Statement

1.1.U1 Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental

movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters,
international agreements and technological developments.

1.1.U2 An EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group
of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural,
religious, economic and socio-political contexts.
1.1.U3 An EVS might be considered as a system in the sense that it may be influenced
by education, experience, culture and media (inputs), and involves a set of
interrelated premises, values and arguments that can generate consistent
decisions and evaluations (outputs).
1.1.U4 There is a spectrum of EVSs, from ecocentric through anthropocentric to
technocentric value systems.
 Statement
1.1.U5 An ecocentric viewpoint integrates social, spiritual and environmental dimensions into a holistic ideal. It puts ecology and
nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency
of societies. An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes biorights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-
restraint in human behaviour.
1.1.U6 An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This might be through
the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legislation. Debate would be encouraged to reach a consensual,
pragmatic approach to solving environmental problems.
1.1.U7 A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems.
This is a consequence of a largely optimistic view of the role humans can play in improving the lot of humanity. Scientific
research is encouraged in order to form policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated or
changed to solve resource depletion. A pro-growth agenda is deemed necessary for society’s improvement.
1.1.U8 There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists–ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or
perfectly into any classification.
1.1.U9 Different EVSs ascribe different intrinsic value to components of the biosphere.
 Statement
1.1.A1 Discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value.

1.1.A2 Evaluate the implications of two contrasting EVSs in the context of given environmental
issues.
1.1.A3 Justify, using examples and evidence, how historical influences have shaped the
development of the modern environmental movement
All living beings roaming the earth and winged birds soaring in the sky are
communities like yourselves. We have left nothing out of the Record. Then to their
Lord they will be gathered all together.
(Surah Al An’am : 38)
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), also including conservation and
green politics, is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues.
• A society is an arbitrary group of individuals who share some common characteristics, such as geographical
location, cultural background, historical timeframe, religious perspective, value system and so on.

On April 22nd in 1970, thousands of people gathered in New York Protestors led by Reverend Joseph Lowery march against a
City's Union Square Park for the world’s first Earth Day celebration. proposed toxic waste dump in Warren County, North Carolina,
in October 1982.
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

Who is involved in the environmental movement?

• Influential Individuals
Often use media publications ( Eg Rachel Carson’s Silent
Spring)
• Independent pressure groups
Awareness campaign to effects a change (NGOs)
• Corporate Business
Multinational corporations (MNCs) & Transnational
Corporations (TNCs)-supplying consumer demand
• Governments
Make policy decisions including environmental
• Intergovernmental Agencies
United Nations highly influential in more recent times by
holding Earth Summit to bring governments,NGOs and
corporation.
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Major environmental disasters, the media, literature, international agreements and technological advancements
have all made us more aware of the impact that humans have had, and are having, on the Earth.

What are some of the major environmental events or pivotal moments that you can think of?
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Silent Spring
• By Rachel Carson, 1962
• Highlights the effects of
bioaccumulation of pesticides on
populations of predatory birds.
• Showed link between pesticide
use and ecosystem health
• Raised awareness of pesticides of
Americans
• Beginning of the end : DDT
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Chernobyl 1986
• Worst nuclear disaster
• Complete meltdown
released radioactive
waste over Europe
(Belarus, Russia and
Ukraine)
• Impact human and
wildlife
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Bhopal (India) 1984

• Around 25000 death from the gas
leak
• Future of prolonged pain, cancer,
stillbirths, miscarriages, lung and
heart disease and the drawn out
deaths of everyone around them
• Chemical industry has been put
under pressure to develop and
implement strict safety and
environmental standards.
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Fukushima (2011)
• the earthquake - known as the
Great East Japan Earthquake,
or the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake - struck east of the
city of Sendai, 97km north of
the plant.
• 10 minutes warning before
the tsunami hit the coast.
• Nuclear meltdown.
• At least 16 workers were
injured in the explosions,
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Kyoto Protocol (1997)

• International agreement
linked to United Nations
Framework Convention on
Climate Change aimed at
fighting global warming.
• reduce greenhouse gas
emissions
1.1 U1 : Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the
media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

• Rio Earth Summit, Rio de janeiro

Brazil (2012)
• Measures for implementing
sustainable development.
• It resulted in over 700 voluntary
commitments and witnessed the
formation of new partnership to
advance sustainable development.
1.1 U2 : An EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates
environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contexts.

