GE2412 English for the Humanities and Social Sciences

Unit 6
Corpus Analysis (continued)

The Application of Corpora

Corpora can be used to investigate the linguistic features or patterns commonly used in a
particular genre, or in a particular context. For example, we may want to know how often the
active or passive voice is used in academic writing; or which hedging devices are usually used;
or whether reported speech is generally found in newspaper articles.

However, corpora can only provide systematic information about frequency. They do not
explain the underlying reasons for usage patterns. It is up to the person using them to find out
the reasons.

Activity
In groups of 2 to 3 people, use COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English), to guess the
meaning of the following idioms. For each correct answer your group will earn one point.

1. Someone's neck of the woods

2. Pick someone's brains
3. As cool as a cucumber
4. Hold your horses
5. Blue in the face
6. A storm in a teacup
7. Head in the clouds
8. Heart in one's mouth
9. Dead as a doornail
10. Drink like a fish
11. See eye to eye
12. Work one's fingers to the bone.

IMRD: Discussion

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Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to place the findings in context. This can include doing
one or more of the following:
1. Restating the original purpose of the research
2. Reviewing the main findings
3. Explaining how the findings fit into the context of earlier research. If a gap in the
research literature was indicated in the introduction, to what extent has it been filled?
4. Discussing the extent to which the original research questions have been answered
5. Comparing the findings with those from previous studies
6. Considering possible explanations for the results, particularly if they are unexpected or
different from what the introduction predicted
7. Describing limitations on the study.
8. Describing real-world implications for the research: can the findings improve clinical
practice, teaching methods, etc.?
9. Describing research implications. With these findings now available, what directions
should future research go in?

The discussion section gives the writer a chance to highlight the importance of a study,
potentially increasing the reader's engagement in it. It also gives the writer a chance to
establish credibility by demonstrating an ability to think critically about the topic at hand.

Activity 1: Reading and Discussion

In pairs, read the following sentences from the discussion section in Tazegül (2015). The
following 6 sentences are selected from the Discussion and Limitation Section of the paper.
What’s the function of each sentence?

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 Sentences Function
This present paper makes an attempt to study …  the
meaning and use of “on the other hand” by studying on a
1 control corpus of 100 published articles in seven
international journals of linguistics … using Turkish
learners’ English as an example.
Overall overuse of “on the other hand”, in learner corpus
obtained from the frequency analysis indicate[s] identical
2 conditions with many of the previous research studies
(Babanoğlu, 2012; Biber et al.1999; Milton & Tsang, 1993;
Silva, 1993; Yeung, 2009).
Even though the COCA results show that ”on the other
hand” is more frequent in academic genre[s] (in all
field[s]), the data of the native speakers’ writings (in
3 applied and theoretical linguistics field[s]) reflect that
they used a small number of [the] logical connector “on
the other hand” in their papers and …  mostly prefer to
use “on the other hand” … with “on the one hand”.
The current study is limited in terms of focusing on only
4 one linking adverbial “on the one hand” and representing
a wide range of frequency distribution in texts ….
For future research, more focus may be placed on more
5 than one linking adverbial …  and the control corpus could
be selected in the same genre.
The results reveal that academically advanced and
proficient NNS students have learned how to use adverbs
and adverbial clauses grammatically and syntactically[;]
6 however the greatest differences between the essays of
NS and NNS are the frequency rates of amplifiers and
emphatic adverbs, both types [being] very common in
spoken informal language.

Activity 2a: Language Focus

Look at the main verbs in each sentence of the paragraph. What verb forms are used? Can you
work out why one form is used rather than another, in each case? Discuss with your partner.

