LESSON 1
How can we define religion?
 Religion is a set of beliefs that are practiced by
an individual. In other words, religion is a group
of ideas and values that a person lives by.
Actions such as worship are involved in religion.
BELIEF SYSTEM
 a set of principles or tenets which together form
the basis of a religion, philosophy, or moral
code.
CONFUCIANISM
 “Don’t do to others what you don’t want them
to do to you”
SPIRITUALITY
1. The Cambridge dictionary defines spirituality as.
“The quality that involves deep feeelings and
beliefs of a religious nature, rather than the
physical parts of life.”
2. Collin dictionary says, “Spiritual means relating
to people’s thought and belief, rather than to
their bodies and physical surrounding.”
3. The Oxford dictionary says, “Relating to or
affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed to
material or physical things”
THEOLOGY
 Theology is the systematic study of the nature
of the divine and, more broadly, of religious
belief. It is taught as an academic discipline,
typically in universities and seminaries.
 Theology is the study of God. It comes from the
word theos which is Greek for “God,” and -
ology which is from the Greek
word logos meaning “word.” Most literally then
the word theology means “words about God” or
“the study of God.”
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
 Philosophy of religion is the philosophical
examination of the themes and concepts
involved in religious traditions as well as the
broader philosophical task of reflecting on
matters of religious significance including
the nature of religion itself, alternative
concepts of God or ultimate reality, and the
religious significance of general features of
the cosmos.
EIGHT ELEMENTS OF RELIGIONS
1. BELIEF SYSTEM or WORLDVIEW: Many beliefs that fit
together in a system to make sense of the universe and
our place in it.
2. COMMUNITY: The belief system is shared, and its
ideals are practiced by a group.
3. CENTRAL STORIES/MYTHS: Stories that help explain
the beliefs of a group; these are told over and over
again and sometimes performed by members of the
group. They may or may not be factual.
4. RITUALS: Beliefs are explained, taught, and made
real through ceremonies.
5. ETHICS: Rules about how to behave; these rules are
often thought to have come from a deity or
supernatural place, but they might also be seen as
guidelines created by the group over time.
6. CHARACTERISTIC EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES: Most
religions share emotions such as awe, mystery, guilt,
joy, devotion, conversion, inner peace, etc.
7. MATERIAL EXPRESSION: Religions use things to
perform rituals or to express or represent beliefs, such
as: statues, paintings, music, flowers, incense, clothes,
architecture, and specific sacred locations.
8. SACREDNESS: Religions see some things as sacred
and some not sacred (or profane). Some objects,
actions, people and places may share in the sacredness
or express it.
Understanding the worldview of each of the world’s
major religions is critical in appreciating their rituals and
practices. These worldviews are:
1. All is one (Monistic)
2. Many Gods (Polytheistic)
3. One God (Monotheistic)
4. No God (Atheistic)
ELEMENTS OF SPIRITUALITY
Soil
 Earth types include the horoscopes Taurus,
Virgo, and Capricorn. 
 These types are seen as friendly, reliable,
inflexible, goal-oriented, and pragmatic. 
 These are the people who have a calming
and soothing appearance and convey this to
others. They keep a cool head and help
others ground themselves before making
big decisions.
Water
 The horoscopes Cancer, Scorpion, and Pisces
are among the water types.  and fertility. Generally, polytheistic cultures believed in
 These types are seen as intuitive, empathetic,
flexible, a lot of empathy, and a listening ear.  Canaanites sacrificed to the male god, Baal, and his
 Water people are very sensitive and transmit
this to others. They teach you empathy and
compassion by sharing their openness and
emotions. The characteristic of water types is
that they can easily be brought to tears in both
joy and sorrow.
Sky
 The sky types include the horoscopes Gemini,
Libra, and Aquarius.  numerous ancient cultures. The belief that the universe
 These types are seen as thinkers, logic seekers,
analyzing, open-minded, calm, and calm. They
can have problems with emotions. Air types are
seen as a teacher or messenger. They like to
take in a lot of knowledge and share this with
others. They help you develop your awareness
by offering you options and choices.
Fire
 Fire types include the horoscopes Aries, Leo,
and Sagittarius.  animal. We must live in harmony with them,
 These types are seen as dominant, enthusiastic,
take challenges and risks, have a large ego, and
have high decisiveness. The fire types ensure
that action is taken and encourage others to do
“A PERSON WHO IS SPIRITUAL BUT NOT RELIGIOUS
AND A PERSON WHO IS RELIGIOUS BUT NOT
SPIRITUAL”
Lesson2: How World Religions Began
Origin of Religion - Ancient Foundations
The origin of religion can generally be traced to the
ancient Near East and classified in three basic
categories: polytheistic, pantheistic and
monotheistic. Atheism is really a modern belief that
resulted from the "Enlightenment" period of the 18th
century.
Origin of Religion-Polytheism
The origin of religion and polytheistic systems:
Polytheism (a belief in many gods) is thought to have
originated with Hinduism in about 2500 BC. Hindu
beliefs were recorded in the Bhagavad Gita, which
revealed that many gods were subject to a supreme
Brahman god. Polytheism was also the religion of many
other ancient cultures, including Assyria,
Babylonia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. The ancient
polytheistic belief systems viewed gods as being in
control of all natural events such as rainfall, harvests
sacrifices to appease their gods. For instance, the
female counterpart, Ashteroth. Baal controlled the rain
and the harvest, while Ashteroth controlled fertility and
reproduction. The Greeks and Romans developed
polytheism to a highly structured pantheon of gods and
goddesses.
Origin of Religion – Pantheism
The origin of religions and pantheistic systems:
Pantheism (a belief that all is God) prevailed in
itself was divine was typified in the Animism beliefs of
the African and American Indian cultures, the later
Egyptian religion under the Pharoahs, and Buddhism,
Confucianism and Taoism in the cultures of the Far East.
Pantheistic beliefs are also finding resurgence among
various New Age movements. Generally, pantheism is
the principle that god is everything, and everything is
god. Therefore, nature is also part of god. We must be
in harmony with nature. We must nurture it and be
nurtured by it. Mankind is no different than any other
understand them, and learn from them, focusing on the
relationship between mankind and the elements of
nature.
Origin of Religion – Monotheism
The origin of religion and monotheistic systems:
Monotheism (a belief in one God) is the foundation of
the Judeo-christian-muslim line of religions, which
began with a man named Abraham in about 2000 BC.
From this point in history, God began revealing Himself
to the world through the nation of Israel. The Jewish
Scriptures record the journey of the Israelites from
slaves in Egypt to the "promised land" in Canaan under
the leadership of Moses. During a period of about 1500
years, God revealed what became the Old Testament
of the Bible, relating the history of Israel with the
character and laws of God. During the period of the
Roman Empire, Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem as
the long-awaited Messiah. The ministry of Jesus ended
in about 32 AD with His crucifixion and resurrection.
After Christ's ascension into heaven, the Christian
church grew in His name and the New Testament was
written. About 600 years later, Muhammad began
preaching in Mecca. Muhammad believed he was the
ultimate prophet of God, and his teachings became
the precepts of Islam as recorded in the Qur'an.
Lesson3: to suffer from misery. Religion saves people
from drowning and encourage them to self-
Positive and Negative Effect of Religions introspect in order to enhance their quality of
Positive Effect: life.
