Geometrical Optics

Refraction, reflection at a
spherical/planar interface
Textbook (Hecht), Chapter 5
Imaging by an optical system
O and I are conjugate points – any pair of object image points -
which by the principle of reversibility can be interchanged

Optical
O I
System
Independence of path

ds P P
c
S P
OPL = ∫ ds = ∫ nds
S
v S

The optical path length in a medium is the integral of the refractive

index and a differential geometric length.
For any rays traveling from point S to another point P in an optical
system the optical path lengths are identical.
Fermat’s principle
Light, in going from point
S to P, traverses the route
having the smallest optical
path length
OPL
More generally, there may
be many paths with the t=
same minimum transit
time, e.g. locus of a
c
Cartesian surface
Imaging by an optical system
O and I are conjugate points – any pair of object image points -
which by the principle of reversibility can be interchanged

Optical
O I
System

Fermat’s principle – optical path length of every ray passing

through I must be the shortest and same.
Cartesian Surfaces
A Cartesian surface – those which form
perfect images of a point object
E.g. ellipsoid and hyperboloid

O I
Cartesian refracting surface
n’>n
n P(x,y) n’

x
O I

s s’

Surface defined
by ƒ(x,y)
Cartesian refracting surface
Surface ƒ(x,y) will be Cartesian for points O and I if…

The equation defines an ovoid of revolution for a given

s, s’
Equality means all paths are equal (i.e. for all x,y)
We then have perfect imaging by Fermat’s principle
But we can see that the surface will be Cartesian for one
set of s, s’(not too useful)
Difficult to fabricate…
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)

x y

n1l0 + n2li = n1so + n2si = Const.

Paraxial ray approximation
We would like a single surface to provide imaging
for all (s, s’)
This will be true if we place certain restrictions on
the bundle of rays collected by the optical system
Make the PARAXIAL RAY APPROXIMATION

Assume y << s, s’(i.e. all angles are small)

x << s, s’(of course)
Spherical refracting surface
n’>n
n P(x,y) n’

x
O I

s s’

Spherical
Assume y << s, s’(i.e. all angles are small) Surface
x << s, s’(of course)
Paraxial ray approximation
1. All distances measured from V (i.e. assume
x=0 at vertex of the spherical interface)
2. All angles are small
sinα ≈ tan α ≈ α ; cos α = 1
Snell’s law
nθ = n’θ’
Spherical refracting surface

n θ1 n’

θ2
α V Ф α’
O R C I

s s’
Refraction at spherical interfaces:
sign convention
1. Light travels left to right
2. V = origin – measure all distances from here
3. R = positive to the right of V, negative to the left
4. S = positive for real objects (i.e. one to the left of
V), negative for virtual
5. S’ = positive for real image (to right of V),
negative for virtual images
6. Heights – y,y’ – positive up, negative down
Refraction at a spherical interface:
Paraxial ray approximation

θ1

y θ2
α Ф C
s s’
Note: small α + Ф = θ1
angles means that α ≈ y/s
s+x≈s
Ф ≈ y/R
Refraction at a spherical interface:
Paraxial ray approximation

θ1

y θ2
α Ф α’
s s’
Note: small α’ + θ2 = Ф ⇒ Ф - α’ = θ2
angles means that
s+x≈s α’ ≈ y/s’
Refraction at a spherical interface:
Paraxial ray approximation
Snell’s law: nθ1 = n’θ2
x, y << s, s’ (paraxial ray approximation)

θ1 = α + Ф, θ2 = Ф - α’

Leads to…
n n ' n '− n
+ =
s s' R
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)

Fermat’s principle:
Refraction at a spherical interface: Paraxial
ray approximation (p.153-155)

lo ≈ so
li ≈ si
Refractive surfaces, Lenses,
and Mirrors

Textbook (Hecht), Chapter 5

Refractive surfaces, Lenses,
and mirrors
Refraction at a spherical interface:
Paraxial ray approximation
Snell’s law, Fermat’s principle

Lead to…
n n' n' n
s s' R
Governs refraction at an
spherical interface

All rays from S pass through I, i.e. I = image of P

For a given object distance s, can find a conjugate distance s’

3
Refraction at a spherical interface:
Paraxial ray approximation

n n' n' n Governs refraction at an

spherical interface
s s' R

S P

s s’ 4
Definitions: Focal points of a curved interface

n n' n' n
s s' R
Governs refraction
at an interface
1. Focal Points:
Suppose object at s =
All rays arriving at lens will travel parallel to optic axis and,

n' n' n n' R

f ' s'
s' R n' n
This defines the second focal point
5
Definition: Second focal points of a
curved interface
n n' n' n Governs refraction at an
s s' R spherical interface

n' R
Plane wave or f ' s'
s=R= parallel rays n' n
6
Definition: First focal points of a
curved interface

1. Focal Points:
Suppose image at s’ =
All rays leaving lens will travel parallel to optic axis
and,

n n' n nR
f s
s R n' n
This defines the first focal point.

