General Biology TM

AVISSAR • CHOI • DESAIX •
JURUKOVSKI • WISE • RYE
GENERAL
BIOLOGY
TEACHER’S MANUAL
Philippine edition by
Gisselle Millete M. Belardo
i
General Biology 1
Teacher’s Manual
ISBN 978-971-07-4103-8
Copyright © 2016 by Vibal Group, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means—electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system—without permission
in writing from the publisher and author.
Published and printed by Vibal Group, Inc. with main office at

1253 G. Araneta Avenue, Quezon City.
Regional Offices: 0290 Nivel Hills, Lahug, Cebu City

Kalamansi St. cor. 1st Ave., Juna Subdivision, Matina, Davao City
ii
Preface
T he General Biology 1 Teacher’s Manual
is a tool for teachers in educating senior
the high school students with advanced and
hand. These features encourage the students
to engage in exploration and scientific inquiry.
Some of these features include:
engaging biology concepts adapted from • Evolution Connection, which upholds the
the Openstax College’s style of strategically importance of evolution to all biological study;
condensed discussions that highlight biology’s • Scientific Method Connection, which walks
essential topics. This teaching guide was students through actual or thought experiments
developed to cater to the Filipino teachers and that elucidate the steps of the scientific process
learners in mind adapting the Department of as applied to the topic;
Education’s prescribed learning outcomes and • Career Connection, which features present
field-tested teaching strategies suited for the information on a variety of careers in the bio-
senior high school students. logical science and introduces students to the
Furthermore, this teacher’s manual will be educational requirements and day-to-day work
fully usable and teacher-friendly. The methodol- life of a variety of professions in the biological
ogy and teaching strategies found in this manual field;
are specifically designed to help the teacher to • Everyday Connection, which ties biological
fully discuss to the students the concepts found concepts to emerging issues and discusses
in the lessons of the book. Most notably, this science in everyday life;
manual will be very helpful in the preparation • Art Connection, which calls out core figures in
of teaching materials, assessment of student each chapter for student study. Questions about
learning, and daily lesson planning. the key figures include clickers that can be used
The Biology 1 worktext partnered with its in the classroom to engage the students’ critical
teacher’s manual encompasses the following: thinking and analytical abilities and to ensure
the introduction to biological sciences; the their genuine understanding; and
chemical foundation of life; the synthesis of • Links to Learning, which directs students to
biomolecules; the structure and function of online interactive exercises and animations to add
the different parts of the cell; the basic cellular a fuller context and examples to the core content.
processes, including cell division; and energy These features, alongside the condensed
transformation, including glycolysis, photosyn- yet concise presentation of facts, encourage
thesis, and cellular respiration. These topics students to recognize relationships among
are taken up for one whole semester as part of details, form generalizations based on the
DepEd’s Senior High School program. information discussed, ask questions to further
This book has certain pedagogical features scientific exploration, and apply what is learned
adapted from the open source textbook designed to life situations for an enriching and enjoyable
to help students understand the concepts at learning experience.
iii
Pedagogical Foundation and Features
FIGURE 1.25 Peptide bond formation is a EVERYDAY
dehydration synthesis reaction. The carboxyl Protein Structure CONNECTION
group of one amino acid is linked to the As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. For
amino group of the incoming amino acid. In Photosynthesis
example, an enzyme can bind at to
thea Grocery
specific Store
substrate at a site known as FIGURE 6.8 Foods that humans
the process, a molecule of water Major grocery such consume originate from photosynthesis.
is released. the active site. If this activestores in altered
site is the country are organized
because into departments,
of local changes or
as dairy, meats, produce, bread, cereals, and so forth. Each aisle (Figure 6.8)
changes in overall protein structure, the enzyme may be unable to bind FIGURE 1.26 Bovine serum insulin is a
contains hundreds, if not thousands, of different products for customers to
protein hormone made of two peptide
to the substrate.
buy To
andunderstand
consume. how the protein gets its final shape or chains, A (21 amino acids long) and B (30
conformation, weAlthough
need to understand thevariety,
there is a large four levels
each of protein
item structure:
links back amino acids long). In each chain, primary
to photosynthesis.
primary, secondary,
Meats andtertiary, and because
dairy link, quaternary. structure is indicated by three-letter
the animals were fed plant-based foods. The
abbreviations that represent the names of
breads, cereals, and pastas come largely from starchy grains, whichtheare the acids in the order they are
amino
Peptide bond Primary Structure
seeds of photosynthesis-dependent plants. What about desserts and drinks?
present. The amino acid cysteine (cys) has a
All of theseof
The unique sequence products
amino contain
acids insugar—sucrose
a polypeptideischain
a plantisproduct,
its pri- a disaccha-
sulfhydryl (SH) group as a side chain. Two
ride,For
a carbohydrate sulfhydryl groups can react in the presence
The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine mary structure. example, themolecule,
pancreaticwhich is built directly
hormone insulinfrom photosynthesis.
has two of oxygen to form a disulfide (S-S) bond. Two
the protein’s shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached Moreover,
polypeptide chains, manyB,items
A and and are
theyless
areobviously derived from
linked together plants: For instance,
by disulfide disulfide bonds connect the A and B chains
paper goods are generally plant products, and many plastics (abundant as
to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, bonds. The N terminal amino acid of the A chain is glycine, whereas together, and a third helps the A chain fold
products and packaging) are derived from algae. Virtually every spice and
into the correct shape. Note that all disulfide
which is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one the C terminal amino acid is asparagine (Figure 1.26). The sequences bonds
flavoring in the spice aisle was produced by a plant as a leaf, root, bark, flower,
are the same length, but are drawn
amino acid and the amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, of amino acids in or
fruit, thestem.
A and B chains
Ultimately, are unique toconnects
photosynthesis insulin.to every meal and different
everysizes for clarity.
releasing a molecule of water. The resulting bond is the peptide bond food a person consumes.
(Figure 1.25).
The products formed by such linkages are called peptides. As more A Chain
amino acids join to this growing chain, the resulting chain is known
as a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. Activity
This end is called the N terminal, or the amino terminal, and the other
Starch Test in a leaf
end has a free carboxyl group, also known as the C or carboxyl ter-
1. Get a green leaf from a plant that has been exposed to sunlight.
minal. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used
2. Put the leaf in boiling water for two minutes.
interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids,
whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that 3. Put the boiled leaf in a test tube containing alcohol or ethanol.
have combined together, often have bound non-peptide prosthetic Place the test tube in a beaker of hot water for 10 minutes.
groups, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function. After protein (Caution: Alcohol is flammable. Do not heat the test tube with
B Chain
synthesis (translation), most proteins are modified. These are known as alcohol directly with a bunsen flame. Turn off the bunsen flame
post-translational modifications. They may undergo cleavage, phosphor- before putting the test tube in hot water.)
ylation, or may require the addition of other chemical groups. Only after 4. Remove the leaf gently and put it back into the hot water for two
EVOLUTION these modifications is the protein completely functional. minutes.
CONNECTION 5. Take the leaf out of the water. Add 1-2 drops of iodine solution on
The Evolutionary Significance the leaf.
millions of years. Protein sequencing 37 of these amino acids appear in
of Cytochrome c has shown that there is a consider- the same position in all samples of 6. Observe the color of the leaf and explain your observation.
Cytochrome c is an important com- able amount of cytochrome c amino cytochrome c. This indicates that
ponent of the electron transport acid sequence homology among there may have been a common
chain, a part of cellular respiration, different species; in other words, evo- ancestor. On comparing the human
and it is normally found in the cel- lutionary kinship can be assessed by and chimpanzee protein sequences,
lular organelle, the mitochondrion. measuring the similarities or differ- no sequence difference was found.
This protein has a heme prosthetic ences among various species’ DNA When human and rhesus monkey
group, and the central ion of the or protein sequences. sequences were compared, the
heme gets alternately reduced and Scientists have determined that single difference found was in one FIGURE 1.27 The beta chain of hemoglobin
is 147 residues in length, yet a single amino
oxidized during electron transfer. human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acid. In another comparison, acid substitution leads to sickle cell anemia.
Because this essential protein’s role amino acids. For each cytochrome c human to yeast sequencing shows a In normal hemoglobin, the amino acid at
in producing cellular energy is cru- molecule from different organisms difference in the 44th position. position seven is glutamate. In sickle cell
cial, it has changed very little over that has been sequenced to date, hemoglobin, this glutamate is replaced by a
valine.
32 Chapter 1 Biological Macromolecules 33

Photosynthesis 147
Evolution Connection Activity

Upholds the importance of evolution to Provides expository task to enhance critical
all biological study through discussions thinking and reasoning skills of the students
Scientific Method Connection

Walks students through actual or thought experiments that
elucidate the steps of the scientific process as applied to the topic
In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter
FIGURE 4.6 Slowly scan
cells. During interphase, the Golgi apparatus accumulates enzymes, whitefish blastula cells with
structural proteins, and glucose molecules prior to breaking into vesicles the high-power objective as
illustrated in image (a) to
and dispersing throughout the dividing cell. During telophase, these identify their mitotic stage.
Golgi vesicles are transported on microtubules to form a phragmoplast (b) A microscopic image of
(a vesicular structure) at the metaphase plate. There, the vesicles fuse the scanned cells is shown.
(Credit “micrograph”:
and coalesce from the center toward the cell walls; this structure is called modification of work by
a cell plate. As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges Linda Flora; scale-bar data
with the cell walls at the periphery of the cell. Enzymes use the glucose from Matt Russell)
that has accumulated between the membrane layers to build a new cell
wall. The Golgi membranes become parts of the plasma membrane on
SCIENTIFIC Scan the cells to identify the
METHOD either side of the new cell wall (Figure 4.5). mitotic stage of the cells
CONNECTION
Determine the Time Spent in Cell Cycle Stages Phase or Stage Individual Totals Group Totals Percent
TABLE 4–1 Results of Cell
Stage Identification
Problem:
Interphase
How long does a cell spend in interphase compared to each stage of mitosis?
Background: Prophase
A prepared microscope slide of blastula cross sections will show cells arrested in various stages of the cell cycle. Metaphase
It is not visually possible to separate the stages of interphase from each other, but the mitotic stages are readily
identifiable. If 100 cells are examined, the number of cells in each identifiable cell cycle stage will give an estimate Anaphase
of the time it takes for the cell to complete that stage. Telophase
Problem Statement:
Given the events included in all of interphase and those that take place in each stage of mitosis, estimate the length Cytokinesis
of each stage based on a 24-hour cell cycle. Before proceeding, state your hypothesis. Totals 100 100 100 percent
Test Your Hypothesis:
Test your hypothesis by doing the following: Analyze your data/report your results: To find the length of time white-
1. Place a fixed and stained microscope slide of whitefish blastula cross sections under the scanning objective of fish blastula cells spend in each stage, multiply the percent (recorded
a light microscope. as a decimal) by 24 hours. Make a table similar to Table 4–2 to illustrate
2. Locate and focus on one of the sections using the scanning objective of your microscope. Notice that the section your data.
is a circle composed of dozens of closely packed individual cells.
TABLE 4–2 Estimate of Cell
Phase or Stage Percent (as Decimal) Time in Hours
3. Switch to the low-power objective and refocus. With this objective, individual cells are visible. Stage Length
4. Switch to the high-power objective and slowly move the slide left to right, and up and down to view all the cells Interphase
in the section (Figure 4.6). As you scan, you will notice that most of the cells are not undergoing mitosis but are Prophase
in the interphase period of the cell cycle.
Metaphase
5. Practice identifying the various stages of the cell cycle, using the drawings of the stages as a guide (Figure 4.3).
Anaphase
6. Once you are confident about your identification, begin to record the stage of each cell you encounter as you
scan left to right, and top to bottom across the blastula section. Telophase
7. Keep a tally of your observations and stop when you reach 100 cells identified. Cytokinesis
8. The larger the sample size (total number of cells counted), the more accurate the results. If possible, gather and
record group data prior to calculating percentages and making estimates. Draw a conclusion: Did your results support your estimated times? Were any of the
outcomes unexpected? If so, discuss which events in that stage might contribute
Record Your Observations
to the calculated time.
Make a table similar to Table 4–1 in which you record your observations.
106 Chapter 4 Cell Division 107
iv
Another example of the link between basic and applied research FIGURE 6 The Human Genome Project was
is the Human Genome Project, a study in which each human chro- a 13-year collaborative effort among
researches working in several different fields
mosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of science. The project, which sequenced the
of DNA subunits and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is entire human genome, was completed in
the basic unit of heredity; an individual’s complete collection of genes 2003. (Credit: the U.S. Department of Energy
Everyday Connection
Genome Programs)
is his or her genome.) Other less complex organisms have also been
studied as part of this project in order to gain a better understanding of
human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project (Figure 6) relied
on basic research carried out with simple organisms and, later, with
Ties biological concepts to emerging issues and discuss science in

the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using
the data for applied research, seeking cures and early diagnoses for
genetically related diseases.
terms of everyday life

While research efforts in both basic science and applied science
are usually carefully planned, it is important to note that some discov-
eries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident
or lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander
Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open.
An unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing the bacteria. The mold
turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even
in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with
an observant, curious mind—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.
Branches of Biological Study
Career Connection
The scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches
and subdisciplines. Biologists may pursue one of those subdisciplines
and work in a more focused field. For instance, molecular biology and
biochemistry study biological processes at the molecular and chemical
Presents information on a variety of careers in the biological

level, including interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA,
and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated. Microbiology, the CAREER
CONNECTION
sciences, introducing students to the educational requirements Forensic Scientist

Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related
to the law. Biologists as well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic
FIGURE 7 Tacloban City, Philippines, 20
November 2013. Forensic experts Andres
Patino (ICRC) and Raquel Fortun
(University of the Philippines) work to
and day-to-day work life of a variety of professions, such as

scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and ensure proper management and
their job involves examining trace materials associated with crimes. Interest identification of the bodies of Typhoon
Haiyan victims.
in forensic science has increased in the last few years, possibly because of
popular television shows that feature forensic scientists on the job. Also, the
microbiologist, ecologist, neurologist, and forensic scientist development of molecular techniques and the establishment of DNA data-
bases have expanded the types of work that forensic scientists can do. Their
job activities are primarily related to crimes against people such as murder,
rape, and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood,
and other body fluids and also processing DNA found in many different
environments and materials. Forensic scientists also analyze other biological
evidence left at crime scenes, such as insect larvae or pollen grains. Students
who want to pursue careers in forensic science will most likely be required to
take chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math courses.
Introduction to Biology: The Study of Life 5
Link to Learning
Directs students to online interactive exercises and animations to 4. The smallest unit of biological structure that meets the functional require-
ments of “living” is the .
LINKS TO
LEARNING
add a fuller context and examples to core content

a. organ c. cell
Watch these videos
b. organelle d. macromolecule
■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/
5. Viruses are not considered living because they . movement_plants) to see
a. are not made of cells c. do not contain DNA or how plants respond to a stim-
RNA ulus—from opening to light,
b. lack cell nuclei d. cannot reproduce to wrapping a tendril around
6. The presence of a membrane-enclosed is a characteristic of . a branch, to capturing prey.
a. prokaryotic cells c. living organisms ■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/
b. eukaryotic cells d. bacteria rotating_DNA) that animates
the three-dimensional struc-
7. A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area is called ture of DNA molecule shown
a(n) . in Figure 11.
a. family c. population
b. community d. ecosystem
8. Which of the following sequences represents the hierarchy of biological

organization from the most inclusive to the least complex level?
a. organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem, population
b. organism, organ, tissue, organelle, molecule
c. organism, community, biosphere, molecule, tissue, organ
d. biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

9. Give an example of how applied science has had a direct effect on your
daily life.
10. Name two topics that are likely to be studied by biologists, and two areas
of scientific study that would fall outside the realm of biology.
11. Thinking about the topic of cancer, write a basic science question and an
applied science question that a researcher interested in this topic might
ask.
12. Select two items that biologists agree are necessary in order to consider
an organism “alive.” For each, give an example of a non-living object that
otherwise fits the definition of “alive.”
13. Consider the levels of organization of the biological world, and place
Vesicles and Vacuoles each of these items in order from smallest level of organization to most
Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage encompassing: skin cell, elephant, water molecule, planet Earth, tropical
and transport. Other than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger rainforest, hydrogen atom, wolf pack, liver.
than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction between them: the mem- 14. You go for a long walk on a hot day. Give an example of a way in which
branes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other homeostasis keeps your body healthy.
membrane systems within the cell. The membrane of a vacuole does
not fuse with the membranes of other cellular components. 15. Using examples, explain how biology can be studied from a microscopic
approach to a global approach.
The Endomembrane System