 Gives a Sense of belongingness to people- Like
 Promotes Social Harmony- Religion trusts family, nationality, and ethnicity, religion also
supernatural powers, and beings. It practices inculcates a sense of belongingness and
ceremonious rites, and rituals and respect familiarity among people. Religion makes
religious leaders such as priestesses, priests, people identify as a part of one group that has
shamans etc. By integrating and alleviating similar beliefs, worldviews, practices, lifestyles,
countries, and cultures, religion contributes to and values.
overall harmony in the world.
 Provides Moral Values- Another significant Negative effect of religion:
benefit of religion is that it encourages moral
 Fills people with hatred- Some people
values in a person. It offers an organized model
preach others that by getting born under a
of the entire universe that regulates
specific religion they have committed a sin.
sophisticated human behavior. By providing
They manipulate them and spread bad
moral values, religion helps people to
things about their religion. This fills their
distinguish between right and wrong, evil and
minds with hatred, resentment, and
good. It offers a system of punishment, and
bitterness. So, they start to hate
reward that supervises and normalizes human’s
themselves. There are communities that
behavior in this society.
shows that their religion is the best and
-Religion teaches that All Are One. People
everyone should convert into their religion.
start to see themselves in others. It teaches
Such demands on the grounds of religion
human values to people. A person who is
are baseless, and unethical.
religious and love God, will never indulge in any
 Causes Discrimination Among People-
anti-social or harmful activities.
Religion is one of the causes that turns
 Provides Social Change- By inculcating moral
people against each other. They can’t
value to people, religion serves as a platform for
tolerate religious ideologies of other
social change. It is hard to be involved in public
people. Religion discriminates people, and
demonstration, and politicization for social
puts them into categories from upper
issues when your moral teachings teaches you
section to lower section / untouchables
to be unargumentative. Religion teaches you to
 Triggers fights, and conflicts- Religion has
solve issues with peace and non-violence and
been the major reason for several wars that
not by agitation and violence.
have happened in the past. Some of these
 Reduces Anxiety of the Unknown- Many
dreaded events such as Self-Immolation of
people are afraid of their future. Some have
one Buddhist Monk in Vietnam, Burning of
anxiety about how will be their life after death.
Hindu Widows in India, The Godhra Train
Religion helps them to realize their source /
Episode in 2002, etc. are still remembered
origin and where they are destined to go after
by people.
their death. It teaches people how to live life
-A thousand of people are killed in
and what will a person take away with him after
these wars. Several families are destroyed.
death. Religion gives answers to all these
Several women become widow and several
questions and help a lot to relieve one from the
children become orphan. There are
fear and anxiety of unknown.
countless injuries and deaths for the sake of
 Gives Positive Goal in Life- Religion gives you a
religion. Such riots, and attacks are still
purpose in life. it brings ignorant people on the
prevalent today.
right path and prevent them from getting
 Exploit People- Religion also serve as an
misled. Different prophets such as the Moses,
economic tool to exploit people and create
Muhammad, Siddhartha Gautama, etc. have
differences among masses. According to the
come to the Earth from time to time to teach
opinion of the Karl Marx, a renowned
people about their mission in life. It is when
German philosopher, Religion works as an
they forget their true purpose in life, they tend
opium for the people.” It creates power
 struggle between minority and majority,
that sometimes escalate into occurrence of
shocking historical events in the world.
LESSON 4: CHRISTIANITY
FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY
-Jesus was born in Nazareth and lived around 7 BCE
to 30 CE. Jesus was later on referred to by his
followers as “Jesus Christ” (or Jesus the Christ) in
recognition of his being the Messiah prophesized in
the Old Testament of the Holy Bible (the sacred
book of the Christians). The term Christ is Greek for
the title “The Anointed One,” which in Hebrew is
translated as “Messiah.” While Jesus was born as a
human, most Christians believe that Jesus was not
just human but also God. He is, in particular, the
only begotten Son of God sent to this world to
redeem mankind from their sins or disobedience to
God.
-We know about the life of Jesus through the Four
Gospels (the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and
John) of the Holy Bible. According to their account,
Jesus was conceived in the womb of Mary through
the Holy Spirit. Mary was chosen by God to be the
mother of Jesus, of which she was made aware
through an angel. Joseph, a carpenter to whom
Mary was engaged, stood as the foster father of
Jesus.
-When Jesus was born in Bethlehem in a manger, he
was visited by shepherds and the three Magi or
wise men from the East (said to be Mazdean priests
from Persia) who, guided by a star, came to bring
gifts to the baby Jesus (gold, frankincense, and
myrrh). Jesus grew in wisdom. At the age of 12, he
was intelligently conversing with the Jewish scholars
on matters concerning the Hebrew Scriptures. At
the age of 30, Jesus began his ministry to fulfill his
divine mission.
-Jesus, accompanied by his twelve apostles, then
proceeded to preach at different places in Israel.
The apostles were: (1) Simon (also called Peter), (2)
Andrew (Simon’s brother), (3) James (son of
Zebedee), (4) John (James’s brother), (5) Philip, (6)
Bartholomew, (7) Thomas, (8) Matthew (the tax
collector), (9) James (son of Alpheus), (10)
Thaddaeus (or Judas, son of James), (11) Simon (the
Zealot), and (12) Judas Iscariot (who later on
betrayed Jesus).
THE HOLY BIBLE
-The sacred texts of Christianity are contained in the
Christian Bible, usually referred to as the Holy Bible.
-The Holy Bible is divided into two parts, which are
called the Old Testament and New Testament
-The Old Testament, which was originally written in
Hebrew, is basically the Hebrew Bible, the sacred
text of Judaism. It contains all the books of the
Hebrew Bible with some modifications in the
arrangement. The New Testament, which was
originally written in Greek, contains the life and
teachings of Jesus, the early development of
Christianity, as well as Christianity’s belief about the
end of time.
The New Testament
-is divided into four main parts: (1) the Gospels,
which are narrations or descriptions of the life and
teachings of Jesus; (2) the Acts of Apostles, which is
generally a historical account of the early growth of
Christianity; (3) the Epistles, which are letters
written mostly by the apostle Paul to the early
Christians; and (4) Revelation, which symbolically
speaks of the Christian vision of how in the end of
time the good will eventually prevail over evil, or
how the Kingdom of God will eventually reign in the
world.
The Gospels
- consist of the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and
John.The word gospel comes from the old English
godspell (which in turn came from the Greek word
evangelion and Latin word evangelium), which
means “good news” or “good tidings.”The good
news of the gospel is the coming Kingdom of the
Messiah, and of redemption through the life, death,
and resurrection of Jesus, the central message of
Christianity. The authors of these books, namely,
Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, who were early
followers of Christ, are referred to as the Four
Evangelists. The books of Matthew, Mark, and Luke
are referred to as the Synoptic Gospels (synoptic is a
Greek word which means “having a common view”)
for their close similarities in form and content and
for relying on a common source.