7
Definition: First focal points of a
curved interface

s’ = >> Plane wave

nR or parallel rays
f s
n' n 8
 Focal points for curved interface

n' R
Second focal length: f'
n' n f' n'
nR f n
First focal length: f
n' n
Definition: Focal points, f, f’ are conjugates with s, s’ =

9
 Definitions: Power
n' n n n'
Power P n’>n
R f f'
Power of surface

P > 0 for converging surface R>0

C

n n’

P < 0 for diverging surface C R<0

10

n n’
Definitions: Power
Thus if n’ > n and R< 0
n' n' n n
f' R f
f, f’, and P are all negative

n n'
In general, P
s s'
11
Image formation of a spherical interface

f f’

h h
R
h’ C h’

n n’
s s’

In paraxial ray approximation, imaging occurs according to:

n n' n' n n n'

s s' R f f' 12
Object-image height relationship
h h' h h h' h'
s' f' s f
s' f ' h'
s h f

f' n' s' n' h'

f n s n h 13
 Lateral Magnification

h' ns '
m Since h is negative
h n's

n n' n' n n n'

True for all imaging according to:
s s' R f f'
Object distance Image distance

14
Lateral magnification
f f’

h
R
C h’

n n’
s s’
In above, since s, s’ > 0 m<0 inverted image
New image shown in figure is
real (light actually passes through)
h' ns '
inverted m
h n' s 15
de-magnified or reduced ( ns’ < n’s)
 Thin lenses
Treat as two spherical interfaces and assume that the
lens thickness t is negligible

n n’

O I

C2 C1
nL

R1 R2

16

s s’
The Thin Lens Equation I
n1 n1
n2

O'

C1

O C2 V1 V2

For surface 1:
n1 n2 n2 n1
s1 s1 R1
s2
s1 t
s'1
17
The Thin Lens Equation II
For surface 1: For surface 2:
n1 n2 n2 n1 n2 n1 n1 n2
s1 s1 R1 s2 s2 R2

Object for surface 2 is virtual, with s2 given by:

s2 t s1
For a thin lens:

t << s2 , s1 s2 s1
Substituting this expression we obtain:

n1 n2 n2 n1 n1 n1 n2 n1 n1 n2
s1 s1 s1 s2 s1 s2 R1 R2
18
The Thin Lens Equation III
Simplifying this expression we obtain:

1 1 n2 n1 1 1
s1 s2 n1 R1 R2
For the thin lens:

1 1 n2 n1 1 1
s s1 s s2
s s n1 R1 R2

The focal length for the thin lens is found by setting s = :

1 1 n2 n1 1 1
s
s f n1 R1 R2
19
The Thin Lens Equation IV

In terms of the focal length f the thin lens equation becomes:

1 1 1
s s f

The focal length of a thin lens is >0 for a convex lens and <0 a
concave lens.

20
Thin lens: First surface
n nL

P’ P V

n nL nL n
R1
s s' R1
s s, R1 > 0

s’ s’ < 0 since to the left of 21V

 Thin lens: First surface
n nL

Virtual
image

P’ P V

n nL nL n
R1
s s' R1
s s, R1 > 0

s’ s’ < 0 since to the left of 22V

Thin lens: Second surface
n n’

R2

P’

nL

s’ s’’ 23
Thin lens: second interface
n nL nL n nL n' n' nL
s s' R1 s' t s" R2
First interface Second interface

s' s'
Object distance t – s’ = t + |s’|

Thin lens t 0, so object distance = - s’

nL n' n ' nL
s' s" R2 24
 Thin lens
First interface Second interface

n nL nL n nL n' nL n'
s s' R1 s' s" R2

n n' nL n nL n'
s s" R1 R2 25
Thin lens: Focal length and Power
n n' nL n nL n'
P
f f' R1 R2
In a single medium (n=n’)

n n 1 1
P nL n
f f' R1 R2
In air (n = 1)