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 4. Discussions and Conclusion
This present paper makes an attempt to study one of the logical connectives, the
meaning and use of “on the one hand” by studying on a control corpus of 100 published
articles in seven international journals of linguistics to use as the norm of the analysis
and expert corpora, dictionary definitions, as well as comparing and contrasting the
experts’ use with that of the learners, using Turkish learners' English as an example. It is
important to note that all non-native speakers whose thesis were analyzed in this study
were academically advanced and proficient L2 learners, who had … years of exposure to
and instruction in L2 use in English language environments. Additionally, the expert
corpora ... were searched hypercorrectly. Firstly, in the line with the …

Activity 2b: What verb forms are used? Can you work out why, in each
case?
This present paper makes an attempt to study one of the logical connectives, the meaning and
use of ‘on the other hand’ by studying….

On the other hand, Hinkel (2003) compared academic essays written by first-year NS and
academically-advanced NNS students in terms of median frequency rates and…..

The present study also allows us to deduce if non-native learners are academically advanced
and proficient, they can use adverbial connectors correctly, even the problematic ones, such as
‘on the other hand’.

This result has reported similar overuse by non-natives in a great deal of study in literature.

Referring to earlier research

Some starting principles

As we’ve seen, we refer to earlier research in academic writing in order to show the
connections between our work and ideas, and what other researchers have done. One principle
for source use is transparency: the reader should be able to understand which sources have
influenced your work, and in what ways. Another principle is that, like any other content you
bring into your text, references to sources should serve a purpose and help you build your
argument.

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GE2412 English for Humanities and Social Sciences
Integral and non-integral citations
Integral citations are ones in which the source is a grammatical part of the sentence; if it is
removed, the sentence is incomplete.
According to Cheddar (2002), the moon is made of green cheese.

By contrast, non-integral citations name the source outside of the body of the sentence, in
parentheses, as in the example below, or in a footnote or end note.
The moon is made of green cheese (Cheddar, 2000).

Integral citations are very uncommon in the sciences and in engineering, but in the humanities
and social sciences, both types of citations are used. Using a balance of each is an effective
rhetorical tool. However, all other things being equal, integral citations draw attention to the
author (that is, the person who wrote the source being cited). As a result, too many integral
citations may possibly make the writer seem less authoritative and confident.

Reporting verbs
The verbs used to include a reference to a source are called reporting verbs. There are very
many different reporting verbs in English and they can be used to produce different effects.
Thompson & Ye (1991) analyzed reporting verbs and found that the can be grouped into three
categories according to what they say about the writer's evaluation of the idea being reported.

Factive reporting verbs suggest that the writer supports the idea presented by the source.
Cheddar (2002) demonstrates that the moon is made of green cheese.

Counter-factive verbs suggest that the writer thinks the source is wrong.
Cheddar (2002) confuses the question of the composition of the moon.

Non-factive verbs let the writer stay neutral, at least for the time being.
Cheddar (2002) states that the moon is made of green cheese.

Activity 3: Discussing the LD samples

Read the LD Sample 1 and Sample 2. Think about the research focus, structure and language
use of these two writings. Could these writings be improved? Discuss and share your ideas with
the class.

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GE2412 English for Humanities and Social Sciences
Activity 4: Work on your research topic for the Language Discovery
Project

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GE2412 English for Humanities and Social Sciences
Last week, you should have started working on the writing plan of the LD project.

Introduction Methodology Results Discussion

What’s the research gap?

Now, try to explain the significance/importance of your own results. Try to consider the
relationship between your research and previous research (you may review the reading written
by Tazegül, 2015). Brainstorm as many limitations as you can think of which might make your
project incomplete or flawed. Remember that the Discussion section can be a place to reflect
on any ways in which your project could have been better.

References

Tazegül, A. B. (2015). Use, misuse and overuse of ‘on the other hand’: A corpus study
comparing Englısh of native speakers and learners. International Online Journal of Education
and Teaching, 2(2), 53-66
Thompson, G., & Ye, Y. (1991). Evaluation in the Reporting Verbs Used in Academic Papers.
Applied Linguistics, 12(4), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/12.4.365
University of Southern California. (2018). Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper.
Retrieved from http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide.

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GE2412 English for Humanities and Social Sciences