Introduction to Biology: The Study of Life 11
The endomembrane system (endo = “within”) is a group of membranes
and organelles (Figure 2.14) in eukaryotic cells that works together
to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the
nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, which we’ve already men-
tioned, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which
Art Connection
we will cover shortly. Although not technically within the cell, the
plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because,
as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles.
The endomembrane system does not include the membranes of either
mitochondria or chloroplasts. ART
CONNECTION Calls out core figures in each chapter for student study. Questions
about key figures, including clicker questions that can be used in
If a peripheral membrane protein were synthesized in the
lumen (inside) of the ER, would it end up on the inside
Nucleus or outside of the plasma membrane?
the classroom, engage students’ critical thinking and analytical

abilities to ensure their genuine understanding
Cisternae
cis face
Rough ER
FIGURE 2.14 Membrane and secretory
proteins are synthesized in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). The RER
also sometimes modifies proteins. In this
illustration, a (green) integral membrane
trans face protein in the ER is modified by
attachment of a (purple) carbohydrate.
Golgi Vesicles bud from the ER and fuse with
apparatus the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. As the
protein passes through the Golgi’s
cisternae, it is further modified by the
addition of more carbohydrates. After its
synthesis is complete, it exits via vesicles
that bud from the Golgi’s trans face and
Transport
fuses with the cell membrane. (Credit:
vesicle
Plasma membrane modification of work by Magnus Manske)
Cellular Structure 57
v
Table of
Contents
Introductory Chapter
Introduction: The Study of Life••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2
Lesson 1 The Science of Biology••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2
Lesson 2 Themes and Concepts in Biology•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3
Unit I Chemistry and Structure of the Cell••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7

Chapter 1 Biological Macromolecules••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
Lesson 1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
Lesson 2 Carbohydrates ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8
Lesson 3 Lipids •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 10
Lesson 4 Proteins ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 12
Lesson 5 Nucleic Acids •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14
Chapter 2 Cellular Structure ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20

Lesson 1 Cell Theory ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20
Lesson 2 Common Components of All Cells ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 21
Lesson 3 Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 22
Lesson 4 Plant Cell vs Animal Cell •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24
Unit II Basic Cellular Processes ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31

Chapter 3 Transport Mechanisms•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31
Lesson 1 Review: Structure and Components of the Plasma Membrane•••••••••••••••••••••••• 31
Lesson 2 Passive Transport • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 33
Lesson 3 Active Transport ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34
Lesson 4 Bulk Transport ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 36
Chapter 4 Cell Division •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 43

Lesson 1 The Cell Cycle ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 43
Lesson 2 Mitosis • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44
Lesson 3 Meiosis •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 46
Lesson 4 Prokaryotic Cell Division ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 47
Lesson 5 Control of the Cell • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 49
Lesson 6 Cancer and the Cell Cycle •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
vi
Unit III Energy Transformation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
Chapter 5 Energy in Living Systems••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
Lesson 1 Electrons and Energy •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
Lesson 2 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 62
Chapter 6 Photosynthesis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 65

Lesson 1 Overview of Photosynthesis •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 65
Lesson 2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 66
Lesson 3 The Light-Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 68
Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 74

Lesson 1 Glycolysis • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 74
Lesson 2 Krebs Cycle••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 76
Lesson 3 Oxidative Phosphorylation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 77
Lesson 4 Anaerobic Respiration ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 80
vii
viii
GENERAL
BIOLOGY
TEACHER’S MANUAL
Introductory Chapter
Introduction: The Study of Life, p. 2
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
■ define biology as a science;
■ identify and describe the properties of life;
■ infer and justify if something is living or nonliving;
■ describe the levels of organization among living organisms; and
■ tabulate some sub-disciplines in biology, their study focus, and contribution to society.
Lesson 1 THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY, p. 3
Lesson Overview
Biology is the study of life; of the structures and functions/processes in living organisms; and of the
interactions among organisms and their relationship with the environment. The field is divided into basic
and applied science, and has several branches of study spanning molecular and cell biology, genetics, natural
history, organisms, medicine, agriculture, and many others.
Objective
To introduce the science of biology and its branches
Motivation
Ask the learners about what they think biologists do. Ask them to list down their and evaluate these
as the lesson progresses.
Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Refer to introduction (pp. 2-6)
Present the role of biology to mankind.
Discuss the things that were accomplished by biology.
Discuss the interdisciplinary nature of biology as it interacts with other fields such as chemistry.
Introduce the different branches of biology.
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Give the learners the names of several branches of biology and ask them to make a concept map to
show connections/relationships among these sub-disciplines.
Deepening
What can the study of biology do for our country?
2
Integration
INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES: Biology draws much from chemistry and physics. Biochem-
istry is the field of study encompassing biomolecular interactions in organismal processes. Physics as
applied to biology includes the study of various physical forces in biological structures, and energy
transformation in cells, among others.
Remediation and Reinforcement

Ask the learners if they know someone who has studied biology. What is the profession of this
person? What does he or she do?
Processing and Generalizing

What can the study of biological sciences do to benefit mankind?
Reflection
I now understand the scope of the field of biology.
Lesson 2 THEMES AND CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGY, p. 7
Lesson Overview
What is life? What separates life from nonlife? What makes up life? In this lesson, the describing
characteristics of life are described.
Objectives
To describe the characteristics of life
To describe the levels of organization of life
Motivation
Show photographs of different organisms (single-celled and multicellular), different body structures,
groups of organisms, and entire biomes. Also show photomicrographs of viruses and intracellular parasites.

Refer to textbook (pp. 7-10)
Discuss the different properties of life. What is the significance of each one?
Discuss the different levels of biological organization. What is the smallest unit that can be considered life?

LOOKING FOR LIFE: Ask the learners to bring magnifying lens, pen, and paper (or any docu-
mentation material) outside to a suitable soil-covered area (preferably with plants). Ask them to count
how many different organisms are they able to find on their assigned spot. (if space permits, a 1 square
meter spot is suitable).
3
Deepening
Are viruses living? Why or why not?
Integration
COMPUTER SCIENCE: Artificial life is basically a simulation approximating a living system in a
computer. Programmers have enabled the simulation of the different characteristics of life – occurring
as a computer program running on a supercomputer. This research gives insights on the evolution of life
and the emergent properties of living things.

Classify these as living or nonliving and briefly explain:
— Mitochondria
— the parasite Plasmodium (causes malaria)
— the DNA of the cell (without the cell)
— A human heart awaiting transplant

How would you distinguish living things from nonliving things?
What components make up an ecosystem?
Reflection
I am now familiar with the basic characteristics of living things.
I now understand the different levels of biological organization.
Introductory Chapter Answer Key:

1. The first forms of life on Earth are:
a. plants c. birds
b. microorganisms d. dinosaurs
2. Which of the following sciences is not considered a natural science?

a. biology c. physics
b. astronomy d. computer science
4
3. The smallest unit of biological structure that meets the functional requirements of “living” is the:
a. organ c. cell
b. organelle d. macromolecule
4. Viruses are not considered living because they:

a. are not made of cells c. do not contain DNA or RNA
b. lack cell nuclei d. cannot reproduce outside of a host cell
Note: viruses cannot reproduce on their own.
5. The presence of a membrane-enclosed organelle is a characteristic of:

a. prokaryotic cells c. living organisms
b. eukaryotic cells d. bacteria
6. A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area is called a(n):
a. family c. population
b. community d. ecosystem
7. Which of the following sequences represents the hierarchy of biological organization from the
most inclusive to the least complex level?
a. organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem, population
b. organism, organ, tissue, organelle, molecule → this choice satisfies the criterion “most inclusive
to least inclusive” but skips certain levels
c. organism, community, biosphere, molecule, tissue, organ
d. biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism → this choice also satisfies the criterion
above and no intermediates are skipped.
Critical Thinking Questions

8. Give an example of how applied science has had a direct impact on your daily life.
The learner may cite things such as technology, nutrition, information, entertainment, etc.
9. Name two topics that are likely to be studied by biologists, and two areas of scientific study that
would fall outside the realm of biology.
Biology includes the following non-exhaustive list: agriculture, medicine, forestry, entomology,
veterinary medicine, ecosystems management, physiology, genetics, biochemistry, botany, zoology,
microbiology, mycology, paleontology, and many more.
Items outside the realm of biology include: abstract mathematics, theoretical physics, chemi-
cal engineering (excluding those that utilize bioreactors), nuclear physics, astronomy (but there is
astrobiology), engineering, and certain aspects of chemistry (chemistry has lots of applications in
biology)
5
10. Thinking about the topic of cancer, write a basic science question and an applied science question
that a researcher interested in this topic might ask.
Basic science topics include the characteristics of cancer – what biochemical markers are seen in
cancer; how cancer reproduces; its causes, etc.
Applied topics include the search for cancer cures, prevention, or means of diagnosis.
11. Select two items that biologists agree are necessary in order to consider an organism to be “alive.”
For each, give an example of a non-living object that otherwise fits the definition of “alive.”
For example, the ability to maintain the internal environment would also be seen in refrigerators;
utilization of energy is seen in cars and batteries; growth and development may be seen in some rock
formations like stalactites and stalagmites
12. Consider the levels of organization of the biological world, and place each of these items in order
from smallest level to most encompassing: skin cell, elephant, water molecule, planet Earth, tropical
rainforest, hydrogen atom, wolf pack, liver.
Hydrogen atom, water molecule, skin cell, liver, elephant, wolf pack, tropical rainforest, planet Earth
13. You go for a long walk on a hot day. Give an example of a way in which homeostasis keeps your
body healthy.
Homeostasis maintains the level of glucose in the blood and blood pressure through the action of
hormones, and the body temperature through sweating and regulation of metabolic rate.
14. Using examples, explain how biology can be studied from a microscopic approach to a global approach.
The learner may present any combination of biology topics that range from micro- to macroscale,
such as microbiology → public health
6
Unit I: Chemistry and Structure of the Cell, p. 12
Chapter 1: Biological Macromolecules, p. 13

By the end of this section, the students will be able to:
■ describe the synthesis of macromolecules;
■ differentiate dehydration (or condensation) from hydrolysis reactions;
■ identify and draw basic building blocks of the four major classes of biological molecules;
■ categorize biological molecules based on their structure;
■ list functions of each type of biological molecules;
■ give common examples of each type of the four major biological molecules; and
■ enumerate possible diseases/disorders caused by lack or excess of biological molecules.
Lesson 1 SYNTHESIS OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES, p. 14
Lesson Overview
Biological macromolecules are typically composed of smaller building blocks that are connected
by chemical bonds. Bond-forming and bond-breaking in biological systems typically involve water.
Objectives
To give an overview on how the building blocks of biomolecules are connected
To introduce dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions
Motivation
Imagine the use of a water-soluble adhesive (e.g. glue). The bond hardens when it dries, and in order
to dissolve the bond, one must add water.

Discuss textbook (pp. 14-15)
Define and describe the process of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis
Introduce the direct role of water in metabolism. Water may be generated in cells that are actively
building up molecules; and water is consumed in breakdown of biomolecules. However, do note that
the amount of water in these processes are typically very minuscule.

Ask the learners about their favorite building toy (if they are familiar with Lego or similar products,
for example). Have them explain how the toy is used, built up, or broken down into the starting pieces.
7
Deepening
ACTIVITY: Given shapes or symbols representing different biomolecules or monomers (e.g. amino
acids, nucleotides, carbohydrates), ask the learners to form and draw different possible combinations
of the biomolecules.
Integration
BIODEGRADATION: Modern biodegradeable plastics are engineered so that their bonds, even
though artificially produced, are susceptible to microbial attack and hydrolysis. However, they retain
strength as packaging material for a long time.

Ask the learners: How many water molecules will be used or released in each reaction. Let them
use schematic diagram.
— A 4-amino acid linear polypeptide is completely hydrolyzed
• Three bonds are broken through hydrolysis; thus, 3 water molecules are spent
— A triglyceride is completely hydrolyzed
• Three bonds to glycerol are hydrolyzed; thus, 3 water molecules are spent
— A carbohydrate composed of a linear chain of 10 glucose units is synthesized
• 9 bonds connecting 10 glucose units are created; thus, 9 water molecules are generated

What common chemical reactions are involved in the metabolic pathways involving biological molecules?
Reflection
I can now understand the processes of building up and breaking down biomolecules.
Lesson 2 CARBOHYDRATES, p. 16
Lesson Overview
Carbohydrates are a class of biomolecules with a backbone of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
a ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates may occur as monomers, oligomers, or long, chainlike polymers with
functions ranging from structural componentes, cell-cell recognition, and as energy sources.
Objectives
To describe the general chemical structure and function of carbohydrates
To differentiate the aldose from ketose monosaccharides
To describe the structure and function of disaccharides and polysaccharides
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Motivation
Provide the learners with samples of carbohydrates belonging to different types, and allow them to
observe:
— Monosaccharides such as glucose (powder available in drugstores). It may be tasted if food-grade.
— Disaccharides such as table sugar (sucrose)
— Polysaccharides such as cornstarch (starch) or paper/cotton (cellulose)

Introduce the textbook topic (pp. 16-22)
Discuss the overall chemical structure of the carbohydrate building blocks: the monosaccharides.
— Differentiate the chemical structures of different monosaccharides.
• Aldose and ketose
• Types by number of carbons in the backbone (triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, and so forth)
• Interconversion between the ring and the linear forms of monosaccharides
• By the nature of the anomeric carbon (alpha and beta)
Discuss the nature of the glycosidic bond and examples of disaccharides.
Introduce the differences in structure and composition of polysaccharides.
— Show that the difference in starch and cellulose is due to the bonding on the anomeric carbon.
Discuss the nutritional role of carbohydrates in the diet.
The chemistry concept of stereoisomerism is necessary to further differentiate between the isomeric
forms of monosaccharides (e.g. glucose and galactose). This is normally regarded as an advanced topic,
unless stereochemistry has been taken up by the students earlier. Some students may ask about the dif-
ference in their structure as only the orientation of the –OH may not initially appear significant to them.

Taste test: Provide edible samples of carbohydrate-rich foods such as rice, honey, candy, bread,
pasta (without sauce), and others. How does the taste vary?
Deepening
Are there chemical tests can you devise to distinguish carbohydrates from other biomolecules? (the
learners may be asked to research on the topic)
Integration
COOKING: Carbohydrates, especially monosaccharides/sugars, participate in chemical reactions
called Maillard reactions during heating. These produce the familiar browning upon cooking and impart
a distinct flavor. Several techniques are used to produce Maillard reactions, such as brushing the surface
with sugar, or adding sugar during the cooking process.
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Challenge the learners with the following:
— Explain the reasons for the vast differences in the properties of starch and cellulose.
— Draw the linear and cyclic forms of the hexoses and pentoses discussed in the lesson.

How can we identify carbohydrates by their molecular formulae?
What kinds of carbohydrates are there?
What are the biological roles of carbohydrates?
Reflection
I can now identify and differentiate the carbohydrate molecules and their biological roles.
Lesson 3 LIPIDS, p. 23
Lesson Overview
Lipids are a catch-all term used for biomolecules that are mostly hydrocarbon and water-insoluble
(nonpolar). Several different types of lipids exist, and their structures vary widely.
Objectives
Define the structure and function of lipids, such as fatty acids, triacylglycerols, waxes, phospholipids,
and sterols
Explain the different possible orientations of the double bond in unsaturated fatty acids
Motivation
Show the learners samples of different lipids:
— Triacylglycerols – cooking oil
— Waxes – the shiny coating of several candy-coated chocolates
— Phospholipids – lecithin in egg yolk. Lecithin enables the formation of emulsion in food products
such as mayonnaise.
— Steroids/Sterols – Although no samples of sufficiently high purity can be conveniently procured,
do note that liver is very high in cholesterol. Sterols are also used in corticosteroid anti-inflam-
matory drugs. Both estrogen and testosterone are steroid hormones.

