PRACTICAL RESEARCH REVIEWER
FOR GRADE12 STEM16/11/6/12/13
Sources: Arellano University Legarda Grade
12 Practical Research Lesson Plan
Quantitative Research. (2022, July 22). Voxco.
Retrieved September 15, 2022, from
https://www.voxco.com/blog/quantitative-
research/
Regoniel, P. (2021, December 3). 7
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Methods. Research-based Articles. Retrieved
September 15, 2022, from
https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/03/quantitati
ve-methods-meaning-and-characteristics/
Here Are the Advantages and Disadvantages
of Quantitative Research. (2020, December 5).
LiveAbout. Retrieved September 15, 2022,
from https://www.liveabout.com/quantitative-
research-advantages-and-disadvantages-
2296728
GCU. (2021, June 7). Why Is Quantitative
Research Important? Retrieved September 15,
2022, from https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-
journey/why-quantitative-research-important
Bryman (2016) Social Research Methods
https://revisesociology.com/2017/11/26/the-
steps-of-quantitative-research/
Organized by: Professor Lee Mar Sabugar
_________________________________
LESSON 1 AND 2:
Definition of Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research is referred to as the
process of collecting as well as analyzing
numerical data. It is generally used to find
patterns, averages, predictions, as well as
cause-effect relationships between the
variables being studied.  4. PRESENT DATA IN TABLES, GRAPHS,
It is also used to generalize the results of a
particular study to the population in
consideration. Quantitative market research is
widely used in science; both natural and social
sciences.
Some examples of quantitative research
questions are:
What is the demographic markup of India in
2021?
How much has the average temperature
changed globally over the last 5 years?
Does environmental pollution affect newborn
children?
Characteristic of Quantitative Research:
7 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
Seven characteristics discriminate qualitative
methods of research from qualitative ones. The
characteristics of quantitative research
methods are enumerated in the following list.
1. CONTAIN MEASURABLE VARIABLES
Data gathering instruments contain items that
solicit measurable characteristics of the
population. These measurable characteristics
are referred to as the variables of the study
such as age, the number of children,
educational status, and economic status.
2. USE STANDARDIZED RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS
The data collection instruments include
questionnaires, polls, or surveys. Standardized,
pre-tested instruments guide data collection
thus ensuring the accuracy, reliability and
validity of data. Pre-testing helps identify areas
in the research instruments that need revisions.
It makes sure that respondents provide the
expected answers or satisfies the intent of the
researcher to meet the research objectives.
3. ASSUME A NORMAL POPULATION
DISTRIBUTION
For more reliable data analysis of quantitative
data, a normal population distribution curve
is preferred over a non-normal distribution. This
requires a large population, the numbers of
which depend on how the characteristics of the
population vary. This requires adherence to the
principle of random sampling to avoid
researcher’s bias in interpreting the results that
defeat the purpose of research.
OR FIGURES
The data obtained using quantitative methods
are organized using tables, graphs, or figures
that consolidate large numbers of data to show
trends, relationships, or differences among
variables. This fosters understanding to the
readers or clients of the research investigation.
5. USE REPEATABLE METHOD
Researchers can repeat the quantitative
method to verify or confirm the findings in
another setting. This reinforces the validity of
groundbreaking discoveries or findings thus
eliminating the possibility of spurious or
erroneous conclusions.
6. CAN PREDICT OUTCOMES
Quantitative models or formula derived from
data analysis can predict outcomes. If-then
scenarios can be constructed using complex
mathematical computations with the aid of
computers.
7. USE MEASURING DEVICES
Advanced digital or electronic instruments are
used to measure or gather quantitative data
from the field. The instruments ensure an
objective and accurate collection of data
provided that these are
calibrated. Calibration means that the
instruments used by the researcher matches
the measurements of a reference instrument
that is considered a standard.
Advantages of Quantitative Research:
Advantages of Quantitative Research
The use of statistical analysis and hard
numbers found in quantitative research has
distinct advantages in the research process.
Can be tested and checked. Quantitative
research requires careful experimental design
and the ability for anyone to replicate both the
test and the results. This makes the data you
gather more reliable and less open to
argument.
Straightforward analysis. When you collect
quantitative data, the type of results will tell you
which statistical tests are appropriate to use.
As a result, interpreting your data and
presenting those findings is straightforward and
less open to error and subjectivity.
Prestige. Research that involves complex
statistics and data analysis is considered
valuable and impressive because many people
don't understand the mathematics involved.
Quantitative research is associated with
technical advancements like computer
modeling, stock selection, portfolio evaluation,
and other data-based business decisions. The
association of prestige and value with
quantitative research can reflect well on your
small business.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research:
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
However, the focus on numbers found in
quantitative research can also be limiting,
leading to several disadvantages.
False focus on numbers. Quantitative
research can be limited in its pursuit of
concrete, statistical relationships, which can
lead to researchers overlooking broader
themes and relationships. By focusing solely
on numbers, you run the risk of missing
surprising or big-picture information that can
benefit your business.
Difficulty setting up a research model. When
you conduct quantitative research, you need to
carefully develop a hypothesis and set up a
model for collecting and analyzing data. Any
errors in your set up, bias on the part of the
researcher, or mistakes in execution can
invalidate all your results. Even coming up with
a hypothesis can be subjective, especially if
you have a specific question that you already
know you want to prove or disprove.
Can be misleading. Many people assume that
because quantitative research is based on
statistics it is more credible or scientific than
observational, qualitative research. However,
both kinds of research can be subjective and
misleading. The opinions and biases of a
researcher are just as likely to
impact quantitative approaches to information
gathering. In fact, the impact of this bias occurs
earlier in the process of quantitative research
than it does in qualitative research.
Importance/Purpose of Quantitative
Research:
The purpose of quantitative research is to
attain greater knowledge and understanding of
the social world. Researchers use quantitative
methods to observe situations or events that
affect people.1 Quantitative research produces
objective data that can be clearly
communicated through statistics and numbers.
We do this in a systematic scientific way so the
studies can be replicated by someone else.