1 1 1
P nL 1 Lens makers formula
f R1 R2 26
Thin lens: Image formation

In air (n = 1)

1 1 1 Lens makers formula

nL 1
f R1 R2

1 1 1
s s f

The focal length of a thin lens is >0 for a convex lens and <0 a
concave lens.
27
Types of thin lens

Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces.

nair nvacuum =1 nlens – (see handout 1)

28
Thin lens (nL=1.5): Examples
Double convex lens
|R1| = |R2| = 20 cm
f =____
20 cm P = _____
0.05 Lens makers formula:

Double concave lens 1 1 1

nL 1
|R1| = |R2| = 20 cm f R1 R2
f =____
-20 cm P = _____
-0.05

Plano-convex
|R1| = , |R2| = 20 cm
f =____
40 cm P = _____
0.025
29
Thin lens: Power

Thicker in middle
P>0
Thinner in middle
P<0

30
Reflection at a curved mirror interface in
paraxial approx.
x
'
'
y

’
O C I

s’

s
31
Reflection at a curved mirror interface
Show that (Problem 8 of assignment 1 ):

1 1 2 1
s s' R f
Consider sign convention:

1 1 2 1
s s' R f
32
Curved mirrors, thin & thick lenses
and cardinal points in paraxial optics

Textbook (Hecht) 5.2, 5.4, 6.1

Sign convention: Mirrors
Object distance
S >0 for real object (to the left of V)
S<0 for virtual object
Image distance
S’ > 0 for real image (to left of V)
S’ < 0 for virtual image (to right of V)
Radius
R > 0 (C to the right of V)
R < 0 (C to the left of V)
34
Reflection at a curved mirror interface in
paraxial approx.

x
'
'
y

’
O C I

11 11 22 11
s’
ss ss' ' RR ff
35
s
 Paraxial ray equation for reflection by
curved mirrors

In previous example, s, s ' 0

R 0
So we can write more generally,
1 1 2
s s' R

1 2 1 R s
f R f'
f f' m
2 s' 36
Thin lens: Image formation
First interface Second interface

n nL nL n nL n' n' nL
s s' R1 s' s" R2

n n' nL n nL n'
s s" R1 R2 37
Thin lens: Image formation
First interface Second interface

n nL nL n nL n' n' nL
s s' R1 s' s" R2

n=n’=1.0

1 1 1 1 1 1
nL 1
f R1 R2 s s f 38
Bi-convex thin lens: Ray diagram
(graphical ray tracing)
n n' n n' R1 R2

s s' f f'
Inverted
Real
Enlarged
O
f f‘
I

n n’

s’
n n' n n' nL n nL n'
P
s s' f f' R1 R2 39
Bi-convex thin lens: Ray diagram
(graphical ray tracing)
R1 R2 Principal rays are rays whose
behaviour is easy to predict.
Inverted
Real
h Enlarged
O
f f‘ I
h’
n n’

s’
When n=n’=1 1 1 nL 1 nL 1 1 1
P 40
h’/h= -s’/s f f' R1 R2 s s'
Ray diagram (graphical ray tracing)

Erect
Erect
Virtual
Virtual
Enlarged
Enlarged
I O
f f‘

n=1 n’=1
R1 R2

s’
n n' nL n nL n' n n'
P 41

f f' R1 R2 s s'
Bi-concave thin lens: Ray diagram
f, f’ < 0

O
I
f’ f

n’=1
n=1
R1 R2
s’
s

Erect
Erect
Virtual
Virtual n n' nL n nL n' n n'
P 42
Reduced
Reduced f f' R1 R2 s s'
Converging and diverging lenses
Why are the following lenses converging or diverging?

Converging lenses Diverging lenses

(P>0) (P<0) 43
Newtonian equation for thin lens

R1 R2 xx ' f2
f x'
m
x f
O
x f f‘ x’
I

n=1 n’=1

s’
44
Curved mirrors: Image formation

1 1 2
Generally,
s s' R

1 2 1 R s
f R f'
f f' m
2 s'
45
 Ray diagrams: concave mirrors
1 1 1 2
s s' f R R

Erect
Virtual
Enlarged

C ƒ

e.g. shaving mirror

What if s > f ?
s s’ 46
 Ray diagrams: convex mirrors
1 1 1 2
Calculate s’ for R=10 cm, s = 20 cm
R
s s' f R
Erect
Virtual
Reduced

ƒ C

e.g. Car rear view mirror.

What if s < |f| ?

s s’
47