Refer to textbook (pp. 23-28). Introduce the overall structures of the different lipids, and state what
is common with all of them.
Discuss the fatty acids and triglycerides
— Define saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
— Introduce the concept of cis-trans isomerism in unsaturated fat and its effect on molecular shape
and melting point.
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— Introduce the omega naming scheme for the location of the double bond in the fatty acid molecule,
and discuss the significance of omega fatty acids.
— Discuss the structure of triacylglycerols.
Define the chemical nature of waxes.
Introduce the structure of phospholipids, and the significance and behavior of the polar head-group.
Define the structure of sterols/steroids and discuss their significance.
Discuss the biological role of lipids in terms of:
— Insulation
— Energy storage
— As a barrier to aqueous environment (e.g. cell membranes, waterproofing)
— Hormones

REPORT: Ask the learners to conduct a study on one particular kind of lipid assigned to them. Re-
port on its structure and function.
Deepening
What can happen if someone maintains his or her diet to be absolutely lipid-free? What physiological
changes are expected to happen on the body? Is it healthy?
Integration
HEALTH: Obesity is a leading cause of disease and disability in developed countries. Several
methods have been in place to medically reduce fat and fat intake. Large amounts of lipids in the blood
are dangerous due to their tendency to accumulate and block small arteries. This is especially true for
low-density lipoproteins, or “bad cholesterol.”

Present the molecular structures of lipids and have the learners classify them into the different lipid
groups
Challenge the students with the following question:
— Give examples (products, brands) of the commonly-consumed foods are expected to contain
trans fat?

What is common to all lipids?
What are the classes of lipids and their biological roles?
Reflection
I can identify the structure and biological role of lipids.
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Lesson 4 PROTEINS, p. 29
Lesson Overview
Proteins are the most diverse of all biomolecules – in chemistry, function, and composition. Proteins
are long, chainlike molecules composed of different combinations of about 20 known amino acids. Their
function is closely tied to their 3-dimensional structure.
Objectives
To describe the chemical structure of polypeptides and proteins, including:
— Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids
— Secondary structure
— Tertiary structure
— Quaternary structure
To name the 20 proteogenic amino acids
To enumerate the different types and biological functions of proteins
To discuss the concept of protein folding and denaturation
Motivation
Several samples of proteins and protein-rich foods may be used, such as:
— Egg white, fresh and cooked (cooked egg albumin is denatured by heat)
— Taho contains a significant amount of soy protein.
— Photomicrographs of muscle fibers showing contractile protein.
— The 3-D structure of hemoglobin or other proteins (available online)
— Monosodium glutamate, an amino acid salt, is a building block of proteins

Introduce the structure of proteins:
— The primary structure and the sequence of amino acids
• Introduce the subtypes of amino acids, and their general characteristics.
— Discuss the secondary structure – alpha helix and beta sheets.
— Discuss the tertiary structure of proteins. Show images of ball-and-stick and ribbon models.
• Discuss protein folding.
• Discuss the interactions that stabilize the tertiary structure of the protein.
— Discuss the quaternary structure formed by noncovalent interactions of different, separate protein
subunits.
Describe the different protein functions in table 1-1.
Introduce the nature of protein catalysts – the enzymes.
Discuss the effect of denaturation on different proteins, most notably enzyme activity.
As a good example of denaturation, the class may discuss cooking techniques and its role on deac-
tivating bacteria and parasites and making food more digestible.
12
The concept of essential amino acids may be discussed for a better understanding of protein nutrition.
Enumerate the effects of protein deficiency and the general role of proteins in the body.
The teacher may also discuss abnormalities or disease-causing proteins – such as sickle-cell anemia,
Alzheimer’s disease, or bacterial toxins.

ORIGAMI: The process of folding can be approximated by an origami activity. Ask the players to
create something meaningful by a single piece of paper. To approximate the protein structure further, a
long strip of paper may be used.
Deepening
DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to illustrate how they visualize enzymes in action.
Integration
COMPUTERS: The simulation of protein folding, key to unlocking the answers to diseases and
human longevity, is a very computationally-intensive process. In this case, several methods have been
used, such as: linking together multiple computers around the world (Folding@Home software), using
multiple Playstation 4s linked together, and utilizing human players in a computer game called FoldIt
– where players try to solve complex protein structures.
Remediation
A. Write down the initials of 20 amino acids on strips of paper. Ask the learners to pick a strip and name
1 amino acid depending on the initial written on the paper. Keep the ball rolling until all the amino
acids are named.
B. Show to class illustrations of the four levels of protein structure. Have the learners identify which
is primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structure. Let them describe each structure.
Reinforcement
The students may report on a chosen protein name and ask them to present its:
— Name
— Structure (tertiary or quaternary)
— Function and role in the human body

How does the primary structure of a protein affect its tertiary structure?
What are the different biological roles of proteins?
Reflection
I can now define the biological roles of proteins.
I can now describe the different levels of protein structure.
I can now relate the structure of proteins to their function.
13
Lesson 5 NUCLEIC ACIDS, p. 38
Lesson Overview
The genetic material of the cell – containing all the information needed for a complete organism – is
stored in biomolecules called nucleic acids. Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of monomers
called nucleotides, and the sequence encodes and transfers information to other cellular processes. Ad-
ditionally, nucleic acids perform a number of other roles.
Objectives
To illustrate the chemical structure of nucleic acids
To discuss the importance of nucleic acid sequence in genetics
To differentiate the biological roles of DNA from RNA

Discuss the structures of nucleotides and nucleotide bases.
— Differentiate RNA from DNA.
Discuss the shape of the DNA double-helix structure
— Introduce the base-pairing rules as applied to the DNA structure.
Compare and contrast the structure of RNA and DNA. Describe the RNA structure.
— Discuss the main subtypes of RNA and their function.
— Practice the methods of transcribing DNA sequences into RNA, and vice versa.
Using the concept of the Central Dogma of Molecular biology, show how it is possible for genetic
modification to alter some traits in living things.

ENCODE: Ask the learners to form groups and try to encode messages (such as an entire alphabet)
using only 4 characters – similar to what nucleic acids do. Different character combinations may be
used. Ask them to report on the system that they used.
Deepening
DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to draw the possible 3-dimensional structures of DNA and RNA.
Integration
SCIENCE FICTION: In sci-fi, the DNA is usually the subject of a large number of fictional abilities.
However, DNA alterations can only cause the alteration of bodily characteristics that are still permissible
by biochemistry and physics – things like being on fire and travelling at the speed of light are definitely out!

Challenge the learners to:
— Transcribe several DNA sequences into RNA sequences.
— Determine the complementary strand of a given DNA strand.
14
What are the structural differences between DNA and RNA?
What are the roles of DNA and RNA?
Reflection
I can now understand the structure and function of nucleic acids.
Chapter 1: Diagnostic Test

The main chemical constituents of organisms are grouped into four classes: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. These are organic compounds that can be synthesized by living things
through (1) by joining the molecular building blocks together with the removal of water. The reverse
reaction – used in breaking down – is called — (2).
Carbohydrates are biomolecules with the general formula CnH2nOn. The basic building blocks for
carbohydrates are called (3). Two of these may be joined by a (4) to form disaccharides. Alternatively,
a polymer called a (5) can be formed. Examples include starch and cellulose in plants.
Lipids are a broad class of biomolecules that are generally water-insoluble. Fats and oils are com-
posed of (6)– three fatty acid molecules bound to one glycerol. Fatty acids may be saturated or (7), with
the latter having either the cis- or the (8) conformation. Waxes are esters of fatty acids and (9) . On the
other hand, (10) have a polar head-group that is attracted to water. These comprise the lipid bilayer in
the cell membrane. Finally, (11) are composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings. Molecules of this class
function to modify cell membrane properties or as hormones.
Proteins are a diverse class of molecules that are composed of long chains of (12). Proteins serve
a wide variety of functions. Among these, it can function in the role of catalysis as (13). A protein is
characterized by four levels of structure. The primary structure is the (14) of amino acids. The secondary
structure is characterized by hydrogen-bonded motifs. The tertiary structure is the three-dimensional
(3D) structure of a single protein chain. The quaternary structure is formed when several different protein
(15) come together. A protein that loses its 3D structure is said to be (16) and cannot function normally.
The genetic material of cells is the DNA, a nucleic acid, which stores biological information. A nucleic
acid is a polymer composed of different nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base,
sugar (17), and phosphate (18). If the pentose sugar is devoid of an oxygen atom in the 2' position, the
nucleic acid is DNA. This forms a (19) and is the main information storage molecule. On the other hand,
RNA participates the synthesis of proteins.
Choices:
enzymes triacylglycerols double helix
dehydration synthesis nitrogenous phospholipids
unsaturated hydrolysis base
fatty alcohols steroids trans
subunits glycosidic bond sequence
amino acids polysaccharide denatured
pentose (5-carbon sugar) monosaccharides
15
Chapter 1: Answer Key
The main chemical constituents of living things are grouped into four classes: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. These are organic compounds that can be synthesized by living things
through (1) dehydration synthesis – by joining the molecular building blocks together with the removal
of water. The reverse reaction – used in breaking down – is called (2) hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are biomolecules with the general formula CnH2nOn. The basic building blocks for
carbohydrates are called (3) monosaccharides. Two of these may be joined by a (4) glycosidic bond to
form disaccharides. Alternatively, a polymer called a (5) polysaccharide can be formed. Examples of
these include starch and cellulose from plants.
Lipids are a broad class of biomolecules that are generally water-insoluble. Fats and oils are composed
of (6) triacylglycerols – three fatty acid molecules bound to one glycerol. Fatty acids may be saturated or
(7) unsaturated, with the latter having either the cis- or the (8) trans conformation. Waxes are esters of fatty
acids and (9) fatty alcohols. On the other hand, (10) phospholipids have a polar head-group that is attracted
to water. These comprise the lipid bilayer in the cell membrane. Finally, (11) steroids are composed of four
fused hydrocarbon rings. Molecules of this class function to modify cell membrane properties or as hormones.
Proteins are a diverse class of molecules that are composed of long chains of (12) amino acids. Proteins
serve a wide variety of functions. Among these, it can function in the role of catalysis as (13) enzymes. A
protein is characterized by four levels of structure. The primary structure is the (14) sequence of amino acids.
The secondary structure is characterized by hydrogen-bonded motifs. The tertiary structure is the 3D structure
of a single protein chain. The quaternary structure is formed when several different protein (15) subunits
come together. A protein that loses its 3D structure is said to be (16) denatured and cannot function normally.
The genetic material of cells is the DNA, a nucleic acid, which stores biological information. A nucleic
acid is a polymer composed of different nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base,
sugar (17), and phosphate (18). If the pentose sugar is devoid of an oxygen atom in the 2' position, the
nucleic acid is DNA. This forms a (19) and is the main information storage molecule. On the other hand,
RNA participates the synthesis of proteins.
Art Connection p. 18
Glucose and galactose are aldoses.
Fructose is a ketose.
What impact do you think this will have on the DNA structure? (on the antiparallel nature of DNA
OR a C→A mutation)
A C→A mutation will result in a ‘dent’ in the DNA structure since a mismatch will occur on
the complementary strand.
16
Review Questions
4. Dehydration reaction leads to the formation of
a. monomers c. water and polymers
b. polymers d. none of the above
5. During the breakdown of polymers, which of the following reactions takes place?
a. hydrolysis c. condensation
b. dehydration d. covalent bond
6. An example of a monosaccharide is:

a. fructose c. galactose
b. glucose d. all of the above
7. Cellulose and starch are examples of:

a. monosaccharides c. lipids
b. disaccharides d. polysaccharides
8. Plant cell walls contain which of the following in abundance?

a. starch c. glycogen
b. cellulose d. lactose
9. Lactose is a disaccharide formed by the formation of a ________bond between glucose and ________
a. glycosidic; lactose c. hydrogen; sucrose
b. glycosidic; galactose d. hydrogen; fructose
10. Saturated fats have all of the following characteristics except

a. they are solid at room temperature.
b. they have single bonds within the hydrocarbon chain.
c. they are usually obtained from animal sources.
d. they tend to dissolve in water easily.
11. Phospholipids are important components of:

a. the plasma membrane of animal cells
b. the ring structure of steroids
c. the waxy covering on leaves
d. the double bond in hydrocarbon chains
17
12. The monomers that make up proteins are called:
a. nucleotides c. amino acids
b. disaccharides d. chaperones
13. The α helix and the β-pleated sheet are part of which protein structure?
a. primary c. tertiary
b. secondary d. quaternary
14. A nucleotide of DNA may contain:

a. ribose, uracil, and a phosphate group
b. deoxyribose, uracil, and a phosphate group
c. deoxyribose, thymine, and a phosphate group
d. ribose, thymine, and a phosphate group
15. The building blocks of nucleic acids are:

a. sugars c. peptides
b. nitrogenous bases d. nucleotides

16. Why are biological macromolecules considered organic?
These molecules are carbon-based, containing carbon atoms in covalent bonds with hydrogen and
other elements and other carbon atoms.
17. What role do electrons play in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?

Electrons participate in bond-breaking and bond formation. However, these reactions are not redox
reactions.
18. Describe the similarities and differences between glycogen and starch.
Both are made of alpha-D-glucose chains. Glycogen is synthesized in animals and is more highly
branched than starch. Some starch molecules are unbranched.
19. Why is it impossible for humans to digest food that contains cellulose?
We do not have the enzyme that has the ability to digest cellulose.
20. Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in plants and/or animals.
Lipids, such as fatty acids and triglycerides, store a lot of energy
Waxes help prevent moisture loss since they produce a water-impermeable barrier
Sterols serve as signaling molecules
18
21. Why have trans fats been banned from some food products? How are they created?
Trans fats have been shown to cause metabolic disturbances in humans especially through the
proliferation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL, bad cholesterol), causing cardiovascular disease.
Trans fats are created by partial hydrogenation of unsaturated oils. Some cis-double bonds
are converted to trans-double bonds.
22. Explain what happens if even one amino acid is substituted for another in a polypeptide chain.
Provide a specific example.
Many human mutations are one-amino acid substitutions, such as in sickle cell anemia. Some
cases of substitution may not produce a deleterious effect. The sickle-cell mutation, on the other
hand, causes the abnormal hemoglobin to clump together and crystallize to form long fibers that
distort the cell.
23. Describe the differences in the four protein structures.

Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Secondary structure is the presence of local motifs produced by hydrogen bonding between
neighboring amino acids in a polypeptide chain (alpha-helix and beta-sheets)
Tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape of the polypeptide chain
Quaternary structure is the combination of different polypeptide chains via noncovalent interactions
to produce the final, active protein. (Note: not all active proteins have quaternary structure)
24. What are the structural differences between RNA and DNA?
RNA is normally single-stranded or pseudo double-stranded (it folds into its own), while DNA is
double stranded and forms a double helix. The shape of large, complex pieces of RNA are com-
parable to those of polypeptide chains.
25. What are the four types of RNA and how do they function?
mRNA – carries the instructions for protein sequence from the gene (DNA) to the ribosome
tRNA – carries the amino acids for use in the process of translation on protein synthesis
rRNA – structurally comprises the bulk of the ribosome
miRNA – short RNA that regulate gene expression. If a mRNA (complexed with proteins) binds
to some sequences in the mRNA (messenger RNA), the mRNA may be destroyed or its use in protein
synthesis is blocked.
19
Chapter 2: Cellular Structure, p. 46
By the end of this section, the students will be able to:
■ recite the postulates of cell theory and explain the roles of a cell in an organism, particularly in
the levels of organization of an organism;
■ summarize the functions of major components found in all cell types, as well as organelles
unique to each cell type; and
■ tabulate similarities and differences between major cell types; and (prokaryotic vs eukaryotic
and animal vs plant cell) in terms of structures.
Lesson 1 CELL THEORY, p. 47
Lesson Overview
The unified cell theory, put forth by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all living
things are composed of cells. This theory was a product of numerous microscopic observations of both
unicellular and multicellular life.
Objective
Introduce the cell theory and the observations that led to this theory
Motivation
Show the learners a piece of plant stem with clearly defined living and nonliving parts (e.g. stem
with fresh and cork areas). Where exactly does the living part end and the nonliving portion begin?
Show the learners photomicrographs of cells of cork (to simulate Robert Hooke’s observations) and
of living cells of several different organisms.
Allow the students to view microscope slides of a section of onion with clearly-defined plant cells.