The Acts of Apostles
-describes the early stage of the development of
Christianity. It narrates how Christianity as a religion
began and propagated first among the Jews and
later on among the Gentiles (the non-Jews), from
the ascension of Jesus into heaven until the time Revelation
when the apostle Paul preached in Rome. It also
shows the dedication and sacrifices of the apostles, -(written around 95 CE) is the last book of the
Christian Bible. It symbolically describes how the
primarily Peter and Paul, as they preached the
teachings of Christianity in various regions battle between good and evil would come to an end
as revealed in visions. In particular, it symbolically
The Epistles describes how the forces of evil (Satan’s army) will
be finally defeated and the Kingdom of God will
-are divided into two classes: the Pauline Epistles finally reign in the world. It is considered an
and the General (or Universal) example of apocalyptic literature, referring to
-The Pauline Epistles, consisting of the first thirteen writings that describe how the end of the world
letters, were written by Paul. They were addressed would come about.
to individuals and particular churches and dealt with DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES
specific issues or problems. Some of the letters
were written by Paul while in prison, so they have 1. Monotheism
been called Prison Epistles. The letters addressed to
individual church leaders and dealt with ministerial 2. Holy Trinity
matters are called Pastoral Epistles. The General 3. Jesus as God & Mesiah
Epistles, consisting of the remaining eight letters,
were written by other apostles: one by an unknown 4. Heaven and Hell
apostle, three by John, two by Peter, and one each 5. Ressurection of the Dead
by James and Jude. Written for a general audience,
these letters are sometimes also called Catholic 6. Last Supper
Epistles.
THE NATURE OF GOD
 21 EPISTLES
Christians, like the Jews and Muslims, are
13 Pauline Epistles 8 General Epistles  monotheistic in that they believe there is only one
God.This is the same God as the God of Abraham,
Moses, and the other prophets in the Hebrew Bible.
1. Romans; 6. Philippians (Prison Unlike the monotheism of the Jews and
Epistle);  Muslims, the monotheism of Chrisitianity is
2. 1 Corinthians
7. Colossians (Prison qualified by the belief that God has three persons:
3. 2 Corinthians;  Epistle); God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the
Holy Spirit. This belief that God has three such
4.  Galatians;   8. 1 Thessalonians;  persons has been called the belief in the Trinity
5. Ephesians (Prison (sometimes the Blessed or Holy Trinity). Christians
9. 2 Thessalonians;
Epistle); believe that there is no rational explanation for this;
 10. 1 Timothy it is simply a mysterious truth that is accepted as a
11.2 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle); matter of faith.
(Pastoral Epistle);
17. 2 Peter; There are at least seven fundamental beliefs
 12.  Titus (Pastoral that Christians hold about the nature of Jesus.
Epistle);  18. 1 John;
First and foremost, Jesus is God. Jesus is God in
13. Philemon (Prison 19. 2 John that He is the Holy Trinity’s God the Son. When we
Epistle) say Jesus is the Son of God, we are not speaking of
20. 3 John
14. Hebrews;  two gods here—one, the Father God, and the other,
21. Jude the Son God. Rather, we are speaking of the person
15. James; of Jesus as God, his being God the Son.
16. 1 Peter; Second, while Jesus is God, he is also human. He
became human when he was born into this world
and later on died on the cross in order to save
mankind from their sinful nature
 Third, Jesus is the Messiah that was
prophesized in the Old Testament. Jesus came into
this world in order to save mankind from their sins.
Fourth, Jesus came into this world (to become
human) through virgin birth. Jesus was conceived in
the womb of Mary through the Holy Spirit, and not
through the natural reproductive means humans
engage in to conceive a child.
Fifth, Jesus was sinless. As earlier noted, Jesus,
being wholly human, was subject to the same kinds
of temptations humans experience, but Jesus was
able to overcome all his temptations.
Sixth, Jesus resurrected from the dead. Three
days after he died on the cross, Jesus became alive
again and met with his disciples, mother, siblings,
and friends.
And lastly, Jesus ascended into heaven. After 40
days since his resurrection from the dead, Jesus
ascended into heaven and promised to come again
during the Last Judgment.
HUMAN CONDITION
-Humans are made in the image and likeness of
God. This means that humans bear certain
resemblances with their Creator. There are two
main resemblances humans have with God. First,
humans are made to resemble God’s eternal and
spiritual nature by possessing immortal souls which
continue to survive after their physical death.
Second, humans are made to resemble God’s
wisdom by possessing reason and will which enable
them to know and make their own (free) choices.
RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD AND LAST
JUDGMENT
-When humans die, it is believed that they
immediately undergo a particular judgment on
whether they should go to heaven or hell (or
purgatory).
-Christians believe that in that time, there will be
the Resurrection of the Dead, followed by the Last
Judgment.
THE TWO GREAT COMMANDENTS
In Matthew 22:34-36, Jesus was asked by a Pharisee
considered to be an expert in Jewish law with the
question “Which is the greatest commandment in
the Law?” Jesus replied, ‘“Love the Lord your God
with all your heart and with all your soul and with
all your mind.’This is the first and greatest
commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your
neighbor as yourself.’
SOME PRACTICES AND RITUALS
1. Baptism
2. Lords Supper
3. Lenten Season
4. Devotion to Mary & Veneration of the
Saints (Catholic Practices)
 Baptism is a ritual for moral purification
(“washing impurities away”) and serves as an
initiation rite. A person who undergoes it
signifies his or her commitment to repent from
his or her sins, lead a new life, and make himself
or herself ready to receive the Kingdom of God.
 The practice of sharing a meal of bread and
wine imitates the Last Supper that Jesus had
with his disciples before his death, and recalls
Jesus’s sacrifice leading to his death and
resurrection.
 Lent Season refers to the 40 days of repentance
and preparation for Easter— the resurrection of
Jesus from the dead. The 40 days signify the 40
days of fasting and prayer that Jesus spent in
the desert after his baptism by John the Baptist
and before his public life or Messianic ministry
began.
 Christmas is the Christian celebration of the
birth of Jesus which takes place on December
25 of every year. The fourweek preparation for
Christmas, which remembers the period prior to
the birth of Jesus, is called Advent. Several days
after Christmas, on January 6, Christians
celebrate the feast called the Epiphany or Three
Kings, which mainly commemorates the visit of
the three wise men to baby Jesus.
DENOMINATION AND CHALLENGES
CHIRSTIAN CHURCHES
WESTERN CHURCHES
CATHOLIC
PROTESTANT- Lutheran, Calvinist(Presbyterianism),
Sectarian(Baptism, Methodist, Quaker, Pentecostal)
ANGELICAN-Church of England, other Angelican
Churches
NONTRADITIONAL- Mormon, Jehovah’s Witness,
Christian Science,Unity, Unitarian, Unfication
EASTERN CHURCHES
EASTERN ORTHODOX- Greek, Russian, Serbian,
Romanian, Bulgarian
Others- Armenian, Egyptian Coptic, Ethiopian Coptic,
Nestorian
The Catholic Church (or Roman Catholic Church)
-(“Catholic” means universal) is believed to have been
founded by Jesus Christ through the apostle Peter, who
is considered as the first Bishop of Rome or Pope. The
Pope is the central authority whose views on doctrines
pertaining to faith and morals are regarded as infallible
(that is, not subject to error).
-These sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, the
Eucharist (Communion or the Lord’s Supper), Penance,
Holy Matrimony or Marriage, Anointing of the Sick
(formerly Extreme Unction), and Holy Orders.
The Eastern Orthodox Church
-consists of the Christian churches that formally
separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054
when the Bishop of Rome, Pope Leo IX, and the
Patriarch of Constantinople (Eastern churches call their
bishops “patriarchs”) Michael Celarius,
excommunicated one another because of some
disagreements
-The split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox churches, called the East-West Schism
(sometimes called the Great Schism), involved various
aspects such as doctrines, language, politics, and
geography
The Protestant Church
-developed from the movement of protest against
certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly
inspired by Martin Luther’s publication of his Ninety-
Five Theses, which he posted on the door of the Castle
Church of Wittenberg in 1517, demanding for reforms in
the Catholic Church
-They believe in salvation by faith alone, instead of good
works alone or faith and good works combined. They
hold that one can directly ask God for forgiveness for
one’s sins and that priests can marry. They also reject
the veneration of Mary and the saints.