1. Theory  respondents. For example, ‘social class’ can be
The fact that quantitative research starts off
with theory signifies the broadly deductive
approach to the relationship between theory
and research in this tradition. The sociological
theory most closely associated with this
approach is Functionalism, which is a
development of the positivist origins of
sociology.
2. Hypothesis 
It is common outlines of the main steps of
quantitative research to suggest that
a hypothesis is deduced from the theory and
is tested.
However, a great deal of quantitative research
does not entail the specification of a
hypothesis, and instead theory acts loosely as
a set of concerns in relation to which social
researcher collects data. The specification of
hypotheses to be tested is particularly likely to
be found in experimental research but is often
found as well in survey research, which is
usually based on cross-sectional design.
3. Research design
The next step entails the selection of a
research design which has implications for a
variety of issues, such as the external validity
of findings and researchers’ ability to impute
causality to their findings.
4. Operationalising concepts
Operationalising concepts is a process where
the researcher devises measure of the
concepts which she wishes to investigate. This
typically involves breaking down abstract
sociological concepts into more specific
measures which can be easily understood by
operationalied into ‘occupation’ and ‘strength of
religious believe’ can be measured by using a
range of questions about ‘ideas about God’ and
‘attendance at religious services’.
5. selection of a research site or sites
With laboratory experiments, the site will
already be established, in field experiments,
this will involve the selection of a field-site or
sites, such as a school or factory, while
with survey research, site-selection may be
more varied. Practical and ethical factors will
be a limiting factor in choice of research sites.
6. Selection of respondents
Step six involves ‘choosing a sample of
participants’ to take part in the study – which
can involve any number of sampling
techniques, depending on the hypothesis, and
practical and ethical factors. If the hypothesis
requires comparison between two different
groups (men and women for example), then
the sample should reflect this.
Step six may well precede step five – if you
just wish to research ‘the extent of teacher
labelling in schools in London’, then you’re
pretty much limited to finding schools in
London as your research site(s).
7. Data collection
Step seven,  is what most people probably
think of as ‘doing research’.  In experimental
research this is likely to involve pre-testing
respondents, manipulating the independent
variable for the experimental group and then
post-testing respondents. In cross-sectional
research using surveys, this will involve
interviewing the sample members by
structured-interview or using a pre-coded
questionnaire. For observational research this
will involve watching the setting and behaviour
of people and then assigning categories to
each element of behaviour.
8. Processing data
This means transforming information which has
been collected into ‘data’. With some
information this is a straightforward process –
for example, variables such as ‘age’, or
‘income’ are already numeric.
Other information might need to be ‘coded’ – or
transformed into numbers so that it can be
analysed. Codes act as tags that are placed on
data about people which allow the information
to be processed by a computer.
9. Data analysis
In step nine, analysing data, the researcher
uses a number of statistical techniques to look
for significant correlations between variables,
to see if one variable has a significant effect on
another variable.
The simplest type of technique is to organise
the relationship between variables into graphs,
pie charts and bar charts, which give an
immediate ‘intuitive’ visual impression of
whether there is a significant relationship, and
such tools are also vital for presenting the
results of one’s quantitative data analysis to
others.
In order for quantitative research to be taken
seriously, analysis needs to use a number of
accepted statistical techniques, such as the
Chi-squared test, to test whether there is a
relationship between variables. This is
precisely the bit that many sociology students
will hate, but has become much more common
place in the age of big data!
10. Findings and conclusions  There is no manipulation of variables or search
On the basis of the analysis of the data, the
researcher must interpret the results of the
analysis. It is at this stage that the findings
will emerge: if there is a hypothesis, is it
supported? What are the implications of the
findings for the theoretical ideas that formed
the background of the research?
11. Writing up Findings  policies or programs.
Finally, in stage 11, the research must be
written up. The research will be writing for
either an academic audience, or a client, but
either way, a write-up must convince the
audience that the research process has been
robust, that data is as valid, reliable and
representative as it needs to be for the
research purposes, and that the findings are
important in the context of already existing
research.
Once the findings have been published, they
become part of the stock of knowledge (or
‘theory’ in the loose sense of the word) in their
domain. Thus, there is a feedback loop from
step eleven back up to step one.
The presence of an element of both
deductivism (step two) and inductivism is
indicative of the positivist foundations of
quantitative research.
_________________________________
LESSON 3:
In quantitative research, there are also kind of
it that you may employ.
1. Descriptive Research
It is also known as NON-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH.
This design is concerned with describing the