Discuss textbook (p. 47)
Describe the outline of cells in the photomicrographs shown.
Expand the gallery of cells to include all the kingdoms of life, and the variety of cells just within a
single organism.
Show how the invention of the microscope led to the formulation of the cell theory.
Describe the postulates of the cell theory:
— All living things are made of cells.
— The cell is the basic unit of life.
— All cells arise from preexisting cells.

Using microscopes, challenge the learners to prepare samples of any living material and draw the
smallest details that they can see.
20
Deepening
If life were to be found in other planets, would you expect it to form cells? Why or why not?
— Ask the learners to make sketches of alternative building blocks of life that is not made from
cells.
Integration
ASTROBIOLOGY: Our space exploration has been continually searching for life in outer space. On
the space probes sent to other planets (especially Mars), these are equipped to look for life. However, very
high resolution images are still not possible on-site. On the other hand, a meteorite found in Antarctica
was traced back to its origin on Mars. It contained microscopic features similar to cells – suggesting
(but not confirming) that Mars had life.

Present printouts of photomicrographs containing cells (preferably a few) and ask the learners to
outline the cells they can identify as such.
Challenge the learners with the question: What is life? Are the components of living cells alive by
themselves?

What are the essential components of a cell?
Reflection
I can now illustrate the general appearance of cells.
Lesson 2 COMMON COMPONENTS OF ALL CELLS, p. 48
Lesson Overview
In order to perform the cells’ most basic functions, each cell is equipped with a basic body plan. A
cell needs to reproduce, take in usable compounds, and synthesize new biomolecules for its own survival.
Thus, we can expect that all cells will have these baseline components necessary for survival.
Objective
Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane, cytosol, genetic material (nucleus in
eukaryotes), and ribosomes.
Motivation
In this basic overview of the cell, let the learners compare the cell with a house, and a single family
living in it.
21
Compare a cell to a house – a walled structure that encloses the living space of a family inside.
— The walls of the house control the flow and entry points of materials inside and outside the
house. The cell membrane achieves this function.
— The parents and elders in the house decide what goes on. The genetic material in the cell fulfills
this role.
— The space inside the house can be compared to the cytosol of the cell.
Present an illustration with the common components of the cell drawn and outlined, and describe
their specific biological functions in detail.

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to draw the simplest cell that can have all the characteristics of life
(i.e. reproduction, growth, response to environment, etc.)
Deepening
Ask the learners to describe the structure and function of the common components of cells in their
own words.
Integration
THE SMALLEST CELL: The line between cells and viruses is continually being blurred with new
discoveries. Some scientists think that perhaps there are a class of extremely tiny bacteria that are not
yet discovered. The findings are disputed, since it is now difficult for cells to fit the genetic material
and cellular machinery within such a small size in what is putatively known as nanobacteria. Currently,
there is no definite evidence of the living characteristics of these.

Challenge the learners to differentiate between cells and nonliving cell-like structures by providing
images of simple cells and similar objects. Examples include: dead cells of cork, photograph of pores of
a sponge, etc.

What are the roles of the genetic material, cell membrane, cytosol, and ribosomes?
Reflection
I can now understand the basic cellular body plan.
Lesson 3 PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC CELLS, p. 50
Lesson Overview
Cells may be divided into two major categories – prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The differences lie
mainly on the presence of internal compartmentalization that is necessary for more specialized cell functions.
22
Objective
Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Motivation
Let the learners examine photomicrographs of bacterial and eukaryotic (plant/animal/fungus/protist) cells.
Ask the learners: On what bases were the cells shown classified or grouped together?

Activity A: Provide a mixture of cut-out photographs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells of varying
complexity.
— Instruct the learners: group the photos into two major groups (without discussing prokaryotes
and eukaryotes yet).
Discuss and present the main lesson (pp. 50-63) on cell structures and organelles
— Describe the prokaryotic cell: its size, general appearance, capabilities, genetic material and
ribosomes, and examples.
— Describe the eukaryotic cell: size, general appearance, the different organelles including plastids,
the endomembrane system, and cytoskeleton.

Let the learners read about and draw the different cellular organelles.
Let the learners draw the pathways of material transfer in the endomembrane system.
Deepening
Given the understanding of the function of various organelles, ask the learners:
— How can a eukaryotic cell attain a larger size than a prokaryotic cell?
— If eukaryotic cells are more complex and specialized than prokaryotic cells, how can the prokar-
yotes survive and reproduce at a rate vastly exceeding eukaryotic life?
Integration
EVOLUTION OF LIFE: Several organelles, such as chloroplasts and mitochondria, were found to
contain their own DNA and ribosomes. These have striking similarities to the bacterial equivalent, even
if these organelles are derived from eukaryotes. Further investigation showed that the DNA sequences,
particularly those of the ribosomal RNA genes, between some bacteria and these organelles are very
similar.. It has been theorized that a long time ago, several species of cells formed an endosymbiotic
relationship with larger cells. Eventually, these cells lost their ability to remain free-living, and are now
contained within the new, eukaryotic cells as organelles. This is now known as the endosymbiotic theory.

Some cells do not have a complete set of organelles, especially those that are characteristic of the
organism. Ask the learners to explain the following:
— Red blood cells do not have nuclei or mitochondria
— Potato tuber cells do not have chloroplasts
23
Answers:
— Red blood cells specialize in transport of oxygen. Hence, they do not divide and have no need
for continuous protein synthesis. Note: Red blood cells are created from precursor cells with nuclei.
— Potato tuber cells are underground and specialize in starch storage. Note: Amyloplasts are orga-
nelles that store starch in potato tuber. When exposed to light, the amyloplasts turn into chloroplasts.

What differentiates a prokaryotic cell from eukaryotic cell?
What are the roles of the different organelles?
Reflection
I can now differentiate prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells.
I am now familiar with different organelles, endomembrane system, and cytoskeletal framework of the cell.
I know the limitations about the growth of the cell.
Lesson 4 PLANT CELL VS ANIMAL CELL, p. 64
Lesson Overview
Many eukaryotic cells can be broadly categorized into those belonging to organisms of the Kingdom Animalia
and the Kingdom Plantae. This lesson highlights the characteristic differences between plant and animal cells.
*Note: Organisms that belongs to Kingdom Fungi and the Protists have cell structures that will certainly
not belong to either group.
Objectives
Compare and contrast plant and animal cells; and
Show the structure and identify the function of the centrosome, cell wall, lysosome, chloroplast,
and central vacuole.
Motivation
Allow the learners to view fixed slides or freshly prepared samples of plant and animal cells through
a microscope.
Alternatively, show photomicrographs of plant and animal cells.

— Discuss and present the lessons (pp. 64-67)
— Discuss the organelles and cellular structures associated with animal cells: centrosome and the
lysosome.
— Discuss the organelles and cellular structures associated with plant cells: cell wall (and its com-
position) and the vacuole.
24
Demonstrate the structures described above. With the lysosome and chloroplast discussed in the
previous lesson:
— By showing a wilted and a turgid plant, how a plant recovers from the wilted state into the turgid
(healthy) state, and the function of the central vacuole.
— Show a video of mitosis (available online) with the microtubule organizing centers in active
use. If videos are not available, a sequence of images will do.

DOODLE IT: Let the learners draw and point out the differences they see between plant and animal
cells. If possible, let them draw from microscope slides of plant and animal tissue.
Deepening
Challenge the learners to random pictures of unlabeled plant and animal cells, and ask them to
classify the cells as plant or animal.
Integration
CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE: Some time ago, organisms were originally classified into two kingdoms:
plants and animals. Following the cellular structures found in plants, even bacteria and fungi were classified
as plants due to their cell wall (even though they are nonphotosynthetic and the chemical components
of their cell walls differ). Many protists were classified as animals, despite being unicellular. Nowadays,
the bacteria, archea, fungi, protists, plants, and animals are in separate kingdoms. Some scientists are
even proposing for more kingdoms due to critical differences in the DNA sequences.

Ask the learners:
— What can possibly happen if animal cells have cell walls? Are cell walls be advantageous for
animals?
• Cell walls will definitely hamper the mobility of animals, causing the entire animal body to
be rigid. For support, many animals have an endo- or exoskeleton.
— Does a plant cell require the ability to organize its chromosomes for cell division (even if it has
no centrosomes)?
• Yes – during cell division the chromosomes must be distributed equally into the two cells.
Still, plants are not known to have centrosomes so the organization proceeds through another
mechanism.
— Is it advantageous if chloroplasts can be artificially infused into animal cells?
• In theory, yes. However, these will only work in the outer layer exposed to sunlight. Some
sea slugs are known to incorporate algal chloroplasts into their own cells via phagocytosis
to supplement their food production.

What structures differentiate plant from animal cells?
What purposes do these structures serve?
25
Reflection
I can identify the main differences between plant and animal cells.
Notes:
— Some species of plants without chloroplasts exist. These are the parasitic plants such as Rafflesia.
— Cells of fungi (belonging to a separate kingdom) contain cell walls, but these are made with
chitin – the same reinforcing material for arthropod exoskeletons.

The basic unit of life is the cell. Depending on the presence of internal compartments, a cell may be
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. A (1) cell has no nucleus that holds its genetic material, and typically has no
internal membrane-bound compartments. On the other hand, a (2) cell has nucleus and one or more
(3), which serve different specialized functions inside the cell. For all cells, the chromosome contains
the genetic material, while the (4) perform protein synthesis.
Eukaryotic organelles include (5), which produce the energy for the cell; (6), specialized for oxidizing
fatty acids; storage compartments called (7); and the (8) for transport and processing of food, products, and
waste. The internal structure of the cell is stabilized by the (9) – a network of proteins that serve as scaffolding.
Several cellular structures differentiate plant cells and animal cells, such as the rigid (10) of the plant, the
photosynthetic chloroplasts, and the (11) of animal cell that serve to organize microtubule formation.
Choices:
eukaryotic prokaryotic ribosomes
mitochondria organelles centrosomes
vacuoles cytoskeleton peroxisomes
endomembrane system cell wall

The basic unit of life is the cell. Depending on the presence of internal compartments, a cell may be
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. A (1) prokaryotic cell has no nucleus that holds its genetic material, and typically
has no internal membrane-bound compartments. On the other hand, a (2) eukaryotic cell has nucleus
and one or more (3) organelles, which serve different specialized functions inside the cell. For all cells,
the chromosome contains the genetic material, while the (4) ribosomes perform the protein synthesis.
Eukaryotic organelles include (5) mitochondria, which produce the energy of the cell; (6) peroxisomes,
specialized for oxidizing fatty acids; storage compartments called (7) vacuoles; and the (8) endomem-
brane system for transport and processing of food, products, and waste. The internal structure of the cell
is stabilized by the (9) cytoskeleton – a network of proteins that serve as the scaffolding. Several cellular
structures differentiate plant cells from animal cells, such as the rigid (10) cell wall of the plant, the photo-
synthetic chloroplasts, and the (11) centrosomes of animal cell that serve to organize microtubule formation.
26
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. What advantages might small cell size
confer on a cell? What advantages might large cell size have?
A small cell has no problems with the diffusion of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm.
A large cell can contain more specialized machinery and energy stores.
If the nucleolus were not able to carry out its function, what other cellular organelles would be affected?
Structures that contain ribosomes will be affected – such as the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Even-
tually, the entire cell will be affected due to the inability to produce protein.
If a peripheral membrane protein were synthesized in the lumen (inside) of the ER, would it end up
on the inside or outside of the plasma membrane?
It will end up outside the plasma membrane.
Review Questions
4. The is the basic unit of life.
a. organism c. tissue
b. cell d. organ
5. Prokaryotes depend on ____ to obtain some materials and to get rid of wastes.
a. ribosomes c. cell division
b. flagella d. diffusion
6. Bacteria that lack fimbriae are less likely to:

a. adhere to cell surfaces c. synthesize proteins
b. swim through bodily fluids d. retain the ability to divide
7. Which of the following is surrounded by two phospholipid bilayers?

a. the ribosomes c. the cytoplasm
b. the vesicles d. the nucleoplasm
8. Peroxisomes got their name because hydrogen peroxide is

a. used in their detoxification reactions.
b. produced during their oxidation reactions.
c. incorporated into their membranes.
d. a cofactor for the organelles’ enzymes.
9. In plant cells, the function of the lysosomes is carried out by the:

a. vacuoles c. ribosomes
b. peroxisomes d. nuclei
27
10. Which of the following is found both in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
a. nucleus c. vacuole
b. mitochondrion d. ribosomes
11. Which of the following is not a component of the endomembrane system?

a. mitochondrion c. endoplasmic reticulum
b. Golgi apparatus d. lysosome
12. The process by which a cell engulfs a foreign particle is known as:
a. endosymbiosis c. hydrolysis
b. phagocytosis d. membrane synthesis
13. Which of the following is most likely to have the greatest concentration of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum?
a. a cell that secretes enzymes c. a cell that makes steroid hormones
b. a cell that destroys pathogens d. a cell that engages in photosynthesis
14. Which of the following sequences correctly lists in order the steps involved in the synthesis and
processing of a proteinaceous molecule within a cell?
a. synthesis of the protein on the ribosome; modification in the Golgi apparatus; packaging in the
endoplasmic reticulum; tagging in the vesicle
b. synthesis of the protein on the lysosome; tagging in the Golgi; packaging in the vesicle; distribu-
tion in the endoplasmic reticulum
c. synthesis of the protein on the ribosome; modification in the endoplasmic reticulum; tagging
in the Golgi; distribution via vesicles
d. synthesis of the protein on the lysosome; packaging in the vesicle; distribution via the Golgi;
tagging in the endoplasmic reticulum
15. Which of the following have the ability to disassemble and reform quickly?
a. microfilaments and intermediate filaments
b. microfilaments and microtubules
c. intermediate filaments and microtubules
d. only intermediate filaments
16. Which of the following do not play a role in intracellular movement?

a. microfilaments and intermediate filaments
b. microfilaments and microtubules
c. intermediate filaments and microtubules
d. only intermediate filaments
28
17. How do you compare a cell to a factory?
Factory has many parts and compartments that create and move material, as well as utilize
energy and maintain itself. Cells can be seen as (mostly) self-maintaining factories that create
protein and other metabolites.
18. In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” for the boxlike
structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. What is the historical importance
of his observation?
The idea that living things are composed of small, functional units called cells is important in
the understanding of biology.
19. Antibiotics are medicines that are used to fight bacterial infections. These medicines kill prokar-
yotic cells without harming human cells. What part or parts of the bacterial cell do you think
antibiotics target? Why?
Bacterial structures that are not found in eukaryotic cells are main targets, such as the bacterial
ribosome (which is different from eukaryotic ribosomes) and the bacterial cell wall.
20. Explain why not all microbes are harmful.

Most microbes are free-living, and many are being employed by humans in the production of food
and other items. Microbes that live in the healthy human body are beneficial, if not essential, for
health. These include those responsible for synthesizing vitamins and modulating the immune
system.
21. You already know that ribosomes are abundant in immature red blood cells. In what other cells
of the body would you find them in great abundance? Why?
Any cell that specializes in protein synthesis will have more abundance of ribosomes. These
include cells that secrete enzymes (such as in the digestive tract, etc.)
22. What are the structural and functional similarities and differences between mitochondria and
chloroplasts?
Both contain highly folded inner membranes, own ribosomes, and their own circular DNA.
23. Why are lysosomes known as "the cleaners" of the cell waste?
Cellular wastes are directed for hydrolysis in lysosomes – these normally consume the waste or
transform it into a form that can be excreted.
24. What would happen if the plasma membrane ruptures or breaks apart?
The cell will die due to the loss of the internal environment. The plasma membrane can be rup-
tured in a controlled way, however, without killing the cell.
29
25. In the context of cell biology, what do we mean by form follows function? What are at least two
examples of this concept?
The form of a certain structure is due to its function. This can be seen in structures such as the
cilia and flagella (shaped and organized for movement); organelles; the shape of certain cells
(e.g. muscle cells), and many others.
26. In your opinion, is the nuclear membrane part of the endomembrane system? Why or why not?
Defend your answer.
Since the nuclear membrane is linked to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (structural continuity),
it can be said that it is part of the endomembrane system.
If it does not play a role in synthesis and transport of proteins and membrane lipids to and
from the plasma membrane, it can be said that it is not a part of the endomembrane system.
27. What are the similarities and differences between the structures of centrioles and flagella?
Centrioles are inside the cell, while flagella are outside the cell. Flagella are also much longer
than centrioles.
Centrioles and flagella both have a microtubule “backbone.” However, centrioles have 9
triplets, while flagella have 9 doublets of microtubules.
28. How do cilia and flagella differ?