Lutheranism and Calvinism ( and Presbyterianism) -
Aside from Martin Luther, another major leader of the
Protestant movement was John Calvin (1509-1564),
regarded as the leader of the French Protestants. Calvin
shared some of Luther’s thoughts but disagreed with
him on some points.
Anabaptists and Baptists
-are two independent Christian groups which share
some central views. Though they are both identified
with the Protestant movement, they have different
views about their relation and origins. Some think that
Baptists originated from or were heavily influenced by
Anabaptists, while some (considered to be the majority)
claim that they are totally unrelated in terms of their
historical origins.
Methodism
began as a society within the Church of England led by
John Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-
1788), who were former missionaries of the Church of
England. Methodist beliefs is their use of logic and
reason in understanding and interpreting matters of
faith (understanding the Scripture and God’s will and
actions, among others). Methodist Churches emphasize
missionary work.
Pentecostal Church
A distinctive feature of this movement is its belief in the
baptism with the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian
spiritual gifts, including the ability to speak in tongues
and the power of healing.
The Anglican Church
originated in England during the time of King Henry VIII
(1491-1547). In 1530s, King Henry VIII made himself the
Supreme Head of the Church of England and challenged
the authority of the Pope. Anglicanism is generally
regarded as a kind of middle way between Catholicism
and Protestantism. Its religious doctrines and practices
are a blend of those found in Catholicism and
Protestantism.
Nontraditional Christian Churches
The Churches of Roman Catholicism, Eastern
Orthodoxy, Protestantism, and Anglicanism are
considered traditional churches for while they have
differences in doctrines and practices, they maintain
certain views regarded as traditionally Christian Ex.
Mormoons And Jehova’s Witness.
ISSUES
(a) issues arising from the use of modern
technology in biomedicine, such as researches
involving human embryos (such as stem-cell
research), the use of contraceptives, and the
practices of invitro fertilization, surrogacy, and
organ transplantation (especially in cases where
the organs come from brain-dead patients and
severely damaged infants); (b) issues arising
from the expanding scope of the concept of
human rights, which include the right of women
to assume leadership in churches (women as
priests and pastors, for instance), the right to
same-sex marriage, the right to gender
preference in one’s sexual lifestyle (which
includes homosexuality, bisexuality, sex change,
and others), the right to abortion, and the right
to divorce; and (c) issues about church-state
relations, which basically come down to
whether churches should meddle with politics,
which translates to endorsing candidates during
elections, and endorsing or condemning
governmental policies or laws such as those
concerning death penalty and reproduction.
LESSON 4;JUDAISM
A religion developed among the ancient Hebrews and
characterized by belief in one transcendent God who
has revealed himself to Abraham, Moses, and the
Hebrew prophets and by a religious life in accordance
with Scriptures and rabbinic traditions.
The terms “Judaism” and “Jew” were derived from the
word Judah, which was the name of the fourth of the 12
sons of Jacob. Each of the 12 sons of Jacob became the
ancestor of a certain tribe. The tribe of Judah, therefore,
was one of the 12 tribes of Israel (for Jacob was also
called Israel). Originally, the term “Jews” (“Yehudi,” in
Hebrew) thus referred to the members of the tribe of
Judah.
later on, the tribe of Judah, along with some other
tribes (those of Benjamin and Levi, brothers of Judah),
became part of the Kingdom of Judah when the
Kingdom of Israel was split into the Northern Kingdom,
which became the Kingdom of Israel, and the Southern
Kingdom, which became the Kingdom of Judah.
FOUNDER OF JUDAISM
Two persons are considered founders of Judaism,
Abraham (2000 BCE) and Moses (1391-1271 BCE). It
was with Abraham that God made a covenant or
contract that would define the relationship of the Jews
with God. Basically, the covenant was that God would
bless and protect the lives of those who would obey
Him. And it was through Moses that God made his
commandments known to the people, the specific rules
that God wanted his people to obey for their part of the
covenant. These rules make up a significant part of the
Torah, the sacred text of Judaism
Abraham was the first patriarch (which originally means
“father-source”) among the three patriarchs of the
Jewish people. The second was Abraham’s son, Isaac,
and the third was Isaac’s son, Jacob. Abraham was first
called Abram but he was later on called Abraham by
God after God made his covenant with him and his
descendants. His wife was first called Sarai but was later
on called Sarah by God also after this covenant.
Abraham lived in Ur of the Chaldeans (in present-day
Iraq).
The Bible narrates the story of Abraham who in the
beginning was called Abram that comes from the
Hebrew grammatic roots Ab which means father and
Ram that means high or exalted. Abraham was son of
Terah. The tenth descendant of Noah and his son, as
well of Shem and brother of Nacor and Haran.
Harran and go to Canaan to be the father of a nation.
God said to him (Gen.12: 2), “Go from your country,
your people, and your father’s household to the land I
will show you. I will make you into a great nation, and I
will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will
be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and
whoever curses you I will curse; and all the people on
earth will be blessed through you.” Abraham followed
without any question and he brought with him his wife
Sarah, his nephew Lot, and all his possessions. In return
for his obedience, God would make him the father of a
great nation and God would bless and protect him and
his descendants.
There was, however, one big problem. How would
Abraham be the father of a great nation when he was
childless? Sarah could not conceive a child. Abraham
told God that if that were the case, his only heir would
be his servant. But God assured him that he would later
on have his own son who would be his heir, and that his
descendants would be as many as the stars in the sky.
Meanwhile, Sarah urged Abraham to have a child with
her Egyptian slave or maidservant named Hagar. Hagar
got pregnant with Abraham and gave birth to a boy
whom they named Ishmael. Ishmael would later on
grow to become the patriarch of the Arab nations.
Isaac married Rebekah and they had twins, Esau and
Jacob. Esau was older than Jacob and was the favorite
of Isaac, while Jacob was the favorite of Rebekah. Esau,
being the eldest, was the rightful heir of Isaac, but due
to the connivance of Rebekah and Jacob, Jacob was able
to get the blessings of Isaac to be his heir. But though
Jacob acquired the blessings of Isaac in this way, he had
a dream in which God approved of him being the heir of
Isaac. In Gen. 28:12-15, this dream is told this way:
He had a dream in which he saw a stairway resting on
the earth, with its top reaching to heaven, and the
angels of God were ascending and descending on it.
There above it stood the Lord, and he said: “I am the
Lord, the God of your father Abraham and the God of
Isaac. I will give you and your descendants the land on
which you are lying. Your descendants will be like the
dust of the earth, and you will spread out to the west
and to the east, to the north and to the south. All
people on earth will be blessed through you and your
offspring. I am with you and will watch over you
wherever you go, and I will bring you back to the land. I
will not leave you until I have done what I have
promised you.
And so Jacob became the third patriarch to whom the
covenant was passed on. Jacob had two wives, Leah and
Rachel. With his two wives and with the maidservant of
each of his two wives, Jacob had a total of twelve sons
(Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebelun, Issachar, Dan,
Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin) and one
daughter named Dinah. Each of his sons would later be
the patriarch of a tribe, and their tribes would later be
known as the twelve tribes of Israel. The name “Israel”
here refers to Jacob for he was given that name, which
means “he who struggles with God,” after wrestling
with a man till daybreak and overcoming him (see Gen.