nature, characteristics and components of the
population or a phenomenon.
for the cause and effect related to the
phenomenon.
2. Correlational Research
It is a systematic investigation of the nature of
relationships, or associations between and
among variables without necessarily
investigating into casual reasons underlying
them.
3. Evaluation Research
This kind of research aims to assess the
effects, impacts or outcomes of practices,
4. Survey Research
This kind of research is used to gather
information from groups of people by selecting
and studying samples chosen from a
population.
Subtypes:
Cross-sectional – just single point in time
Longitudinal – over a period of time
5. Causal – Comparative
Research
It is also known as EX POST FACTO (after the
fact) RESEARCH.
This kind of research derives conclusion from
observations and manifestations that already
occurred in the past and now compared to
some dependent variables.
6. Experimental Research
This research utilizes scientific method to test
cause-and-effect relationships under conditions
controlled by the researcher.
An independent variable is manipulated to
determine the effects on the dependent
variable.
_________________________________
LESSON 4:
1. Variables
A variable is a central concept in research.
A variable is anything that may assume varied
numerical and categorical values.
Variables are “changing qualities or
characteristics” of persons or things like age,
gender, intelligence, ideas, achievements,
confidence, and so on that are involved in your
research study.
2. Continuous Variables – that can take
infinite numbers on the value that can occur
within a population. Its values can be divided
into fraction.
Interval Variables – a measurements where
the difference between two values does have
meaning. The interval between values makes
sense and can be interpreted.
Ratio Variables – Possess the properties of
interval variables and has a clear definition of
zero, indication that there is none of the
variables.
3. Discrete Variables – also know as
Categorical Variable is any variables that has a
limited numbers of distinct values and which
cannot be divided into fraction.
Nominal Variables – a variables with no
quantitative value, it has two or more
categories but does not imply ordering of
cases.
Ordinal Variables – a variables that has two or
more categories which can be ranked but a
value cannot be placed to them. Distances
between attributes do not have any meaning.
_________________________________
LESSON 5:
Selecting a Research Topic
It should be something new or different from
what has already been written about.
It must be original.
It should be significant to the field of study or
discipline.
It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
It should be of researcher’s interest and
researcher must be with the topic.
It should be a modest one for a beginner to be
carried on within a limited period of time.
It should be clear, not ambiguous.
It should be specific, not general.
It should consider the training and personal
qualifications of the researcher.
It should consider the availability of data
involved in the study and the methods and
techniques to be employed in gathering them.
It should consider the availability of effective
instruments for gathering the data and their
treatment.
It should consider the financial capacity of the
researcher to support the project.
It should consider the time factor involved in
the undertaking.
Guidelines in Formulating a Research Title
The title must contain the following Elements
(depending on the nature of the study)
The subject matter or research problem
The setting or locale of the study
The respondents or participants involve in the
study
The time and the period when the study was
conducted
The title must be broad enough to include all
aspects of the study but should be brief and
concise as possible
The use of terms as “Analysis of _____” A
study of _____” An investigation of
_______and the like should be avoided
If the title contains more than one line, it should
be written in inverted pyramid
When typed or encoded in the title page, all
words in the title should be in capital letters
If possible, the title should not be longer than
15 substantive words
Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much
information
To shorten the title, delete the terms
“assessment or evaluation if these are already
emphasized in the text
If the title contains more than one line, it should
be written in pyramid.
When typed or encoded in the title pages, all
words in the title should be in capital letters.
The title should be longer than 15 substantive
words.
_________________________________
LESSON 6:
Related Literature is composed of discussions
of facts and principles to which the present
study is related. It refers to written works like
studies, inquiries, or investigations
already conducted.
Importance, Purpose and Functions of
Related Literature and Studies.
Help or guide the researcher in searching for or
selecting a better research problem or topic.
Help the investigator understand his topic for
research better.
Ensure that there will be no duplication of other
studies.
Help and guide the researcher in locating more
sources of related information.
Help and guide the researcher in making his
research design
Help and guide the researcher in making
comparison between his findings with the
findings of other researchers on similar studies
with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the
contributions of the study
to the fund of knowledge.
Characteristics of Related Literature
The surveyed materials must be as recent as
possible.
Materials reviewed must be objective and
unbiased.
Materials surveyed must be relevant to the
study.
Surveyed materials must have been based
upon genuinely original and true facts or data
to make valid and reliable.
Reviewed materials must not be too few or too