Cilia are much shorter than flagella, but are more numerous.
30
Unit II: Basic Cellular Processes, p. 72
Chapter 3: Transport Mechanisms, p. 73

Due to the selective permeability of the cell membrane, there is a need for several mechanisms to
move materials in and out of the cell.
By the end of this section, the students be able to:

■ describe the structural components of the plasma membrane and relate the structure to its
function;
■ describe each transport mechanism;
■ enumerate important materials that enter and exit the cell, and identify the transport mechanism
used to move them;
■ define tonicity and its effects on cells; and
■ tabulate similarities and differences of different passive and active transport mechanisms in
terms of energy requirement, direction, and example of materials transported.
Lesson 1 REVIEW: STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE, p. 74
Lesson Overview
The plasma membrane is described by the fluid mosaic model, where membrane proteins and choles-
terol are embedded in a double layer composed of phospholipids. Phospholipids are molecules with polar
and nonpolar ends. In the bilayer, the nonpolar, hydrophobic portion of these molecules are in the middle
away from the water, while the hydrophilic regions are oriented towards the extracellular and intracellular
faces where water is present.
Objectives
To discuss and describe the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane
Describe the structure and behavior of phospholipids
Describe the structure and function of membrane proteins, membrane-associated carbohydrates,
and cholesterol
Motivation
An approximation of membrane behavior can be observed on oil droplets over the surface of water.
Allow the learners to view and draw observations on the following behaviors:
— When an oil droplet is punctured with a sharp point, what happens to the oil droplet after the
object is withdrawn?
— What is the general shape of oil droplets in water? What happens when the shape is altered?
— How do you fuse two oil droplets that are brought very close together?
Note: the molecules in the phospholipid bilayer differ significantly in structure to the lipid molecules
in oil. Not all plasma membrane behaviors can be replicated here.
31
Present the fluid mosaic model by Singer and Nicholson, with the orientation of the extra- and in-
tracellular parts of the membrane, and its components.
— Discuss the structure and amphiphilic behavior of phospholipids.
— Discuss the structure and function of membrane proteins.
— Discuss the role of carbohydrates / oligosaccharides in glycoproteins and glycolipids in cell
recognition, interactions, and survival.
— Describe the nature and effects of membrane fluidity, and the effect of temperature, unsaturation,
and cholesterol.

Ask the learners to construct the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane (with components labeled) in:
— A cell that is adapted for absorption of nutrients
— An immune cell that recognizes invading bacteria and viruses
Deepening
Would a suitable membrane form with purely hydrophobic molecules such as triacylglycerols? Why
or why not?
Integration
HYGIENE: Aside from washing bacteria away, soap kills bacteria by disrupting the cell membrane
and denaturing the proteins on the surface. It contains amphiphilic molecules (similar to phospholipids)
in large quantities that can dissolve the bacterial cell membrane. Some studies even suggest that regular
soap is no less effective than antibacterial soaps in removing germs. Several antiseptics, such as those
found in mouthwash, also work by disrupting bacterial cell membranes.

Challenge the learners with the following questions:
— Why is cholesterol essential for animal cells, but not for plant cells?
— How does the membrane composition vary in animals living in hot and cold climates?

What components does the plasma membrane contain?
What are the functions of these components?
Reflection
I am now familiar with the features and components of the plasma membrane.
32
Lesson 2 PASSIVE TRANSPORT, p. 81
Lesson Overview
Diffusion is a spontaneous process in which substances move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration. Diffusion can happen across the plasma membrane, if the substances can
permeate it.
Objectives
Explain the phenomenon of diffusion of substances as applied to the plasma membrane
Identify the factors affecting the rate of diffusion across the plasma membrane
Determine the effects of osmosis and tonicity on living cells
Motivation
Several experiments may be used to demonstrate diffusion, including:
— The spread of a scent in still air
— A drop of dye in still water
Osmosis may be demonstrated with more specialized materials, such as a dialysis bag or a sausage/
longganisa casing. Fill the casing with fresh water. Tie it, and immerse it in very salty water. Another
casing may be filled partially with salty water and immersed in fresh water. Note: osmosis may take
hours to be noticeable. If the casing is too thick, the experiment might not work.

Discuss lessons (pp. 81-89)
Describe the process of diffusion, as shown in the examples above.
— Note: Diffusion may be related to Chemistry. Diffusion is an entropy-driven process. As the
substances spread out, the disorder in the system increases.
Note that the process of diffusion does not happen at a constant rate for all substances.
— Discuss the factors that affect diffusion through a membrane.
— Show that some proteins enable many other substances, to which the membrane is permeable.
— Compare and contrast channel proteins and carrier proteins.
Introduce the process of osmosis, and the effects of tonicity on plant and animal cells.

Ask the learners to find several examples of diffusion in their daily lives, and recite these in class.
Deepening
Ask the learners:
— Oxygen does not need channel or carrier proteins to diffuse, but sodium does. Why?
33
Integration
CHEMISTRY: Some laboratory-synthesized chemicals are known to readily pass through membranes.
Of these, some are dangerously toxic, such as dimethylmercury – known for a fatal case of poisoning
coming from just from two drops spilled on a scientist’s gloved hand. Another chemical, dimethylsulfoxide,
is relatively safe, and is used to rapidly deliver drugs directly through skin.

Challenge the learners with the following questions:
— Why is it dangerous to drink seawater, especially when fresh water is scarce?
— Saltwater intrusion is a phenomenon where seawater permeates an area of land, especially
farmland. Explain how non-salt-resistant plants are damaged by saltwater.

How would you differentiate diffusion from osmosis?
What chemicals can diffuse across the cell membrane?
What chemicals require specialized protein channels or carriers to diffuse across the cell membrane?
Reflection
I can now understand diffusion and osmosis, and can reliably point out the capabilities and limita-
tions of the said transport mechanism.
Lesson 3 ACTIVE TRANSPORT, p. 90
Lesson Overview
If only passive transport were to be used in cellular processes, these mechanisms would eventually
reach equilibrium – no net transport will take place any further. In this case, there is a need to transport
essential substances against the concentration gradient – from low concentration to a high concentration
– to meet the needs of the cell.
Objectives
To illustrate the concept of electrochemical gradient
Discuss the mechanisms of primary and secondary active transport
Motivation
Introduce several analogies of active transport to the learners, such as:
— The movement of water on a hill. If it moves downhill (to a lower potential energy), water
requires no additional energy. However, to move water uphill requires the expenditure of energy.
— Later on the course of the lesson, a carrier protein works like a turnstile in the LRT Station. A
ticket and a person will need to pass both in the same direction.
34
Building from the concept of concentration gradients in the previous lesson, introduce the electro-
chemical gradient by factoring in the effect of net charge from ions that are out of equilibrium.
The molecular machinery capable of actively transporting solutes involve the carrier proteins. Discuss:
— The types of carrier proteins according to function (uniporter, symporter, antiporter)
— Active transport from the hydrolysis of ATP (primary active transport).
— Active transport from exploiting an existing electrochemical gradient, so that the energy harvested
from the spontaneous diffusion of one solute is used to transport another against its gradient
A large portion of a cell’s energy is invested in the operation of carrier proteins. In many cases,
primary and secondary active transport are coupled. Discuss the coupling of the Na+-K+ ATPase and
the sodium-glucose symporter:
— The Na+-K+ ATPase keeps the sodium level in the cell low, and high outside the cell. This way,
the concentration gradient forces sodium into the cell.
— The sodium-glucose symporter relies on the influx of sodium ions to drive an influx of glucose
against its gradient, which is already at a high concentration inside the cell.

Ask the learners to draw the mechanisms for active transport, including:
— The coupling of ATP hydrolysis to the carrier protein in primary active transport
— The coupling of diffusion and active transport in secondary active transport
Deepening
In what ways is active transport the same as flood control? Explain.
Integration
HEALTH: Hyperacidity is a condition where the stomach acid reaches a high enough concentration
to cause symptoms. The cells in the stomach lining are responsible for transporting H+ into the stomach
lumen. To address this problem, proton pump inhibitors were developed. These drugs block the carrier
proteins that pump H+, reducing the stomach acidity and alleviating symptoms.

Ask the students to provide scenarios which will completely stop the action of active transport
mechanisms, such as:
— If ATP is depleted, or the energy source of secondary active transport is depleted
— The concentration gradient is very ‘steep’
— The carrier proteins are defective
Challenge the students with the questions:
— Is the mechanism for decreasing the pH of the stomach (i.e. the transport of protons into the
stomach interior) active or passive transport?
— How does a proton pump inhibitor work (for those with hyperacidity)?
35
How are primary and secondary active transport different from each other?
What are the mechanisms driving active transport?
Reflection
I understand the necessity of using active transport for cellular functions.
I can now identify the different types of active transport.
Lesson 4 BULK TRANSPORT, p. 94
Lesson Overview
Apart from solutes, cells may also need to transport larger ‘bulk’ substances and particles across a
membrane. This may serve several functions, such as expelling cellular secretions, or ingesting food
particles.
Objectives
Explain the process of endo- and exocytosis
Differentiate the process of the mechanisms of phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis
Motivation
Show the learners videos (available online) or photographs of an amoeba ingesting food, or white
blood cells engulfing bacterial cells.

Discuss the need for the transport of large particles and the process of digestion that follows. Relate
it to the lesson on organelles and the endomembrane system (Chapter 2 Lesson 3)
Discuss the various mechanisms of bulk transport
— Compare and contrast the mechanisms of phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated
endocytosis
Discuss the need and the processes associated with exocytosis
Discuss how some intracellular parasites, notably viruses, are able to gain entry into cells. These
parasites are able to trigger the endocytotic mechanisms such as receptors, causing them to be absorbed
into the cell.

Ask the learners to draw and label the different processes of bulk transport in:
— Nerve synapses
— Macrophages
— Amoebae
36
Deepening
Let the learners research for this question:
— How are lipids transported from the bloodstream into the cells? What mechanisms of bulk
transport are employed?
Integration
MEDICINE: Infections by certain agents are mediated by bulk transport. Examples of these are
tuberculosis and many viral diseases such as AIDS. In tuberculosis, macrophages (a special white blood
cell) phagocytose the bacterium. However, the TB bacteria are able to survive inside the macrophage, even
multiplying inside it and killing it in the process. HIV also does the same in helper T-cells, killing them
and crippling the immune system. People lacking the ability to recognize and phagocytose HIV particles
are immune to it because the virus needs to penetrate the helper T-cells to produce more viral particles.

Neurotransmitters, or chemicals facilitating the movement of nerve impulses in synapses, are released
through exocytosis. If exocytosis is somehow impaired in this mechanism, what symptoms would be
apparent?
— Answer: a person would be weakened or paralyzed due to impaired nerve signalling.

Why is there a need for bulk transport?
What are the different types of bulk transport? Give specific situations where these are performed
in the cells.
Why is there a need for receptors in several classes of bulk transport?
Reflection
I can now understand the different mechanisms for bulk transport.

The cell is enclosed by the (1), separating the intracellular and (2) environments and making specialized
transport of materials necessary. The membrane’s structure is explained by the (3) model, where proteins and
cholesterol are embedded in the (4) bilayer. The membrane is (5) – small molecules and nonpolar substances
can easily pass through via diffusion, while larger or more polar molecules need specialized mechanisms.
(6) is the movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentra-
tion. Many substances can move across the membrane through this process. Larger molecules need
specialized (7) to ferry them across the membrane without expending energy.
37
Water can pass through the membrane through special proteins called (8). If the solutes cannot pass
through the membrane, water will move to the region with higher solute concentration in a process called
(9). The pressure produced by this movement of water is critical to the form and stability of the cells.
The transport of materials against the concentration gradient require the expenditure of energy. This
can be achieved by the hydrolysis of ATP in (10) active transport by specialized (11). Additionally, the cell
can utilize the movement of one solute along its gradient to propel another solute against its gradient,
in a coupled mechanism called (12) active transport.
Finally, the cell can transport larger, bulk pieces of material. This involves the movement of the cell mem-
brane. The transport of large particles is called (13), while the transport of large amounts of solute is called
(14). Mostly, these processes are mediated by (15) – proteins that recognize the material to be transported.
Choices:
semipermeable aquaporins carrier proteins
receptors secondary diffusion
osmosis phagocytosis fluid mosaic
primary pinocytosis phospholipid
cell membrane channel proteins extracellular

The cell is enclosed by the (1) cell membrane, separating the intracellular and (2) extracellular
environments and making specialized transport of materials necessary. The membrane’s structure is
explained by the (3) fluid mosaic model, where proteins and cholesterol are embedded in the (4) phos-
pholipid bilayer. The membrane is (5) semipermeable – small molecules and nonpolar substances can
easily pass through via diffusion, while larger or more polar molecules need specialized mechanisms.
(6) Diffusion is the movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. Many substances can move across the membrane through this process. Larger molecules
need specialized (7) channel proteins to get them across the membrane without expending energy.
Water can pass through the membrane through special proteins called (8) aquaporins. If the solutes cannot
pass through the membrane, water will move to the region with higher solute concentration in a process called
(9) osmosis. The pressure produced by this movement of water is critical to the form and stability of the cells.
The transport of materials against the concentration gradient require the expenditure of energy. This
can be achieved by the hydrolysis of ATP in (10) primary active transport by specialized (11) carrier
proteins. Additionally, the cell can utilize the movement of one solute along its gradient to propel another
solute against its gradient, in a coupled mechanism called (12) secondary active transport.
Finally, the cell can transport larger, bulk pieces of material. This involves the movement of the
cell membrane. The transport of large particles is called (13) phagocytosis, while the transport of large
amounts of solutes is called (14) pinocytosis. Mostly, these processes are mediated by (15) receptors –
proteins that recognize the material to be transported.
38
A doctor injects a patient with what the doctor thinks is an isotonic saline solution. The patient dies,
and an autopsy reveals that many red blood cells have been destroyed. Do you think the solution the
doctor injected was really isotonic?
The solution is likely to be hypotonic – it is capable of destroying red blood cells by making
them burst.
Injection of a potassium solution into a person’s blood is lethal; this is used in capital punishment and
euthanasia. Why do you think a potassium solution injection is lethal?
When the levels of potassium inside and outside the cell become equal, it results in the loss
of membrane potential, which stops the heart from beating.
Review Questions
4. Which plasma membrane component can be either found on its surface or embedded in the
membrane structure?
a. protein c. carbohydrate
b. cholesterol d. phospholipid
5. Which characteristic of a phospholipid contributes to the fluidity of the membrane?

a. its head c. a saturated fatty acid tail
b. cholesterol d. double bonds in the fatty acid tail
6. What is the primary function of carbohydrates attached to the exterior of cell membranes?
a. identification of the cell c. strengthening the membrane
b. flexibility of the membrane d. channels through membrane
7. Water moves via osmosis:

a. throughout the cytoplasm
b. from an area with a high concentration of other solutes to a lower one
c. from an area with a low concentration of solutes to one of higher solute concentration
d. from an area with a low concentration of water to one of higher concentration
8. The principal force driving movement of molecules in diffusion is the:

a. temperature c. concentration gradient
b. particle size d. membrane surface area
39
9. What problem is faced by organisms that live in fresh water?
a. Their bodies tend to take in too much water.
b. They have no way of controlling their tonicity.
c. Only salt water poses problems for animals that live in it.
d. Their bodies tend to lose too much water to their environment.
10. Active transport must function continuously because:

a. plasma membranes wear out
b. not all membranes are amphiphilic
c. facilitated transport opposes active transport
d. diffusion is constantly moving solutes in opposite directions
11. How does the sodium-potassium pump make the interior of the cell negatively charged?
a. by expelling anions
b. by pulling in anions
c. by expelling more cations than are taken in
d. by taking in and expelling an equal number of cations
12. What is the combination of an electrical gradient and a concentration gradient called?
a. potential gradient c. concentration potential
b. electrical potential d. electrochemical gradient
13. What happens to the membrane of a vesicle during exocytosis?

a. It leaves the cell.
b. It is disassembled by the cell.
c. It fuses with and becomes part of the plasma membrane.
d. It is used again in another exocytosis event.
14. Which transport mechanism can bring whole cells into a cell?
a. pinocytosis c. facilitated transport
b. phagocytosis d. primary active transport
15. In what important way does receptor-mediated endocytosis differ from phagocytosis?
a. It transports only small amounts of fluid.
b. It does not involve the pinching off of membrane.
c. It brings in only a specifically targeted substance.
d. It brings substances into the cell, while phagocytosis removes substances.
40
16. Why is it advantageous for the cell membrane to be fluid in nature?
It prevents the brittle failure (such as cracking) of cell membranes if the membrane would harden
somehow and the cell sustains physical stress (such as movement)
17. Why do phospholipids tend to spontaneously orient themselves into something resembling a membrane?
Phospholipids are amphiphilic, with the charged phosphate facing water and the hydrophobic
tails being more stable in contact with other hydrophobic tails of other phospholipids.
18. Discuss why the following affect the rate of diffusion: molecular size, temperature, solution density,
and the distance that must be traveled.
Size: bigger molecules move slower and thus reduce the rate of diffusion. Bigger molecules may not
pass through semipermeable membranes easily.
Temperature: higher temperature means higher kinetic energy, resulting in faster diffusion.
Solution density: higher density slows down the rate of diffusion due to more collisions between
particles.
Distance: Molecules diffuse faster through a thinner membrane as opposed to a thicker membrane.
19. Why does water move through a membrane?