32:22-29). The man did not give his own name when
Jacob asked for it, but the man is traditionally
considered to be either an angel or God himself. The
man said to Jacob: “Your name will no longer be Jacob,
but Israel, because you have struggled with God and
with humans and have overcome.” And the man blessed
Jacob.
Moses was born during the time when the Israelites
were living in Egypt as slaves. How did the Israelites
become slaves in Egypt? It all started when Joseph, one
of Jacob’s twelve sons, was sold as a slave by his own
brothers because they envied Joseph for being the
favorite of Jacob. Joseph was taken to Egypt by his
masters. But Joseph, because of his talent for
interpreting dreams, intelligence, and character, was
well-liked by the pharaoh and became a powerful
leader in Egypt
Moses was himself an Israelite but he spent the first half
of his life as an Egyptian prince. The growing population
of the Israelites became a threat to
the Egyptian empire, so one day the pharaoh ordered
that all male Israelite newborns be killed. To save the
life of Moses, his mother and elder sister put the baby
Moses in a basket and placed the basket in the Nile
River. It happened that the pharaoh’s daughter was
about to bathe in the river. Upon seeing baby Moses,
the Pharaoh’s daughter decided to adopt Moses and
treat him as one of her own. So Moses grew up living a
life of an Egyptian prince while his fellow Israelites were
suffering.
THE SACRED TEXTS
Torah: The first five books of the Tanahk Hebrew Bible
comprise the Torah (Pentauch) and these are the core
sacred writing of the Jewish, therefore the foundation
of Jewish tradition. The Torah is also known as the five
books of Moses, which include Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Mishnah: It is the written compilation of the Oral Law,
which Moses received at Mt. Sinai. It was kept oral for
quite a while in Jewish tradition because of the rabbis
and religious leaders that constantly spread the
messages of the Oral Law. However, when Jerusalem
fell to the Roman army many rabbis and religious
leaders were killed and the survivors saw the need to
make the Oral Law written. The Mishnah explains how
to carry out the laws of the Torah.
THE TANAKH
The sacred writings of the Jews are divided into the
primary (or foundational) and the supplementary ones.
The primary ones are those found in the Hebrew Bible
(or Hebrew Scriptures), known in Hebrew as the Tanakh
(orTanak).The supplementary ones are called the
Talmud (which contains the Mishnah and Gemara) and
Midrash.
The Nevi’im consists of materials from what are called
former prophets (or major prophets) and latter
prophets (or minor prophets). There are in total 22
books comprising the Nevi’im. Each book is named after
its respective prophet.
The Kethuvim consists of materials that are generally
based on human knowledge and experiences, some of
which reflect Greek, Persian, and Egyptian influences
that greatly influenced the Israelites.
Talmud: It is the text used for rabbinic thinking. It is
composed of two layers: the Mishnah , which is a set of
laws and the Gemara, which contains questioning and
application rules. The Babylonian Talmud is the most
widely used Talmud.
Midrash: It contains the answers to some of the most
asked questions about the other sacred texts. The
Midrash is still being written to this day.
JEWISH TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS:
On the eighth day of life, Jewish boys are ritually
circumcised in a ceremony called a b’ris, or covenant.
This is the moment when the infant is welcomed into
the Jewish community and is brought into the covenant
God made with Abraham according to Jewish tradition
At Rosh Hashanah, it is traditional to eat apples and
honey, symbolic of the wish for a sweet new year.
It is a Jewish tradition not to leave the dead alone.
During the holiday of Simchat Torah, it is a tradition to
walk the Torah scrolls through the synagogue.
Jewish children typically celebrate becoming a Bar/Bat
Mitzvah at the age of 12 or 13. In the modern-day,
some individuals celebrate this rite of passage later in
life.
Halloween isn’t the only time to dress up. Jews have
Purim! A holiday filled with carnivals, costumes and
really, really good pastries.
Of any Jewish holiday on the calendar, Passover is most
likely the favorite.
LESSON 6: ISLAM
Because it began only in the seventh century BCE, Islam
is considered the youngest of the major religions. But
with its followers, the Muslims, constituting almost 25
percent of the world’s population, Islam is considered
the second largest religion.
The word Islam literally means “surrender” or
“submission.” In the context of the religious tradition of
Islam, the word specifically means “surrender or
submission to God.”
The word Muslim or Moslem, on the other hand, means
“one who submits to God.’Thus the followers of Islam
are the Muslims (or Moslems). Muslims refer to God in
Arabic as Allah
The use of the word “Allah” is not intended to qualify
the kind of God that Muslims worship. Allah is not
different from the God of the Jews or the Christians.
Allah, in fact, is the same God that Abraham—a
common spiritual ancestor of the Jews, Christians, and
Muslims—recognizes
Though most Arabs are Muslims, and the early Muslims
were Arabs, the terms “Muslims” and “Arabs” are
clearly not equivalent. Before most of the Arabs became
Muslims, they were either Jews, Christians, or others
(Judaism and Christianity were already established
when Islam was only beginning to establish itself). There
are Arabs who remained non-Muslims even today—the
Arab Jews, Arab Christians, and others. Furthermore,
since the spread of Islam outside of Arab territories,
there have been various non-Arab Muslims, such as the
Muslims in Indonesia (whose population is
predominantly Muslims), Pakistan, Philippines,
Malaysia, and many other parts of the world.
In addition to believing in Allah, one also needs to
accept other beliefs especially that Muhammad is God’s
last prophet or messenger. This means that to be a
Muslim, or to be one who submits to God (as Muslims
understand it), one must, in addition to believing in
God, also accept that Muhammad is God’s last prophet,
among others.
Islam shares some of the accounts in the Bible of the
Jews and Christians, and Muslims recognize most of the
prophets mentioned in the Bible. Muslim Arabs, in
particular, trace their racial and spiritual roots to
Abraham through his son Ishmael. (Some Muslim
scholars trace their spiritual roots even to Adam, the
first human in the Biblical account.).
It will be recalled that Abraham had two sons, Isaac and
Ishmael. Isaac was Abraham’s son from his wife Sarah,
while Ishmael was Abraham’s son from Hagar, the
Egyptian maidservant of Sarah. Isaac had a son, Jacob,
also known as Israel, whose 12 sons became the 12
tribes of Israel. One of Jacob’s son was Judah, whose
tribe and later on kingdom became the basis of the
word “Jews” and “Judaism.” On the other hand, Ishmael
travelled with his mother Hagar across the desert to
another region. Ishmael is said to have established a
tribe called Ishmaelites, who were later on called Arabs.
Abraham is the common spiritual ancestor of Muslims,
Jews, and Christians in so far as the belief in one God is
concerned. But while the Jews trace their racial roots to
Abraham through Isaac, the Arabs trace theirs to
Abraham through Ishmael.
FOUNDER OF ISLAM
Islam began and developed in the region of Arabia,
particularly in the cities of Mecca and Yathrib (Yathrib
was later on called Medina—meaning, “the city of the
Prophet”) in the early seventh century CE. Muslims
believe that the teachings of Islam all come from God or
Allah through the revelations Muhammad (also spelled
as “Mohammad” or “Mohammed”) (570-632 CE) had.
Muhammad is considered in Islam as God’s chosen
messenger. In this light, Muslims believe that Islam, in
terms of its teachings, was founded by Allah (Peters
1994,3); but as a religious tradition, Islam is widely
considered to be founded by Muhammad.