many.
Sources and Where to Locate Sources
Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Where to locate the sources?
Libraries
Government and/or private offices
National Library
Library of Department of Education, Culture
and Sports
Related Legal Bases
Related Literature
Related Studies
Conceptual and Operational
Review of Related Literature documentation of
comprehensive review of the published and
unpublished work from secondary sources of
data in the area of specific interest to
the researcher.
Purpose of Literature Review
Establish a theoretical framework for your
topic/subject area.
Define key terms, definitions and terminology.
Identify studies, models, case studies, etc.
supporting your topic.
Define or establish your area of study.
Steps in Writing Review of Related
Literature
Decide on your areas of research
Search for the literature
Find relevant excerpts
Code the literature
Create your conceptual schema
Begin to write your literature review
_________________________________
LESSON 7:
Research title
a title summarizes the main idea or ideas of
your study
Effective titles in academic
research papers have several characteristics.
Indicate accurately the subject and scope of
the study.
Avoid using abbreviations.
Use words that create a positive impression
and stimulate reader interest.
Use current nomenclature from the field of
study.
Identify key variables, both dependent and
independent.
May reveal how the paper will be organized.
Suggest a relationship between variables
which supports the major hypothesis.
Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or
similar constructions.
Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but
can also be in the form of a question.
Use correct grammar and capitalization with all
first words and last words capitalized, -
including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that
appear between the first and last words of the
title are also capitalized.
In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by
an exclamation mark. However, a title or
subtitle can be in the form of a question.
_________________________________
LESSON 8 AND 9:
What is an IMRaD report?
“IMRaD” format refers to a paper that is
structured by four main sections: Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion. This format
is often used for lab reports as well as for
reporting any planned, systematic research in
the social sciences, natural sciences, or
engineering and computer sciences.
EXAMPLE:
Introduction
Make a case for your research
The introduction explains why this research is
important or necessary or important. Begin by
describing the problem or situation that
motivates the research. Move to discussing the
current state of research in the field; then
reveal a “gap” or problem in the field. Finally,
explain how the present research is a solution
to that problem or gap. If the study has
hypotheses, they are presented at the end of
the introduction.
Methods
What did you do?
The methods section tells readers how you
conducted your study. It includes information
about your population, sample, methods, and
equipment. The “gold standard” of the methods
section is that it should enable readers to
duplicate your study. Methods sections
typically use subheadings; they are written in
past tense, and they use a lot of passive voice.
This is typically the least read section of an
IMRaD report.
Results
What did you find?
In this section, you present your findings.
Typically, the Results section contains only the
findings, not any explanation of or commentary
on the findings (see below). Results sections
are usually written in the past tense. Make sure
all tables and figures are labeled and
numbered separately. Captions go above
tables and beneath figures.
Discussion
What does it mean?
In this section, you summarize your main
findings, comment on those findings (see
below), and connect them to other research.
You also discuss limitations of your study, and
use these limitations as reasons to suggest
additional, future research.
Abstract
Summarize the entire study
The abstract for the report comes at the
beginning of the paper, but you should write it
after you have drafted the full report. The
abstract provides a very short overview of the
entire paper, including a sentence or two about
the report’s purpose and importance, a
sentence or two about your methods, a few
sentences that present the main findings, and a
sentence or two about the implications of your
findings.
What is Background of the Study?
It is the introduction of your research paper,
this includes an explanation of the area of your
research to set context for the problem at hand.
How to Write a Background of the Study
Conduct preliminary research
Read the information and develop a research
question.
Write a research question
Complete your research using research
question us your guide.
Create relevant question.
Conclude by identifying any future study.
Revise and edit your background of the study.
Background of the Study present the
following:
Goal of the research or study
Problem in a general or large scale-view
Discussion of the topic
Detailed literature review
Problem in a specific or local view
________________________________
LESSON 10:
Citation is a formal reference to a published or
unpublished source that you consulted and
obtained information from while writing your
research paper.
Citation Style dictates the necessary
information needed for a citation and how
these information is ordered, as well as
punctuation and other formatting.
What is the difference between MLA and APA
citation?
The difference between MLA and APA citation
is how they are formatting. MLA citations
include the last name and first name and title in
title case. APA citations on the other hand,
include the author's last name and first initial,
title in sentence case, and no period after a
URL.