• An environmental value system (EVS) is a “worldview” or paradigm that shapes the way an individual and
groups approach environmental issues.
• This will be influenced by
i. cultural (including religious)economic
ii. socio-political context.
• An environmental value system is a system in the sense that it has:
i. Inputs
(for example, education, cultural influences, religious doctrine, media)
i. outputs
(for example, decisions, perspectives, courses of action) determined by processing these inputs.

• Previous, we have learn about “system”(Topic 1.2) : consists storages, flows, inputs and outputs.

Input Storage Output

1.1 U3 : An EVS might be considered as a system in the sense that it may be influenced by education, experience, culture and
media (inputs), and involves a set of interrelated premises, values and arguments that can generate consistent decisions and
evaluations (outputs).

• An environmental value system is a system in the sense that it has;

1. Inputs - education,cultural influences, religious doctrine, media)
2. Outputs - decisions, perspectives, courses of action determined by processing these inputs.
1.1 U4 : There is a spectrum of EVSs, from ecocentric through anthropocentric to technocentric value systems.

Environmental Value Systems Spectrum

Ecocentric (Nature Centred) Anthropocentric (Human Centred) Technocentric (Based on

Technology)

1. Minimum disturbance to 1. People are managers of the

1. Brain power of humans will
nature Earth.
enable us to control the
2. View themselves under 2. Human are most important
environment.
nature’s control species.
2. Technology solves problems.
3. Limit to Earth’s resources.
3. Importants for market, and
4. Nature has more value than
economic growths.
humanity.
1.1 U5 : An ecocentric viewpoint integrates social, spiritual and environmental dimensions into a holistic ideal. It puts ecology
and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies.
An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes biorights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-restraint in human
behaviour.

Ecocentric
(Nature centred)

• Nature : Environmental conservation is central to decision making

• Society : Human are part of nature.
• Individual responsibility and accountability
• All life inherent value
• We should not cause extinction of other species
• We should protect habitats and ecosystems
• Human are not more important than other species
• Resources are limited
• We need the Earth more than it needs us
• Groups : Deep Ecologist & Self-reliance soft ecologist
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Deep Ecologist (nature before human)

• Nature is more value than humanity

• Not all natural resources are for human use,
human should consume less
• Ecological ( and other natural) laws dictate
human morality
• Biorights- the right of endangered species
or unique landscapes to remain unmolested
Self-reliance soft ecologist

• Small scales, local community action

• Individual make a difference
• Self-sufficiency is resource management
• Against large scale profits, prefer small
scale/low markets
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Case study
Resources exploitation:
The ecocentric perspective on fossil fuel exploitation
• An ecocentric approach to the use of fossil fuels would be to reduce
or stop all reliance on them because:
1. They are non-renewable and therefore sustainability is impossible.
2. Exploitation leads to significant environmental damage and habitat
destruction, even without accidents such as oil spills extraction
activity such as mining is highly destructive .
3. Such destruction has moral and spiritual implications for ecocentrics.
4. Fossil fuels contribute to global warming and so add to the
disruption of nature.
5. Ecocentrics support the use of small-scale technology on a local
level. Fossil fuel exploitation is unacceptable to them as it is always
carried out by large-scale corporation or governments.
6. Investment and reliance on fossil fuels gives a false sense of security
and detracts from investment in alternative sources of energy.
1.1 U7 : A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems.
This is a consequence of a largely optimistic view of the role humans can play in improving the lot of humanity. Scientific
research is encouraged in order to form policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated or changed to
solve resource depletion. A pro-growth agenda is deemed necessary for society’s improvement.