Muhammad regarded himself, and likewise by the
entire Muslim world, as the last among a series of
prophets or messengers of God. Muhammad
acknowledged the personalities in the Hebrew and
Christian scriptures to whom God revealed his
messages, such as Abraham, Noah, Moses, John the
Baptist, and Jesus (Muhammad and his followers
regarded Jesus as a mere prophet and not as a God as
the Christians believe), as all prophets of Islam. Being
the last of the prophets, Muhammad and his followers
believed that the , messages and instructions revealed
to him by God were the final ones. In this regard,
Muslims regard Muhammad as the “Seal of the
Prophets,” which indicates that there will be no further
prophets after him, and consequently, there will be no
further revelations from God after those he had
Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE. Being
orphaned at an early age, Muhammad first lived with
his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later on, after his
grandfather died, with his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of
25, Muhammad married a widow named Khadijah, who
was then 40 years old. Muhammad met Khadijah when
he worked as a caravan driver for Khadijah, who took
over the caravan company when her first husband died.
Muhammad and Khadijah led a successful married life
which only ended when Khadijah died after 25 years of
marriage.
They had six children, consisting of two sons and four
daughters. The two sons unfortunately died in infancy.
Among the daughters, only one, named Fatima,
survived after Muhammad’s death. Fatima had two sons
from her marriage to Muhammad’s cousin Ali ibn Abu
Talib (the son of his uncle Abu Talib), who became the
fourth Caliph of Islam and first of the twelve imams
(Muslim leaders) after Muhammad’s death. Their two
sons, Hassan and Hussein, would later on be recognized
as imams (or spiritual leaders).
Wanting to deepen his spiritual life, Muhammad
frequently went to the caves in the hills surrounding
Mecca to meditate. At the age of 40, while meditating in
a cave at Mount Hira in about 610 CE, he received his
first message from God through a bright presence which
Muhammad identified as the angel Gabriel. This first
interaction of Muhammad with God through the angel
Gabriel has been called the “Night of Power.
Wanting to deepen his spiritual life, Muhammad
frequently went to the caves in the hills surrounding
Mecca to meditate. At the age of 40, while meditating in
a cave at Mount Hira in about 610 CE, he received his
first message from God through a bright presence which
Muhammad identified as the angel Gabriel. This first
interaction of Muhammad with God through the angel
Gabriel has been called the “Night of Power.
One of the important messages Muhammad received
from God was that only the One God, Allah, should be
worshipped. Thus the statues of other gods should be
destroyed. This particular revelation put Muhammad in
conflict with people in power in Mecca, in particular the
people who profited from the business involved in the
pilgrimage movement in the region. Mecca was then a
center of religious pilgrimage. At the center of Mecca
was a square-shaped shrine called Kabah (Kaaba or
Ka’aba, which literally means “cube”), which contained
a black meteorite which was worshipped for it was
believed to have been sent from heaven. Within the
Kabah were statues of so many tribal gods and
goddesses that people worshipped. Yearly, many people
from other regions would visit Mecca to worship these
gods and goddesses. Because Muhammad taught the
people that these statues must not be worshipped and
should be destroyed, his life was threatened by the
people who were profiting from the yearly pilgrimages.
And when his wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib, who
had some influence in society, both died, Muhammad
feared for his life and considered leaving Mecca.
Muhammad had a spiritual experience in which he was
carried to Jerusalem and from there, guided by the
angel Gabriel, was brought up to heaven (or paradise).
Once in heaven, Muhammad first encountered the
angels and the previous prophets like Abraham, Noah,
and Moses and then was united with God. Muslims
have called this experience Muhammad’s Night Journey
or Night of Ascent.
To escape the increasing persecution of Muhammad
and his followers in Mecca, and upon the invitation of
the leaders of Yathrib (to serve as an impartial
arbitrator of the conflicts there), Muhammad and his
followers moved from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 CE.The
migration has been called in Arabic the Hijrah (or
Hegira). This was a momentous event in the
development of Islam, for it was the beginning of the
favorable acceptance of Islam and, consequently, of the
establishment of the Islamic community (called
umma).The muslim considered this period as the
begining year of the muslim calendar.
THE QUR’AN AND HADITH
Muhammad shared God’s messages to him first to his
close family and friends and then to other people.
Though some of these revelations were written down
by his close followers, memorization through oral
transmission was the primary way of preserving these
messages. The consistency of these messages was
maintained by Muhammad. If there were questions
about what these messages really were and meant,
Muhammad was there to clarify it. But when
Muhammad died, his disciples became concerned about
how to deal with the variations that might arise with
regard to the messages, so they decided to write down
an authoritative version of the messages.
The project of writing down Muhammad’s revelations
was initiated by Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph
(from khalifa which means “successor”) or successor of
Muhammad as Islam’s spiritual leader. The project was
finished in 656 CE during the caliphate of Uthman. The
finished book was called the Qur’an, which literally
means “The Recitation” (see Molloy 2010, 425). The
Qur’an consists of 114 chapters (or suras), which cover a
wide variety of topics which include the spiritual origins
of Islam in the persons of the different prophets, values,
and specific instructions on how to live an ethical life. As
the messages of God were revealed to Muhammad in
Arabic, an authoritative written version of these
messages had to be in Arabic. Thus, any translation of
the Qur’an is considered to be an interpretation of the
original messages already. The Qur’an contains the
main doctrines of Islam, but to help themselves
understand and interpret these doctrines, Muslims rely
on what is called the Hadith, which literally means
“reports” or “recollections
The Hadith consists of written narrations of
Muhammad’s life, which report his words, actions,
decisions, and characteristics as a person. While the
Hadith refers to the entire collection of narrations, a
hadith refers to each narration. Each hadith consists of
two parts: the text or report itself and the chain or
series of narrators for the Hadith (this was intended to
give authenticity to the report). Each branch of Islam,
however, refers to a different collection of hadiths,
though they may be about the same things (that is,
about the same events in Muhammad’s life). The idea
behind the hadiths was that Muhammad’s life was an
ideal manifestation or a perfect model of a life lived
according to the teachings of the Qur’an. While Muslims
do not regard Muhammad as a god (neither did
Mohammad proclaim to be one), they regard him as a
human who has lived a spiritually and morally perfect
life.
The Hadith is generally also called the Sunnah. Some
Muslim scholars, however, make a distinction between
the two (see, for instance, Peters 1994, 214-15;
Matthews 2010, 336), and they disagree about the
nature of the distinction. We can identify at least three
views on this. One view claims that the Hadith as we
have defined it is actually the Sunnah, and the Hadith
actually just refers to the sayings of Muhammad, which
would make the Hadith simply a part of the Sunnah.
Another view maintains the identity of the Hadith as we
have defined it above, and understands the Sunnah as a
set of practices that Muhammad taught the Muslims to
follow and which were passed on to the next
generations of Muslims. Consequently, this view sees
the Sunna as more reliable than the Hadith.
SHARI’AH
From the religious doctrines of the Qur’an and the
Hadith, Islamic scholars formulated the Shari’ah, which
literally means “pathway to be followed” or f‘the path
leading to the watering place”—for the path to this
place is the whole way of life in the desert. Shari’ah
refers to the Islamic Law or the basic Islamic legal
system. Recognized by most Muslim groups, the
Shari’ah is a system of duties, responsibilities, or rules
which Muslims must follow as a matter of religion. It
covers all aspects of life such as issues arising from
one’s personal dealings with other people; matters
concerning marriage contracts; trade regulations; how
to govern the state; rules for prayer, charity, fasting,
sexual intercourse, hygiene, and diet among others; and
punishments for specific crimes like theft, drinking
alcohol, adultery, and murder (these punishments
include beheading, stoning, and flogging).