Water is a small molecule and is itself subject to diffusion. Note that this only happens when the
membrane is permeable to water.
20. Both of the regular intravenous solutions administered in medicine, normal saline and lactated
Ringer’s solution, are isotonic. Why is this important?
This is to ensure that the patient’s cells, especially blood and the lining of the veins, are stable and
no additional harm is done to them. (note: sometimes hypertonic solutions can be administered
for short amounts of time)
21. Where does the cell get energy for active transport processes?
From the hydrolysis of ATP or coupled with a solute gradient from another active transport
mechanism
22. How does the sodium-potassium pump contribute to the net negative charge of the interior of the cell?
The Na+-K+ATPase moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in, resulting in the net loss of
one + charge per cycle
41
23. Why is it important that there are different types of proteins in plasma membranes for the transport
of materials into and out of a cell?
This is so that the transport of specific materials can be tightly regulated.
24. Why do ions have a difficult time getting through plasma membranes despite their small size?
Their charge prevents them from moving through the hydrophobic barrier. Charged ions are usually
complexed with water molecules prior to entering a channel.
25. If a bacterium is in a concentrated solution of sugar, which substance will leave the cell and which
will move into the cell? What processes are involved?
Sugar can move into the cell via diffusion
Water will leave the cell through osmosis
26. Why does a freshwater amoeba have a contractile vacuole, while an amoeba that lives in salt
water does not have it?
Water continuously moves into the freshwater amoeba due to the environment being hypotonic
to the cytoplasm. To prevent the cell from bursting, the water has to be pumped out via the
contractile vacuole.
42
Chapter 4: Cell Division, p. 100
■ characterize the phases in a typical cycle that normal cells undergo;
■ illustrate the events of mitosis/meiosis given a cell with a specific number of chromosomes (e.g.
2n=4);
■ compare and contrast each phase;
■ explain why mitosis/meiosis is crucial in the maintenance of chromosomal integrity of the organism;
■ describe crossing over and recombination in meiosis and their effects;
■ explain the events occuring in prokaryotic cell division and its role in prokaryotes;
■ list control points in the cell cycle;
■ describe how cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth.
■ identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle.
■ explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis ex. in medicine, agriculture, biotech-
nology, etc.
Lesson 1 THE CELL CYCLE, p. 101
Lesson Overview
Cells reproduce via cell division – each cell will divide its cytoplasm, organelles, and DNA into
each daughter cell. This lesson introduces the stages of cell division.
The cell cycle is a process that is highly sensitive to errors – which may lead to the death of cells
if an abnormality is allowed to propagate. Thus, it is only important to have checkpoints that assess the
progress of the cell cycle. In this lesson, these control mechanisms are discussed.
Objective
To describe the stages of the cell cycle.
Motivation
Ask the learners about the concept of ‘hatian’ or splitting one’s share – to a sibling, or a friend. What
constitutes a fair portion?
Given the previous images of cell division, pose the learners with the question:
— How does a cell know when to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle?
During the process of wound healing, cells divide to replace dead and damaged cells.
— How does a cell know if it needs to divide?
— How does a cell know when to stop dividing?
43
Introduce and describe the different phases of the cell cycle, and their respective functions.
Trivia and additional information:
— Cancer is a disease where cells will improperly proceed through the cell cycle without performing
the steps completely (e.g. DNA synthesis and proofreading, etc.)

VISUALIZE: Let the learners make a diagram of the cell cycle in their own words. What must a
cell do in order to properly partition its DNA and cytoplasm into the daughter cells?
Deepening
Have the learners describe the possible effects on the cells if several stages of the cell cycle are skipped.
Integration
Check for common misconceptions in the cell cycle in advertised health products: many of these
products purportedly work by accelerating the cell cycle – thus “improving health.” Ask the learners to
report on how it might not work, or how it may become detrimental to health instead.

DOODLE IT: Let the learners draw what they think is the appearance of the cell during different
stages of the cell cycle.

Is the cell cycle efficient? If you can insert or modify steps to make the cell cycle more efficient,
what will these be?
How does the cell cycle ensure that the cell is fit to enter the next stage of the cycle?
Reflection
I can now determine the function and significance of the stages of the cell cycle.
Lesson 2 MITOSIS, p. 103
Lesson Overview
Mitosis refers to the division of the cell’s nucleus in the cell cycle, which typically results in two daughter
cells. Mitosis occurs in multiple steps. There are differences in the mitotic phase in plant and animal cells.
Objectives
To describe the appearance and purpose of the stages of mitosis
44
Motivation
Present images or videos of dividing cells to the learners. Microscope slides may be given if mi-
croscopes are available.
Fixed onion root cells are an abundant source of mitotic cells. The learners can be trained to section
onion roots, place them in a microscope slide, and observe them under a microscope.

Describe the stages of mitosis. Refer to fig. 4.3 for the general appearance of a stained cell under-
going mitosis.
Describe cytokinesis and its difference in plant and animal cells.

SUMMARY: Let the learners summarize the different mitotic steps discussed in the lesson.
Deepening
Ask the learners these “what if?” questions:
— What would happen if the microtubules are disrupted during mitosis?
— What would happen if the chromosomes fail to condense just before metaphase?
— If not all chromatids are bound to spindle fibers during metaphase, how would it affect the
distribution of DNA among the daughter cells?
Integration
Analogy: Let the learners imagine a tug-of-war between two armies, each pulling a prize in opposite
directions. However, there is a catch: the result must be a complete tie, or everyone loses. That is how
mitosis works – an unequal partitioning of genetic material (the “prize”) will result in the death or severe
abnormality of both daughter nuclei.

Let the learners answer Art Connection (p. 104)
With proper equipment, the Scientific Method Connection can also be performed with onion root
cells as described in the previous page. (Motivation).

What do you think is the most critical step in mitosis and why?
How will you know if a particular cell is undergoing mitosis?
Reflection
Now I can visually recognize the steps of mitosis.
I can now understand the importance of each step in the mitotic stage.
45
Lesson 3 MEIOSIS, p. 108
Lesson Overview
In order to create gametes, or cells for sexual reproduction, meiosis must occur. Meiosis halves the
cell's chromosome number by separating homologous chromosomes, allowing for recombination and
the increase of variation among the offspring of a sexually reproducing species.
Objectives
To identify the steps of meiosis and discuss their significance
To map the behavior of the different chromosomes during meiosis
To compare and contrast the difference between mitosis and meiosis
Motivation
Show the learners photomicrographs of sperm and egg cells. These are products of meiosis.
Ask the learners to comment on the variability of life – be it human life (how each of us is different).
The variation is one effect of meiosis.

Introduce and discuss the different stages of meiosis.
— Illustrate the homologous chromosomes starting from diploid number 2n=6, which may be
expanded to allow for diploid 2n=46 for a human cell.
— Illustrate the events of meiosis such as tetrads and crossing-over, and their significance in re-
combination. Refer to figures 4.9-4.12.
— Be sure to define terms as this section contains a number of biological terms.
TRIVIA: Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells.
— Four equal sperm cells are produced.
— One large egg cell and three small, degenerate cells are produced. This is so the cytoplasm is
focused on the single large egg.
TRIVIA: Failure of the chromosomes to separate during anaphase results in different chromosomal
aberrations.
— Down Syndrome is a result of such aberration, when one extra copy of Chromosome 21 is
packaged on one cell.
— (Other aberrations like Marfan, Klinefelter, etc.)

Ask the learners to research and share an online animation showing the process of meiosis
DOODLE IT: Let the learners take notes through illustrations of the different steps of meiosis.
46
Deepening
Ask the learners to illustrate the distribution of chromosomes if a nondisjunction (failure of the chroma-
tids to split) occurs during anaphase II, or if homologous chromosomes do not separate during anaphase I.
Given photographs or slides of cells undergoing meiosis (provided the chromosomes are clearly
stained), ask the learners to identify which meiotic stage it is.
Integration
In agriculture: unlike animals, where abnormal multiple copies of chromosomes are fatal, plants
may survive with multiple sets of chromosomes. However, plants (and plant hybrids) with a triploid
chromosome number (3n) are normally sterile. Let the students explain why so.
— Answer: an odd number of chromosomes will result in abnormal gametes, since there will be
an uneven partitioning of the triploid chromosome number

In humans, it is possible to have a chromosomal aberration in the sex chromosomes. These include:
47, XXX; 47, XXY; 47, XYY; and 45, XO (extra X – female, extra X – male, extra Y – male, and single
X – female, respectively). Will these people be capable of bearing offspring? Let the learners explain
why or why not.
— Answer: These people will be sterile, since the chromosomes cannot pair up evenly during
meiosis in the formation of the gametes.

What is the significance of each stage in meiosis?
How will you differentiate meiosis from mitosis?
Reflection
I can now identify the different stages of meiosis.
I can now understand the roles of the different cellular components in the process of meiosis.
I can now understand how meiosis creates diversity through sexual reproduction.
Lesson 4 PROKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION, p. 118
Lesson Overview
Prokaryotes divide by cell division. Due to the absence of the nucleus, the steps are different from
mitosis and meiosis, and is somewhat simpler due to a (usually) single bacterial chromosome.
Objective
To describe the mechanism of prokaryotic cell division
47
Motivation
Show the learners photomicrographs of bacteria and bacteria dividing.
Yogurt cultures may be stained and observed in the microscope; however, staining normally kills
the bacteria so it is difficult to observe the actual binary fission.

Refer to textbook (p. 118-120)
Show the various steps of binary fission
— Describe the bacterial chromosome, its shape, and how it replicates
— Show the role of the FtsZ protein in the division of the cell
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: There are some exceptions to the “one circular chromosome”
description in bacteria. Some are known to have multiple or linear chromosomes.
TRIVIA: Bacteria are extremely vulnerable to antibiotics during cell division. Many classes of
antibiotics disrupt the cell wall especially during cell division where new cell wall is synthesized

Let the learners compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division
Deepening
Why do bacteria replicate at a rate faster than eukaryotic cells?
Integration
In medicine: antibiotics usually target mechanisms that are unique to bacteria so the toxicity to
humans is minimized. In this case, the FtsZ protein presents as a good target.
Will a drug targeting the FtsZ protein work well on slowly-dividing bacteria (such as Mycobacterium
leprae, the causative agent of leprosy)?

Ask the learners to draw the steps of binary fission.

How is binary fission different from mitosis and cytokinesis?
Reflection
Now I understand how bacterial cells replicate.
48
Lesson 5 CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE, p. 121
Lesson Overview
The cell cycle is a process that is highly sensitive to errors – which may lead to the death of cells if
an abnormality is allowed to propagate, or to mutations. Thus, it is only important to have checkpoints
that assess the progress of the cell cycle. In this lesson, these control mechanisms are discussed.
Objectives
To describe the cell cycle in relation to the various cell cycle checkpoints
To learn the molecular mechanisms of cell cycle checkpoints
Motivation
Given the previous images of cell division, pose the learners with the question:
— How does a cell know when to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle?
During the process of wound healing, cells divide to replace dead and damaged cells.
— How does a cell know if it needs to divide?
— How does a cell know when to stop dividing?

Refer to textbook (p. 121-125)
Discuss the role of hormonal signals in the promotion of cell division
Introduce the concept of internal regulation of the cell cycle
— Show the roles of the different internal checkpoints
Illustrate the mechanisms of cyclin-dependent kinases. Search for animations for the topic online
or provide a step-by-step discussion
Illustrate the mechanism of tumor suppressor proteins – those that negatively regulate the cell cycle.
These proteins will stop the cell cycle whenever they are activated (due to stress, DNA damage, etc.)
Note: For starters, cyclin may be thought of as a general promoter for the cell cycle. But what exactly
do the proteins phosphorylated by CDKs do? The topic may be beyond the capacity of the learners at
this stage, so we will group their functions as “those that permit advancement to the next cell cycle
checkpoint”

Ask the learners to research and report on the role of cyclin, CDK, and tumor suppressor proteins
in the cell cycle. This activity may be connected to the deepening activity below.
49
Deepening
ACTIVITY: Let the students form groups to physically re-enact the process of cell cycle regulation.
Different groups may be assigned for CDK and tumor suppressor mechanisms.
Integration
Signal transduction is the chain reaction of biochemical messages that amplify the signals carried by a
few molecules so that it affects the entire cell. In this case, the mitotic spindle checkpoint (M checkpoint)
can halt the entire cell cycle simply due to a single unlinked chromosome. How signal amplification is
achieved is a more complex process that may be researched by the learners.
Ask the learners on the similarities of the SCHOOL CLEARANCE FORM with the cell cycle
checkpoints. (the clearance form is a checklist to ensure students have no pending requirements before
the school year ends)

Ask the students these “what if” questions:
— What would happen if the cell’s cyclin and CDK are overactive?
— What would happen to the cell cycle if the Rb protein cannot be phosphorylated?
Which checkpoint is at fault if a chromosomal nondisjunction occurs? (an uneven number of chro-
mosomes has been distributed among the daughter cells)

How does the cell cycle ensure that the cell is fit to enter the next stage of the cycle?
Reflection
Now I understand the different control points in the cell cycle.
I can differentiate the effect of CDKs with the tumor suppressor proteins on the cell cycle.
Lesson 6 CANCER AND THE CELL CYCLE, p. 126
Lesson Overview
Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. Cancer is a disease where the body’s own cells lose
their ability to control cell division, and overwhelm the body’s normal cells. The mechanisms for car-
cinogenesis are discussed in this lesson.
Objectives
To explain the basic causes of cancer
To differentiate proto-oncogenes from tumor suppressor genes
50
Motivation
Ask the learners if they have prior knowledge of cancer, be it:
— A relative or a close friend with the disease
— If they are taking steps to reduce risk of cancer

Discuss the role of proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in preventing the abnormal pro-
gression of the cell cycle.
— Illustrate the role of p53 in the prevention of cancer, and its relation to different environmental
factors (such as infection and mutation).
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
— DNA damage is usually caused by oxidative stress. The cell has antioxidants that function to
reduce oxidative stress. However, antioxidant supplements are NOT proven to reduce the risk
of cancer. In fact, too much antioxidant intake will suppress immune system function.
— Cancer is not just one disease, but a large group of diseases that all stem from abnormal proliferation
of the body’s cells. For example, breast cancer is made of completely different cells from colon
cancer. Thus, the treatment is different.
— Cancer treatment is difficult because it is usually too late that cancer is discovered. The initial
symptoms of cancer are just limited to a mass (“bukol”) where abnormal cells have grown. Cancer
produces symptoms most directly by obstructing blood flow or cell function in vital organs.
— Carcinogens are chemicals or conditions that are known to cause cancer. These include the
human papillomavirus, benzene, tobacco smoke, ultraviolet rays, and many others.