APA (American Psychological Association)

is used by Education, Psychology and Science.
The APA style allows for in-text citations, direct
quotations and end notes and footnotes. It also
enables the author to use the past tense of
verbs in the reportage.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

used mostly in the arts and humanities. MLA
style focusses on the citation of books,
anthologies, literary works, audio-visual
material, multimedia and similar works with
much more detail.

Importance of Citing your Sources

Proper citation allows readers to locate the
materials you used.
Citing other people's words and ideas
demonstrates that you have conducted a
thorough review of the literature on your topic
Other researcher's ideas can be used to
reinforce your arguments.
The ideas of other researchers can be used to
explain reasons for alternative approaches.
Ideas are considered intellectual property and
there can be serious repercussions if you fail to
cite where you got an idea from.
Bibliography is a list of all of the sources
you have used (whether referenced or not) in
the process of researching your work. In
general, a bibliography should include:
the authors' names
the titles of the works
the names and locations of the companies that
published your copies of the sources
the dates your copies were published
the page numbers of your sources (if they are
part of multi-source volumes)
____________________________________
LESSON 11:
What is Background of the Study
It is a part of the research provided in the
introduction section of a research paper.
It is a compilation of information that is based
on the analysis of the problem or proposed
argument.
It is also described as the by-product of the
Review of Related Literature.
Content of the Background of the Study
(present a sample)
The Background of the Study mainly presents
the following:
Discussion of the Topic
Detailed literature review
Problem and its history
- problem in general or
large-scale view
 - problem in a specific or
local view
Goal of the study

Steps in doing a Background of the Study

Conduct preliminary research.
This will help you formulate a research
question that will lead to more specific and
relevant research.

Read the information and develop a research

question that will guide your research. Be sure
to cite the source of the information you use.

Write a research statement or

research question. Think about what you've
read and look for issues, problems or solutions
that others have found and determine your own
opinion or stance on the issue.

Complete your research using your research

statement and research question as your
guide. Make sure that your sources provide
details on the history and past research related
to your research question.

As you write the background study, identify the

key issues, major findings, and controversies
surrounding your study.

Conclude by identifying any further study that

needs to be done in that area, or provide
possible solutions to the issue that haven't
been considered before.