In varying degrees, Shari’ah serves as the basis for
making legal laws in many Muslim countries which
include Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Brunei, United
Arab Emirates, Yemen, Mauritania, Qatar, Afghanistan,
and Pakistan. In sum, the primary sacred text of Islam is
the Qur’an. The secondary ones are the Hadith and the
book of Shari’ah. The Qur’an contains God’s messages
to Muhammad. As Muhammad is believed to be the last
prophet (and there will not be another one), these
messages are believed to be the final messages of God
to humanity. The Hadith is a written record of the
words, actions, decisions, character, and practices of
Muhammad, which constitute a perfect model for a life
lived according to the teachings of the Qur’an. The
Shari’ah refers to the Islamic legal law, which was based
on the Qur’an and Hadith and was formulated to serve
as specific guidelines for Muslims in carrying out their
everyday affairs or activities.
DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES
Tawhid - At the core of Islamic faith is Tawhid, referring
to the belief in the oneness of God. The Arabic word
“Allah” for God already existed even before Muhammad
received his messages from God, but the Arabs then
regarded Allah as merely one among the gods that they
worshipped. Acting on the messages that he received
from God, Muhammad taught and asserted that only
Allah is God and there are no other gods aside from
Allah. Allah, in fact, embodies everything that the other
gods were thought to embody. That means Allah, the
only true God, has all the powers attributed to the other
gods, such as the powers to help humans deal with their
problems, forgive, and send rains, among others.The
Qur’an particularly notes that God, being one, cannot
have a father and a son, indicating Islam’s
nonacceptance of the Christian doctrine of the Holy
Trinity
Aside from the word “Allah,” Muslims call God by other
names (it is said that Muslims have 99 names for God),
each name indicating a specific divine power. These
names include the following: the Most Compassionate
(ar-Rahmn), the Merciful (ar-Rahm), the All-Peaceful,
(as-Salm), the Forgiver (al-Ghaffr), the Gentle, Knower
of Subtleties (al-Latf), the Grateful (ash-Shakr), the
Responsive (al-Mujb), the Praiseworthy (al-Hamd), the
Cause of Death (al-Mumt), the Light (an-Nr), and the
Patient One (asSabi) (Urubshurow 2009, 199-200). The
attributes of God as indicated in these names suggest
that the Allah of Muslims is a personal God, one who
cares about the affairs and welfare of humans.
THE AFTERLIFE
Like the Jews and Christians, Muslims believe in an
afterlife and in the Day of Resurrection and Day of
Judgment. A day will come when dead humans will be
resurrected and will be judged by God according to their
deeds on whether they deserve eternal happiness or
suffering. In this connection, Muslims also believe in
heaven or paradise (Jannah), a place of eternal
happiness where good people (people who submit to
God’s will) are put by God; and hell (Jahannam), a place
of suffering where evil people (those who do not submit
to God’s will) are put by God.
ANGELS AND JINN
Muslims also believe in angels and jinn (the singular is
jinnie, djinnie, or genie), who are spiritual beings
created by God. The angels are believed to have been
created by God from light.They do not have free will,
and so they are not accountable for their actions and
are neither good nor evil. They act as messengers of are physically and financially capable to visit the holy
God to the prophets, who in turn are God’s messengers place of Mecca at least once in their lifetime.
to the people. For instance, Muhammad received his
1. Testimony of Faith (Shahadah) The shahadah or the
messages from God through the angel Gabriel. Angels
Islamic testimony of faith is the most important among
also keep a record of the good and bad actions of
the pillars for it serves as the foundation for the other
humans. It is believed that two angels are assigned to
pillars. Anyone who submits to the will of the one God
each human being upon birth to record the good and
and in the authority of the messages that Muhammad
bad actions of the human being and report them back
received from God must worship God through daily
to God on the Day of Judgment. On the other hand, jinn
prayers, provide help to those who are in need, make
are believed to have been created by God from
sacrifices and empathize with the unfortunate ones
smokeless and scorching fire. Unlike angels, jinn have
through fasting, and give honor to the place of origin of
free will and thus are morally accountable for their
one’s faith. The testimony of faith is done by publicly
actions and are either good or evil. For this reason, like
reciting in Arabic the Islamic creed which can be
humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment
translated in English as “There is no god but God (Allah),
and will be sent either to heaven/paradise or hell.
and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Non-
THE PROPHETS Muslims wanting to be converted to Islam must recite
the creed with conviction. Muslims, for their part,
As already noted, Muslims believe in prophets or
regularly recite it to reaffirm their Islamic faith or to
messengers of God. God speaks to the people through
verify their membership in the Islamic community (or
the prophets. Muslims recognize many of the prophets
simply to tell the world that they are Muslims). The
recognized by the Jews and Christians though they
creed is recited in their daily prayers, and it is written in
appear in the Qur’an in their Arabic names. These
Arabic everywhere inside their mosques and over the
include Adam (Adem), the first prophet, Abraham
doors of these mosques. It is also the first words
(Ibrahim), Ishmael (lsm‘l), Noah (Nu), Moses (Musa),
traditionally spoken into the ear of a newborn from a
Elisha (Alyasa), David (Dawid), John the Baptist (Yahya),
Muslim family.
Jesus (Isa), and Muhammad. Jesus, as earlier noted, is
recognized as a prophet and not as a god. Muhammad, 2. PRAYER(SALAT)
as also previously mentioned, is regarded as the last of
Daily prayers are obligatory on every Muslim who has
the prophets
reached the age of puberty, unless one is physica lly
THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM and/or m entally incapable of saying them. The daily
prayers are done five times a day:(1) before dawn, (2) at
There are five obligatory activities for all Muslims. They
midday/noon, (3) mid-afternoon, (4) sunset, and (5)
are standardly referred to as the Five Pillars of Islam.
nighttime. They are intended to focus the mind on God,
These activities were mentioned by Muhammad in the
express gratitude to God, and worship him. The prayers
famous hadith involving the angel Gabriel.
are recited from memory in Arabic, and they consist of
The five pillars, which define the Muslim life, consist of verses from the Qur’an ' and other prayer formulas.
the following: (1) testimony of faith (shahadah), which They are also accompanied by several body postures:
requires Muslims to publicly profess or affirm their faith standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting (exceptions
in the oneness of God and in the authority of are given to those physically incapable of performing
Muhammad as God’s messenger; (2) prayer (salat), these postures). Prayers are done facing the direction of
which requires Muslims to pray to God five times each Mecca (they were earlier done facing the direction of
day; (3) charity for the poor (zakat), which requires Jerusalem until later revelations to Muhammad
Muslims to donate a certain percentage of their changed the direction to Mecca).
resources to the poor; (4) fasting during Ramadan
3. CHARITY FOR THE POOR (ZAKAT) The practice of
(sawm), which requires Muslims to abstain from taking
zakat is in line with Muhammad’s overall vision of a just
in food and water for a specified period of time; and (5)
society. To address the injustices and inequality existing
pilgrimage to Mecca (haj)), which requires Muslims who
in society, Islam requires believers to donate a certain
percentage (usually 2.5 percent) of their total resources
or accumulated wealth each year to the poor. This
practice is also done as a way of submitting one’s
properties to the purposes of God. The payment of
zakat, or the giving of charity, is usually done at the end
of the month of Ramadan. Those who do not have
much money should compensate for it by doing good
deeds toward others. Aside from the yearly obligation
to give charity to the poor, Muslims are also expected to
perform charitable acts whenever necessary, as Islam
highly regards these acts as morally valuable.