Ask the learners to list down symptoms of cancer that are familiar to them.
Ask the learners to enumerate the preventive measures that can be done to avoid cancer.
Deepening
Why is there a need for the cell to commit cellular suicide (apoptosis) if the DNA damage cannot
be repaired?
Why is there a need for human papillomavirus to stop the function of the p53 protein?
— Answer: The virus cannot replicate once the cell has triggered apoptosis. In order for the virus
to survive, it must keep the cell alive to be able to use its machinery to replicate.
Integration
TRUTH IN ADVERTISING: Many food supplements nowadays have claims that they can prevent
or even cure cancer. Most of these claims are not based on scientific evidence, but these supplements are
still frequently found in the Philippine market. Ask the learners to report and research on the supplements
that they are familiar with and ask them to judge if the claims are truthful or not.
51
Ask the learners to answer the Art Connection on p. 127
—Note: Choices B and D are equivalent to the given information in the book, and both will have
the same effect. E6 binding should inactivate p53. Activated p53 will cause cell cycle arrest; So, if it is
inactivated, the cell cycle will continue and not detect any error.

How do the mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes cause cancer?
How does p53 work?
Reflection
I can identify the biochemistry behind the root causes of cancer.

Cells reproduce by division – the cell partitions its genetic material and cellular contents to its daugh-
ter cells before splitting in two. This method occurs differently in many cells and is tightly controlled by
several mechanisms.
Prokaryotes divide by (1). In this process, the (usually) single, circular bacterial chromosome is replicat-
ed and pulled to opposite sides of the cell. A new cell wall forms in the middle and pinches the cell in two.
Before the division of eukaryotic cells, the cell undergoes a G1 phase to accumulate resources,
a synthesis (S) phase to make new DNA, and G2 phase. This is followed by the M phase where (2)
condense, line up, and become distributed to the new cells.
In (3), the chromosomes duplicated during the S phase are distributed equally to two daughter cells.
The resulting cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent. The stage of the M phase
where the chromosomes condense is called (4). The chromosomes pair and line up across the middle
of the cell in the (5) stage. In the (6) stage, sister chromatids separate and the chromosomes move
towards the opposite sides of the cell. During (7), the nuclear membrane re-forms. In most cells, this is
followed by (8), or the division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane into two.
In (9), the chromosomes are duplicated initially but the cell follows two rounds of cell division, which
results in the daughter cells containing half the original number of chromosomes. This is important in
the formation of (10) for sexual reproduction.
The cell cycle is regulated by several checkpoints mediated by different signaling proteins. The
timing is performed by the action of several types of proteins called (11). The cell checks if the size and
resource requirements are met during the two gap phases. During the lining-up of chromosomes, the cell
also checks if these are properly attached to the (12). During DNA synthesis, the cell checks for errors
in the DNA. If errors are found, the cell cycle stops until the errors can be corrected.
Failure of the system to check the DNA for errors may result in a disease called (13). Some mutations
in (14) disable the DNA-checking mechanism, while mutations in (15) result in the continuous promotion
of cell division. In this disease, abnormal cells have uncontrolled cell division, overwhelming the body’s
normal cells and causing the disease symptoms.
52
Choices:
tumor suppressor proteins spindle microtubules oncogenes
cyclin-dependent kinases cancer anaphase
gametes binary fission prophase
cytokinesis meiosis mitosis
telophase chromosomes metaphase

Cells reproduce by division – the cell partitions its genetic material and cellular contents to its daugh-
ter cells before splitting in two. This method occurs differently in many cells and is tightly controlled by
several mechanisms.
Prokaryotes divide by (1) binary fission. In this process, the (usually) single, circular bacterial chro-
mosome is replicated and pulled to opposite sides of the cell. A new cell wall forms in the middle and
pinches the cell in two.
Before the division of eukaryotic cells, the cell undergoes a G1 phase to accumulate resources,
a synthesis (S) phase to make new DNA, and G2 phase. This is followed by the M phase where (2)
chromosomes condense, line up, and become distributed to the new cells.
In (3) mitosis, the chromosomes duplicated during the S phase are distributed equally to two daugh-
ter cells. The resulting cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent. The stage of the M
phase where the chromosomes condense is called (4) prophase. The chromosomes pair and line up
across the middle of the cell in the (5) metaphase stage. In the (6) anaphase stage, sister chromatids
separate and the chromosomes move towards the opposite sides of the cell. During (7) telophase, the
nuclear membrane re-forms. In most cells, this is followed by (8) cytokinesis, or the division of the cy-
toplasm and cell membrane into two.
In (9) meiosis, the chromosomes are duplicated initially, but the cell follows two rounds of cell di-
vision, which results in the daughter cells containing half the original number of chromosomes. This is
important in the formation of (10) gametes for sexual reproduction.
The cell cycle is regulated by several checkpoints mediated by different signaling proteins. The timing
is performed by the action of several types of proteins called (11) cyclin-dependent kinases. The cell
checks if the size and resource requirements are met during the two gap phases. During the lining-up
of chromosomes, the cell also checks if these are properly attached to the (12) spindle microtubules.
During DNA synthesis, the cell checks for errors in the DNA. If errors are found, the cell cycle stops until
the errors can be corrected.
Failure of the system to check the DNA for errors may result in a disease called (13) cancer. Some
mutations in (14) tumor suppressor proteins disable the DNA-checking mechanism, while mutations in
(15) oncogenes result in the continuous promotion of cell division. In this disease, abnormal cells have
uncontrolled cell division, overwhelming the body’s normal cells and causing the disease symptoms.
53
(Refer to Figure 4.3) Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis?
a. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic
spindle. The nucleus reforms and the cell divides. Cohesin proteins break down and the sister
chromatids separate.
b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Cohesin proteins break down and the
sister chromatids separate. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. The nucleus reforms
and the cell divides.
c. The kinetochore becomes attached to the cohesin proteins. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase
plate. The kinetochore breaks down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus reforms and
the cell divides.
d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Chromosomes line up at the met-
aphase plate. Cohesin proteins break down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus
reforms and the cell divides

Human papillomavirus can cause cervical cancer. The virus encodes E6, a protein that binds p53. Based
on this fact and what you know about p53, what effect do you think E6 binding has on p53 activity?
a. E6 activates p53
b. E6 inactivates p53
c. E6 mutates p53
d. E6 binding marks p53 for degradation
Both answers are correct but D is more complete. Marking p53 for degradation is one of the ways
of protein inactivation.
Review Questions
4. Chromosomes are duplicated during what stage of the cell cycle?
a. G1 phase c. prophase
b. S phase d. prometaphase
5. Which of the following events does not occur during interphase?

a. DNA duplication c. increase in cell size
b. organelle duplication d. separation of sister chromatids
6. The mitotic spindles arise from which cell structure?

a. centromere c. kinetochore
b. centrosome d. cleavage furrow
7. Attachment of the mitotic spindle fibers to the kinetochores is a characteristic of which stage of
mitosis?
a. prophase c. metaphase
b. prometaphase d. anaphase
54
8. Unpacking of chromosomes and the formation of a new nuclear envelope is a characteristic of
which stage of mitosis?
a. prometaphase c. anaphase
b. metaphase d. telophase
9. Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage of mitosis?

a. prometaphase c. anaphase
b. metaphase d. telophase
10. The chromosomes become visible under a light microscope during which stage of mitosis?
11. The fusion of Golgi vesicles at the metaphase plate of dividing plant cells forms what structure?
a. cell plate c. cleavage furrow
b. actin ring d. mitotic spindle
12. Meiosis produces _________ daughter cells.

a. two haploid c. four haploid
b. two diploid d. four diploid
13. What structure is most important in forming the tetrads?

a. centromere c. chiasma
b. synaptonemal complex d. kinetochore
14. At which stage of meiosis are sister chromatids separated from each other?
a. prophase I c. anaphase I
b. prophase II d. anaphase II
15. At metaphase I, homologous chromosomes are connected only at what structures?

a. chiasmata c. microtubules
b. recombination nodules d. kinetochores
16. Which of the following is not true in regard to crossover?

a. Spindle microtubules guide the transfer of DNA across the synaptonemal complex.
b. Non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material.
c. Chiasmata are formed.
d. Recombination nodules mark the crossover point.
55
17. What phase of mitotic interphase is missing from meiotic interkinesis?
a. G0 phase c. S phase
b. G1 phase d. G2 phase
18. The part of meiosis that is similar to mitosis is:

a. meiosis I c. meiosis II
b. anaphase I d. interkinesis
19. If a muscle cell of a typical organism has 32 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will be
in a gamete of that same organism?
a. 8 c. 32
b. 16 d. 64
20. Which eukaryotic cell cycle event is missing in binary fission?

a. cell growth c. karyokinesis
b. DNA duplication d. cytokinesis
21. FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ___________ that will eventually form the new
cell walls of the daughter cells.
a. contractile ring c. cytoskeleton
b. cell plate d. septum
22. What is the main prerequisite for clearance at the G2 checkpoint?

a. cell has reached a sufficient size
b. an adequate stockpile of nucleotides
c. accurate and complete DNA replication
d. proper attachment of mitotic spindle fibers to kinetochores
23. If the M checkpoint is not cleared, what stage of mitosis will be blocked?
24. Which protein is a positive regulator that phosphorylates other proteins when activated?
a. p53 c. cyclin
b. retinoblastoma protein (Rb) d. cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
25. Many of the negative regulator proteins of the cell cycle were discovered in what type of cells?
a. gametes c. cancer cells
b. cells in G0 d. stem cells
56
26. Which negative regulatory molecule can trigger cell suicide (apoptosis) if vital cell cycle events
do not occur?
a. p53 c. retinoblastoma protein (Rb)
b. p21 d. cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
27. _________ are changes to the order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
a. Proto-oncogenes c. Gene mutations
b. Tumor suppressor genes d. Negative regulators
28. A gene that codes for a positive cell cycle regulator is called a(n):
a. kinase inhibitor c. proto-oncogene
b. tumor suppressor gene d. oncogene
Critical Thinking
29. Briefly describe the events that occur in each phase of interphase.
30. Chemotherapy drugs such as vincristine and colchicine disrupt mitosis by binding to tubulin (the
subunit of microtubules) and interfering with microtubule assembly and disassembly. Exactly
what mitotic structure is targeted by these drugs and what effect would that have on cell division?
The mitotic spindle will be compromised, and the cell division would halt during mitosis. If it
proceeds, the chromosomes will not migrate correctly resulting in cell death.
31. Describe the similarities and differences between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in animal
cells versus those in plant cells.
Both result in the formation of two cells that have the same number of chromosomes
Animal cells have a cleavage furrow while plant cells separate via a cell plate.
32. Describe the process that results in the formation of a tetrad.

After the duplication and condensation of chromosomes, homologous chromosomes are joined
via the synaptonemal complex. Recombination nodules identify locations of possible chiasmata.
33. Explain how the random alignment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I contributes
to the variation in gametes produced by meiosis.
The random alignment is capable of assigning different combinations of maternal/paternal
chromosomes and traits to the gametes, since homologous chromosomes are composed of ma-
ternal and paternally inherited chromosomes. To which cell each goes depends on what side
the maternal/paternal chromosome is facing.
57
34. What is the function of the fused kinetochore found on sister chromatids in prometaphase I?
This structure connects the centromere to the spindle microtubules and assists in arranging the
chromosomes centrally during Metaphase I.
This ensures that two sister chromatids will be moved together in Anaphase I.
35. In a comparison of the stages of meiosis to the stages of mitosis, which stages are unique to
meiosis and which stages have the same events in both meiosis and mitosis?
Unique to meiosis are: the joining of tetrads in prophase I, and the steps leading to
anaphase I.
Many steps are shared by meiosis and mitosis with some modifications; as said in the book mitosis
is most similar to meiosis II with the exception that no DNA replication occurs prior to this.
36. List and briefly describe the three processes that lead to variation in offspring with the same
parents.
- Mutation results in changes to the genetic code
- Random assignment of each parental chromosome during Meiosis I mixes the maternal and
paternal chromosomes
- Crossing over causes recombination of chromosomal DNA
37. Name the common components of eukaryotic cell division and binary fission.
38. Describe how the duplicated bacterial chromosomes are distributed into new daughter cells
without the direction of the mitotic spindle.
The mechanism is unknown, but the circular chromosome tends to move to opposite parts of the
dividing cell due to the binding of the origin of replication.
39. List some reasons why a cell that has just completed cytokinesis might enter the G0 phase instead
of the G1 phase.
The signal molecule for cell division is not present
Resources around the cell may not be abundant
The cell’s environment is now crowded
40. What cell cycle events will be affected in a cell that produces mutated (non-functional) cohesin
protein?
The pairing of sister chromatids and their separation in anaphase will be affected. Sister chro-
matids may not pair up resulting in unbalanced assignment to the daughter cells.
58
41. Describe the general conditions that must be met at each of the three main cell cycle checkpoints.
At the G1 checkpoint, the cell checks for proper size, resources, signals, and DNA integrity
At the G2 checkpoint, the cell checks for proper replication of DNA after the S phase
At the m (spindle) checkpoint, the cell checks for proper alignment of chromosomes and their
attachment to the spindle fibers through the kinetochore.
42. Explain the roles of the positive cell cycle regulators compared to the negative regulators.
43. What steps are necessary for Cdk to become fully active?
The Cdk needs to be paired with a cyclin in the appropriate concentration, and the presence of
ATP and the target protein.
44. Rb is a negative regulator that blocks the cell cycle at the G1 checkpoint until the cell achieves
a requisite size. What molecular mechanism does Rb employ to halt the cell cycle?
Rb protein prevents the progression of the cell from G1 to S phase by binding and preventing
the signal that pushes the cell to the S phase (namely, the E2F protein)
45. Outline the steps that lead to a cell becoming cancerous.

Cells acquire DNA damage that produces oncogenes or deactivates the tumor suppressor genes,
causing uncontrolled cell division. Cells that acquire oncogenes first become tumors, but fur-
ther DNA damage is prevented until tumor suppressor genes are deactivated. Normally, cancer
cells have more than one mutation, and usually contain both oncogenes and deactivated tumor
suppressor genes.
46. Explain the difference between a proto-oncogene and a tumor suppressor gene.
A proto-oncogene signals the cells to divide in the presence of certain factors
A tumor suppressor gene signals the cells to stop dividing in the presence of certain factors
(such as DNA damage)
47. List the regulatory mechanisms that might be lost in a cell producing faulty p53.
DNA repair-on-demand (when DNA damage is detected, it may not be repaired)
Apoptotic pathway (cell cannot commit suicide upon detecting irreversible DNA damage)
59
Unit III: Energy Transformation, p. 134
Chapter 5: Energy in Living Systems, p. 135

■ explain the function of electrons and electron carriers in the transfer of energy in living systems;
■ illustrate the general structure of ATP;
■ explain how energy is stored/released during ATP synthesis/breakdown; and
■ explain how ATP is used by the cell as an energy source.
Lesson 1 ELECTRONS AND ENERGY, p. 136
Lesson Overview
Energy flow in living systems is dictated by the transfer of electrons between different compounds
of different chemical potential energy. The transfer of electrons is mediated by electron carriers.
Objective
To state the function of biological electron carrier molecules
Motivation
Have the learners bring out a battery. It may be a rechargeable battery (from their mobile phones,
or electronics) or a non-rechargeable one. Note the following:
— Inside the battery are chemicals (usually a pair of chemicals – an electron donor and an electron
acceptor)
— The electron donor has electrons that are of a higher potential energy.
— When a load is connected to a battery (such as the circuitry of a cellphone), electrons flow across
the completed circuit to the electron acceptor
— In effect, the electron donating chemicals become oxidized, and the electron-accepting chemicals
become reduced.
— Rechargeable batteries are charged when a higher-potential energy source is connected to the
terminals.