Technocentric
(Technology centred)

• Nature : Nature is a model,but can be replaced by

technology when needed.
• Society : human health and well being are central in
decision making.
• Technology can keep pace with and provide solutions
to environmental problems.
• a value system that is centered on technology and its
ability to control and protect the environment
• We can solve any problem we cause
• Economic growth is a good thing.
• Group : Cornucopians
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Cornucopians (don't care for the environment; human come first)

• The world has infinite resources

• Doesn’t see environmental issues as
“problems” as humans have always found a
way out of difficulties in the past
• New resources and technologies will solve
any environmental will solve any
environmental problems as they
encountered.
• No need for radical agenda ,socio economic
or political reform
• Don’t care for environment ; human come
first
• Growth and sees a free-market economy -
capitalism with minimal government control
or interference - as the best way to manage
markets and the planet.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Case study
Resource exploitation
Technocentrics view on fossil fuels
The technocentrics take the view that all resources can be exploited for human benefit so
they propose the continued use of fossil fuels because:
• Technology can find solutions to any of the problems that arise form resource exploitation
for instance we now have the technology to clean up oil spills.
• Technology will find alternatives should fossil fuels ever be depleted.
• There is currently an abundant supply of fossil fuels and we have the technology in place
to extract it.
• We are developing technology to access previously inaccessible oil and natural gas e.g.
fracking.
• Our current lifestyles are dependent on fossil fuels e.g. transport, power, and
commodities.
• Countries with fossil fuels have the potential to benefit economically from the resource
and thus develop.
• The oil industry is a significant global employer.
• We have to continue using fossil fuels until technology has improved the efficiency of the
renewable energy sources.
• Some fossil fuels such as natural gas are a cost effective source of energy.
• Technology is developing that can reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
1.1 U6 : An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This might be through
the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legislation. Debate would be encouraged to reach a consensual, pragmatic
approach to solving environmental problems.

Anthropocentric
(People centred)

• Nature : Environmental is a resource for humans to use

as needed.
• Society : human health and well being are central in
decision making.
• People as environmental managers of the environment
• Governmental regulations ; taxes ; legislation,
regulation
• Population control given equal weight to resource use
• Humans are most important species
• People living in MEDCs (more economically developed
countries) are likely to have this world view compared
with LEDCs (Less economically developed countries) .
Why?
• Tend to include both spectrum in their spectrum.
• Group : environmental Managers
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Environmental managers (believe that the environment can be used if manage properly)

• The Earth need tending : Stewardship.

• Governments legislate and protect the
environment.
• No radical political agenda but promote
working to create within the existing social
and political structures.
• Current economic growth can be sustained
if environmental issues are managed by
legal means or political agreement.
• Believe that the environment can be used if
managed properly.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Case study :
Modern Western Worldview
Environmental managers
• Many of the Western world nations have an anthropocentric worldview, which is
largely based on religious thinking. Characteristics include:
• Human life is seen to have intrinsic value whereas other living things are there for the
benefit of humankind. It is suggested that this is based on the book of Genesis –
humans were created to subdue the earth and have dominion over living creatures.
• Resources are freely exploited for economic development.
• Many countries have population policies – some to bring birth rates down e.g.
Thailand others to try and increase birth rates e.g. Sweden.
• There are many independent authorities that negotiate agreements to benefit
mankind. A major player is probably the United Nations that oversees many
agreements concerning issues from pollution to human rights. A quick Internet search
on UN agreements will turn up a wide range treaties and agreements.
• Governments are pushing for sustainability in the shape of increased efficiency of
technology, reduced deforestation, reforestation, recycling campaigns, pollution
reduction, measures, national parks and conservation areas – the list goes on.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

For example :
Judaeo-Christian societies:
• Genesis story suggests that God gave the planet to humans as a gift.
• Other biblical stories indicate that humans should make the most of this gift but
act as stewards for God's creation e.g Matthew 25:14-30, the parable of the
talents told by Jesus.