4. FASTING DURING RAMADAN {SAWM) Fasting is
done by Muslims on many occasions. They fast to atone
for their sins, fulfill certain obligations, or observe
certain special days. Ritual and shared fasting is done
during the month of Ramadan, which is the ninth month
in the Islamic (lunar) calendar. From dawn to dusk,
Muslims must avoid all food, water, tobacco, and sex
everyday of this month. Fasting during the month of
Ramadan (which falls differently every year since its
determination is based on the lunar calendar) is
required for all Muslims at the age of puberty and up,
except if one is physically not capable for reasons like
illness, old age, and certain female conditions such as
pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menstruation. Fasting
during Ramadan serves several purposes for Muslims.
Generally, it is done to promote spiritual growth or
purification by disciplining an individual’s desires, foster
spiritual unity among Muslims, empathize with the
suffering and the poor, and reinforce dependence on
God.
5. PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA (HAJJ) It was also during the
last ten days of the month of Ramadan when
Muhammad first received his revelations. The feast at
the end of this month is therefore seen as a fitting way
to celebrate this special event. Furthermore, during
Ramadan, Muslims are expected to exert more effort to
follow the teachings of Islam, such as seeking
forgiveness from God, expressing gratitude to God,
reading the Qur’an, and refraining from doing bad
deeds.
The annual pilgrimage to Mecca or hajj is required for
all Muslims who are physically and financially capable.
The pilgrimage is done from the eigth to twelfth (or in
some cases thirteenth) month of the Islamic (lunar)
calendar. Even before Muhammad was born, pilgrimage
to Mecca was already a regular religious practice. While
the practice began with Abraham, later pilgrims
worshipped other tribal gods and goddesses.
Muhammad adopted this practice but in light of
Abraham’s belief in one God. Thus the objective of the
pilgrimage for Muslims is to give honor to the holy
placesassociated with Allah and his prophets, such as
the Kabah (believed to have been built by Abraham and
Ishmael) which houses the black meteorite (believed to
have been sent by God through Angel Gabriel), and the
places where Hagar and Ishmael drew * water while
travelling across the desert, and where Abraham
offered Ishmael as a sacrifice to God (this contrasts to
the Jewish and Christian account in which it was Isaac
who Abraham offered to God as a sacrifice).
Though not officially a pillar, the important Islamic
principle called the jihad—which literally means
“struggle"—is sometimes referred to by some Muslims
as the sixth pillar. Nowadays, most non-Muslims
understand jihad as a military warfare or battle of
Muslims against non-Muslims. Muhammad and his
followers did engage in military warfare against non-
Muslims when they went back to Mecca from Medina,
so jihad does include the meaning of physical struggle
to defend Islam. But jihad is not limited to this. It also
means psychological, spiritual, and moral struggle to
overcome the evils within oneself and in one’s
environment and thus to lead an ethical life according
to the principles of Islam. In this consideration, a
distinction is made between greater jihad, referring to
spiritual self-perfection, and lesser jihad, referring to
warfare. In its general sense, jihad thus means any kind
of struggle to defend the faith of Islam.
OTHER ISLAMIC PRACTICES
Muslims are opposed to the practice of celibacy even
for their imams (religious leaders). Males are allowed to
have four wives whom he must treat equally, while
women are allowed to have only one husband. Muslims
are forbidden to eat pork, drink alcohol, and engage in
usury and gambling. Muslims also practice circumcision.
Both men and women are required by the Qur’an to
wear modest clothes, which has been translated to
include, among others, the practice of covering the hair
or both hair and faces of women by a veil or headscarf
in varying ways in different Muslim regions. In
traditional Muslim societies, the parents arrange the
marriage of their children. The bridegroom’s family
provides dowry, or an offer of money or property, to
the family of the bride as part of the marriage contract.
Some of the main festivals and holy days observed by The Sunnis, the largest denomination of Islam (making
the Muslims are the following: Day of Sacrifice {Id al- up 75 to 90 percent of all Muslims today), believe that a
Adha), which is celebrated during the month of the Hajj; caliph should be elected by the community. Anyone
Day of Breaking the Fast {Id al-Ftr), which is observed who is righteous and just, and who is living according to
just after the end of the month of Ramadan; Muharram, the teachings of the Qur’an and the Hadith, could be a
which celebrates the migration of Muhammad and his caliph. Since God did not appoint a particular leader
followers to Yathrib (Medina); Muhammad’s birthday, after Muhammad’s death and the first four caliphs were
which is celebrated on the twelfth day of the third elected and were followers of the Qur’an and the
month of the year; and the birthdays of other holy men Hadith, these four caliphs were rightful leaders of Islam.
and women of Islam. The Shiites (making up about 10 to 15 percent of all
Muslims today), however, have a different belief. They
The Rightly Guided CaliphsAfter Muhammad’s death,
believe that only a descendant or blood relative of
the Islamic world was headed by the caliphs (which
Muhammad could be his successor. And since only Ali
literally means “successors”). The first four were (1) Abu
was Muhammad’s blood relative among the first four
Bakr, who reigned from 632-634 CE; (2) Umar, who
caliphs, the Shiites believe that only Ali was the
reigned from 634-644 CE; (3) Uthman, who reigned
legitimate or rightful one, which makes Ali the first
from 644-656 CE; and (4) Ali, who reigned from 656-661
legitimate caliph. The term “Shia” is a contraction of
CE. It was during the reign of these four caliphs that
shiaatAli (or ShiatAli), meaning supporters or followers
Islam spread in many regions outside of Arabia (such as
of Ali. The Shiites claim that Muhammad himself on one
Iran, Africa, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt), which
occasion named Ali as his successor. The Shiites also
eventually led to Islam becoming a world power. Islamic
believe that only the descendants or blood relatives of
countries enjoyed economic prosperity during this
Muhammad can be imams or spiritual leaders of Islam.
period. It was also during this time that the Qur’an was
finalized, reproduced, and distributed to many parts of THE SUFIS
the world. The reign of these four caliphs is considered
Sufism is the mystical version of Islam. It is called
the golden age of Islam and has been called the era of
Tasawwuf (literally, “to dress in wool”) in Arabic. The
“The Rightly Guided Caliphs”
term “Sufism” comes from the Arabic word suf, which
ISSUES OF SUCCESSION means “wool,” the material that makes up the garments
worn by Sufi ascetics.
When Muhammad died, there was a disagreement over
who should be his rightful successor. Some felt that it If the division of Islam into the Sunni and Shia versions
should be someone elected by the Islamic community came about after the death of Muhammad, Sufi Islam
and has the moral authority to be its leader (being a came about after the reign of the Rightly Guided
devout Muslim), while some felt that it should be a Caliphs. After the reign of these caliphs, Islam spread to
direct descendant or someone in the bloodline of many regions and eventually
Muhammad. Muhammad, however, did not have a
living son when he died (his two sons from his first wife
both died in infancy and apparently he did not have a
son from his other wives as well). Though Abu Bakr was
the father-in-law of Muhammad, being the father of
Muhammad’s youngest wife Aisha, he was not an
immediate family or a blood relative of Muhammad. It
was only Ali who was a blood relative of Muhammad.
He was the prophet’s first cousin, as he was the son of
Muhammad’s uncle, Abu Talib.

THE SUNNIST AND SHITES The question of who should

be the rightful successor of Muhammad divided the
Muslim world into two major groups, the Sunnis (or
Sunni Muslims) and the Shiites (Shia’s or Shia Muslims).