Recommendation.......................................................................................................56

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer iii

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer iv

Manufacturing of heat pipe includes cleaning, degassing, evacuation and charging.

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer v

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer vi

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer vii

 Washing service goods=1200 liter per day

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 1

1.2 Daily Sunshine Hour

Mean monthly sunshine hour

Maximum sunshine hour =14.86 February 24

Thus the water heater is not feasible for 43 days.

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 2

Minimum Mean Monthly Temperature (in degree centigrade)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug.

Maximum Mean Monthly Temperature

1.4 Wind Speed

The monthly mean wind speed(m/s )in 2005 is as follows

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 3

1.4 Solar intensity

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 4

2. Literature Review of the Previous Project

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 5

The sun is indirectly responsible for the cycle generation of energy

Electricity can be generated from intermittent renewable sources and biomass.

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 6

application in sunniest part of the world. (Source- Proceeding of Energy

3.1 Benefits of Solar Water Heating Systems

3.1.1 Economical Benefits

3.1.2 Environmental Benefits

3.1.3 Sustainability Benefits

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 7

3.2 Types of Solar Collectors

3.2.1 Glazed Flat-Plate Collectors

3.2.2 Unglazed Collectors

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 8

3.3 Design Aspect of Solar Collectors

3.3.2 Some Design Consideration In Solar Collectors

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 9

3.3.3 Some of the Problems Inherent In the Nature of Solar Radiation

1. It is relatively low intensity. As a result large amount need

3.3.4 Flat Plate Collectors

1. a transparent cover (sheet of glass or radiation transmitting plastic

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 10

Solar radiation Absorber

Heat transport fluids

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 11

Average absorber temperature

MU/FST/MED BY Ashenafi and Jaefer 12

Collector tilt angle

Mean plate temperature