Buddhist societies:
• sees humans as an intrinsic part of nature rather than as merely a steward.
• emphasises human interrelationships with all parts of nature and considers it
unrealistic to see ourselves as isolated from the rest of nature. Reincarnation
means a human consciousness/spirit can be reborn as either human or animal.
• compassion is the basis for a balanced worldview
• essential to maintain the balance of life by saving and not wasting or destroying.
Nothing has a fixed, permanent or independent existence
• people should act compassionately and work together altruistically, a philosophy
of 'uplift to all'
• wilderness nature holds a particularly important role as a place where Buddhists
can carry out a variety of religious practices.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Native American societies:

• see the environment as communal and prior to
the arrival of the Europeans in the late 16th
century, had a subsistence economy based on
barter.
• low-impact technologies and lived in harmony
with environment.
• Practised an animalistic religion where all things
have souls - animals, plants, rocks, mountains,
rivers, stars etc.
• created conflict with the colonising Europeans
who exploited what they saw as unlimited
resources.
• many of the viewpoints attributed to historical
figures in Native American society have been
found to be misquotes but the philosophy
remains accurate.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Communist societies:
• criticised for poor environmental record.
• could argue that the economic principles of communism
inevitably lead to environmental degradation when free
natural resources are seen as existing to serve the state.
• Communist ideal of equal distribution of resources with no
profit motive meant that energy, materials and natural
resources could be squandered without care.
• e.g. Buna chemical works in East Germany (prior to
unification) dumped 10 times more mercury into nearby
rivers than counterparts in West Germany. Cars in East
Germany emitted 100x more carbon monoxide than those in
West Germany because they didn't have catalytic
convertors.
• The Communist State in Germany protected the interests of
farmers, foresters and fisherman and therefore
unintentionally benefited some aspects of the environment.
1.1 U8 : There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists– ecocentric to cornucopian–
technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly
into any classification.

Capitalist societies:
• seen as environmentally friendly with free market and a
system motivated by economic profit
• free market imposes checks and balances to ensure efficient
use of resources in order to maximise profit.
• The rise of capitalism in the former Communist East
Germany led to polluting industries organising themselves
into powerful lobbies who protected their own interests at
the expense of the environment.
• Civil liberties, and the role of democracy may play a more
significant role in combating environmental problems than
the economic basis of the system
1.1 U9 : Different EVSs ascribe different intrinsic value to components of the biosphere.

• Some people believe that all / some elements of the natural environment have
intrinsic value. They should be valued just because they exist.

• For example in Ecuador;

“Rights of Nature is the recognition and honouring that Nature has rights. It is the
recognition that trees, oceans, animals, mountains have rights just as human beings
have rights. Rights of Nature is about balancing what is good for human beings
against what is good for other species, what is good for the planet as a world. It is
the holistic recognition that all life, all ecosystems on our planet are deeply
intertwined.”
• Ecuador is the first country to recognize Rights of Nature in its Constitution and the
ecosystem itself can be named as the defendant

• Resources can be valued in several ways;

i. Economic: Having marketable goods and services
ii. Ecological: Providing life support services
Intrinsic value means
iii. Scientific: useful applications
that something has
• Resources can also be valued ¨intrinsically¨. This means that a resource is valued
value in its own right,
for its cultural, esthetic, spiritual or philosophical (moral) value and are valued
i.e. inbuilt/inherent
regardless of their potential use to humans.
worth
1.1 U9 : Different EVSs ascribe different intrinsic value to components of the biosphere.

1. What is intrinsic value?

2. How can you attach value to the
biosphere?
3. Which EVSs attribute intrinsic
value?
4. Can you attach intrinsic value to
something but act contrary to this
value?
5. Would this be cognitive
dissonance?
Justify your decisions on environmental issues based on
EVSs.

• Using information from 1.1.U1 you will give valid reasons

or evidence to support an answer or conclusion.
• Summarize the examples and comment on how
awareness of a particular environmental issue changed,
and to what scale (local, regional, global awareness).
• Describe any changes that occurred, or should have
occurred, because of the event. Did people change their
habits (or not)? Were new laws passed (or not)?
• ​Reflect upon where you stand on the continuum of
environmental philosophies with regard to specific issues
arising throughout the syllabus
1. population control
2. resource exploitation
3. sustainable development
4. any other ideas you feel important