Discuss the redox pathways of electron carriers.
60
— In catabolism, the harvesting of energy (or “high-energy electrons”) is done by the body through
a mostly oxidative process, with the ultimate effect of transferring the electrons to a suitable
final electron acceptor (usually oxygen gas)
— In biological redox reactions, the chemical structures of the electron carriers NADH and FADH2
may be discussed with principles from general organic chemistry
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: B vitamins
— Two important B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, are essential in the synthesis of the redox
carriers for properly functioning metabolic pathways
Note: Write down the meanings of the abbreviations at least once (e.g. NADPH = nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate) to avoid confusion.

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to take notes using diagrams of the biochemical redox reactions
(such as shown in Fig. 5.3)
Deepening
What could be the symptoms of niacin and riboflavin deficiency?
— Deficiency in these compounds would lead to lower metabolic rate, meaning lower extraction
of energy from food. This may result in lethargy, weakness, nerve damage (nerves require a lot
of energy to function)
Integration
NUTRITION – energy drinks contain vitamin B, apart from caffeine and sugar. Supplemental vita-
min B complex, especially niacin and riboflavin, is believed to enhance energy production in the body
(thus stamina). These compounds do not serve as a source of calories on their own; instead, they help
the catabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates to liberate useable electrons.

Ask the learners to visualize and draw how these people with the following conditions appear as:
— A person having insufficient NAD+ / NADH
— A person having an overload of NAD+ / NADH

What is the role of NAD+ and NADH in the transfer of electrons between different biomolecules?
61
Reflection
I can now illustrate the transfer of electrons between biological electron carriers.
I can differentiate between the oxidized and reduced forms of electron carriers.
Lesson 2 ATP: ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE, p. 138
Lesson Overview
Energy from the catabolism of biomolecules such as fats and glucose is converted to a freely-avail-
able form of high-energy compound: adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This chemical, deemed the “energy
currency of the cell,” contains high-energy phosphate bonds. ATP donates energy via hydrolysis of its
high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. ATP is continually synthesized by the body.
Objectives
To explain the structure and function of ATP
To discuss the chemical reactions that ATP participates in
Motivation
Ask the learners if they play computer games. In games (normally fighting games or role-playing
games), mana is a resource that enables the character to use spells or techniques. Mana continuously
regenerates.
— In biology, ATP is the dynamic resource of the cell that is most similar to mana. In order to
perform different cellular functions, the cell requires ATP. ATP is continuously regenerated.
However, running out of ATP may prove fatal for the cell.
— Ask the learners if they have experience with budgeting to purchase their wants/needs. The
budget or allowance is normally replenished by their parents or guardians after a certain period
(such as daily or weekly).
— Relate this to the function of ATP as the main resource for cellular functions. ATP is regenerated
and some cell functions cost more ATP than others.

Discuss the role of ATP as a temporary high-energy storage molecule.
— Relate the energy content of ATP to its structure. Each phosphoanhydride bond is able to store
energy, and hydrolyzing the bond releases energy.
— The phosphate of ATP may be directly coupled to substrates (such as proteins or other molecules)
either for regulation or direct energy transfer.
ATP is regenerated by the catabolism of food (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates).
Introduce the means by which ATP is generated. (These will be discussed in Chapter 7).
62
Note: In page 140: In many cases, the phosphate does not break free from the substrate – it stays
there until another enzyme removes it. Thus, the reaction becomes:
— A + enzyme + ATP A-phosphate + enzyme + ADP
— Normally the enzyme is indicated in the arrow itself, such as this:
— A + ATP A-phosphate + ADP

DOODLE IT: Let the learners make diagrams of phosphorylation reactions.
Deepening
What parts of the body do you think require the largest amount of ATP? Explain.
— Note: ATP cannot be transferred between cells, or through the bloodstream.
Integration
NUTRITION: The amount of ATP in the body is held relatively constant. Food and supplement
intake has minimal impact on the actual ATP, and “feeling energetic” does not actually mean your cells
have a higher amount of ATP. Glucose is a chemical that is readily metabolized to regenerate ATP.

Compare and contrast the electron carrier NADH and the energy carrier ATP. Note the similarities
and differences between:
— Cycles of regenerating NADH/NAD+ and ATP/ADP
— Chemical structure (both contain adenine and ribose)

How is energy stored in the ATP?
Why is ATP known as the cells’ energy currency?
Reflection
I can now understand the function of ATP inside the cell.
I can illustrate the hydrolysis and phosphorylation reactions.

In order to maintain all the processes in living systems, energy must be properly maintained and
managed. A living system obtains energy by (1) or removing electrons from sources of food and energy.
These electrons are transferred to electron carrier molecules, which in turn are (2) when these receive
the electrons. A common electron carrier is (3).
63
The cell has its own energy currency in the form of (4) . This molecule stores chemical energy in
its (5) bonds. When these bonds are broken, energy is released. The energy can be used to promote
chemical reactions that are not (6). Alternatively, the phosphates can be transferred to proteins or other
substrates through (7), which cause a change in their conformation, enabling them to perform useful work.
Choices:
reduced phosphorylation oxidizing
spontaneous phosphoanhydride NADH
adenosine triphosphate

In order to maintain all the processes in living systems, energy must be properly maintained and
managed. A living system obtains energy by (1) oxidizing or removing electrons from sources of food
and energy. These electrons are transferred to electron carrier molecules, which in turn are (2) reduced
when these receive the electrons. A common electron carrier is (3) NADH.
The cell has its own energy currency in the form of (4) adenosine triphosphate. This molecule stores
chemical energy in its (5) phosphoanhydride bonds. When these bonds are broken, energy is released.
The energy can be used to promote chemical reactions that are not (6) spontaneous. Alternatively, the
phosphates can be transferred to proteins or other substrates through (7) phosphorylation, which cause
a change in their conformation, enabling them to perform useful work.
64
Chapter 6: Photosynthesis, p. 142

■ explain how energy is absorbed by plants through pigments;
■ summarize the process of photosynthesis;
■ describe the major features and chemical events in photosynthesis;
■ list the main structures involved in photosynthesis, tabulate the reactants and products and
location of each specific process/event; and
■ explain importance of photosynthesis in an ecosystem.
Lesson 1 OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, p. 143
Lesson Overview
The sun is the principal energy source for surface-dwelling life on Earth, which is harnessed in the
process of photosynthesis. Only a handful of organisms (chemoautotrophs) are not dependent on the products
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to useful sugars.
Objectives
To describe the organisms capable of photosynthesis
To outline the occurrence of light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis
Motivation
Ask the learners to draw the food chain / food web using their current knowledge. Emphasize the
fact that all surface food chains begin with a photoautotroph (photosynthetic life forms.)
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the different types of organisms that are capable of photosynthesis. Note that the following
exceptions exist:
— Organisms that do not depend on sunlight to survive (chemoautotrophs and their food web)
— Plants that have no chlorophyll and thus cannot photosynthesize
Discuss the structure of the chloroplast and its importance in photosynthesis
— Note: Photosynthetic bacteria exist. Since bacteria do not have chloroplasts, the cell membrane
becomes the site of photosynthesis.
Outline the light-dependent and the light-independent reactions

Have the learners perform the Activity: Starch test in a leaf.
— A leaf that has been kept in the dark for a few days (without drying out) can be used as a control
65
Deepening
Will a decrease in photosynthetic output of plant life affect the following items? Explain.
— Books and print materials
— Fossil fuels
— Meat products
— Pharmaceuticals
Integration
ECONOMICS: The food chain based on photosynthetic life does not just influence the populations
of different species on Earth. A different type of ‘chain’ can be used to represent our economic depend-
ence on photosynthesis.
— List down the commercial products whose prices might be affected if photosynthesis is reduced.

Ask the learners to take artistic photographs of photosynthetic life that they encounter, using their
photographs, ask them to make a simple summary diagram of photosynthesis and present these to class.

How does the chloroplast work to support the process of photosynthesis?
How is photosynthesis split into the light-dependent and light-independent reactions?
Reflection
I now understand how most life on Earth depends on sunlight.
I can illustrate the general process of photosynthesis as it occurs in the chloroplasts.
Lesson 2 THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, p. 148
Lesson Overview
The first step of photosynthesis is the capture of light energy from the Sun, or any other light source.
This is carried out by chlorophyll, and uses the energy to generate high-energy electrons (in NADPH)
and to produce ATP.
Objectives
To explain the light absorption mechanisms of the two photosystems
To describe the sequence of events in the light-dependent photosynthetic reactions
Motivation
ACTIVITY: What color (wavelength) does a leaf absorb?
— Have the students bring different-colored cellophane
— Shine a light through each cellophane onto a leaf (preferably in a darkened room or in a box;
no stray light should be present)
66
— What color of cellophane will the leaf appear the darkest? This is the color of light that the leaf
absorbs the most. (For most plants, it is red)

Discuss the absorption of light of different wavelengths and on which wavelength chlorophyll
absorbs the most
— Chlorophyll has a limited range of absorption (red and blue). However, some plants have evolved
accessory pigments to extend that range. The presence of other pigments change the color of
the leaf and improve the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant in low-light conditions (such as
the forest floor)
Discuss the two photosystems (PSII and PSI). Introduce their role and the sequence of events leading
to the production of oxygen gas and the harvesting of electrons from water.
— Photosystem I is named so (even if it occurs second in sequence) because it was discovered first.
Discuss the production of ATP from the proton gradient resulting from the actions of the photosys-
tems in the light-dependent reactions

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to take notes by sketching the pathway of electrons in the light-de-
pendent reactions.
Deepening
What would be the color of leaves if chlorophyll absorbs visible light at the 400-600 nm wavelength
range?
— Answer: Red-orange / red. This is the color that is left behind after the removal of the 400-600
nm radiation due to absorption.
If plants receive green light for photosynthesis, would photosynthesis be improved or not? Why?
Integration
CHEMISTRY: Activity - Chromatography of Plant Pigments
— Get a suitable sample of plant leaf (especially those with differently-colored leaves)
— Mash the leaves and grind them in isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol will do)
— Spot the sample 2 cm from one end on a strip of paper.
— Immerse one end of the paper (closest to the spot) in isopropyl alcohol. Do not allow the alcohol
to touch the sample spot.
— Allow the alcohol to travel up the paper, carrying the plant pigments with it.
— This process should separate most pigments, allowing for more direct observation.
67
Ask the learners to make a report on the physical structure (3d protein structure) of the different
photosystems. The physical arrangement of these photosystems is important for the high efficiency of
the light-dependent reactions. The information is available online.

How does the absorption of light cause the excitation of electrons and the splitting of water?
What are the products of the light-dependent reactions?
Reflection
I can now trace the path of electrons during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
I understand the interaction of pigments with visible light.
Lesson 3 THE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, p. 155
Lesson Overview
The light-independent reactions use the ATP and NADPH generated by the light-dependent reactions
to produce glucose from carbon dioxide.
Objective
Describe the sequence of events in the light-independent photosynthetic reactions
Motivation
ANALOGY: Draw a circuit connecting a solar panel to a large battery in an off-grid house.
— During daytime, the solar panel receives light energy and converts it to electrical energy, which
charges the house’s batteries and powers the appliances.
— During nighttime, the batteries discharge to maintain power to the house’s appliances.
— In a similar way, the light-dependent reactions use sunlight to power the production of ATP and
NADPH, while the light-independent reactions use ATP and NADPH to power the production
of glucose and other cellular machinery.
— Note that in this analogy, the battery is connected to the circuit the entire day. Similarly, the
light-independent reactions can still occur during daytime.

Present the Calvin cycle to the learners and discuss its steps: fixation, reduction, and regeneration
of the initial reactants
Illustrate the number of times the Calvin cycle must run in order to create one full molecule of glucose.
Discuss the completion of the energy cycle with reference to autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Other biogeochemical cycles may be discussed, especially the carbon cycle.
68
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: From the Evolution Connection (p. 163), desert plants have
evolved to minimize water loss during the opening of stomata.
— The article discusses CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) – where CO2 is temporarily stored as
organic acids (malic acid and oxaloacetic acid) during nighttime and processed during daytime.
This increases the efficiency of CO2 absorption and also reduces water loss.
— Another modified photosynthetic mechanism is C4 – so-called because the carbon dioxide
is stored as 4-carbon acids (also malic and oxaloacetic acid) in another cell and performs the
RuBisCO-dependent carbon fixation in a different cell (the bundle sheath cell). This serves to
concentrate CO2 and prevent RuBisCO from accidentally using oxygen instead of CO2.

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to illustrate the steps in the Calvin Cycle.
Deepening
Ask the learners to connect the Calvin Cycle to the light-dependent reactions via illustrating the
steps in their own words.
Integration
AGRICULTURE: Some plants are known to photosynthesize more efficiently than others. For ex-
ample, rice employs the “C3” or the ‘standard’ type of carbon fixation, where RuBisCO does the carbon
fixation. On the other hand, corn employs the “C4” fixation (see above, ADDITIONAL INFORMATION).
This makes corn more efficient especially in hot climates with intense sun and low CO2 availability.

Challenge the learners with the question:
— Biodiesel is a fuel made entirely from plant material. Why is pure biodiesel considered “car-
bon-neutral?”
— Answer: The carbon being combusted by vehicles using the biodiesel will release the same
amount of CO2 into the atmosphere as the amount of CO2 absorbed by the plants to make the
biodiesel.

How does the Calvin cycle convert CO2 to glucose?
How does the Calvin cycle connect to the light-dependent reactions?
Why is there a need to store the energy as glucose, and not store it as ATP instead?
Reflection
I can outline the steps in the Calvin cycle.
I now understand how plants absorb CO2 from the air and produce sugars.
69
Most life on Earth, and practically all life on the surface, depend on the energy of the Sun. (1) or-
ganisms such as plants carry out photosynthesis to produce energy (as ATP) and useful sugars from
sunlight. In many plants, photosynthesis is carried out by (2) cells in specialized organelles called (3).
Photosynthesis can be divided into two phases: the light-dependent and the light-independent reactions.
In the (4) reactions, the pigment (5) absorbs light energy and uses the energy to energize an elec-
tron. The photosynthetic pigments are grouped with proteins into (6) which operate in sequence to take
electrons from water and ultimately transfer it to an electron carrier called (7). Photosystem II is coupled
with proton pumps to generate a (8) that will be used to synthesize ATP.
The (9) reactions refer to the use of the products of the light-dependent reactions – ATP and NA-
DPH – to power the Calvin cycle. This cycle begins with (10), where carbon dioxide is incorporated into
a molecule called (11), which eventually forms 3 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) molecules. For
every three cycles, one G3P leaves the cycle, and two are required to make a new glucose molecule.
In order to create one glucose molecule, six carbon dioxide molecules must be fixed.
Choices:
chlorophyll carbon fixation photoautotrophic
light-independent mesophyll photosystems
ribulose bisphosphate chloroplasts proton gradient
light-dependent NADPH

Most life on Earth, and practically all life living on the surface, depend on the energy of the Sun.
(1) Photoautotrophic organisms such as plants carry out photosynthesis to produce energy (as ATP)
and useful sugars from sunlight. In many plants, photosynthesis is carried out by (2) mesophyll cells
in specialized organelles called (3) chloroplasts. Photosynthesis can be divided into two phases: the
light-dependent and the light-independent reactions.
In the (4) light-dependent reactions, the pigment (5) chlorophyll absorbs light energy and uses the
energy to energize an electron. The photosynthetic pigments are grouped with proteins into (6) photo-
systems which operate in sequence to take electrons from water and ultimately transfer it to an electron
carrier called (7) NADPH. Photosystem II is coupled with proton pumps to generate a (8) proton gradient
that will be used to synthesize ATP.
The (9) light-independent reactions refer to the use of the products of the light-dependent reactions
– ATP and NADPH – to power the Calvin cycle. This cycle begins with (10) carbon fixation, where car-
bon dioxide is incorporated into a molecule called (11) ribulose bisphosphate, which eventually forms 3
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) molecules. For every three cycles, one G3P leaves the cycle, and
two are required to make a new glucose molecule. In order to create one glucose molecule, six carbon
dioxide molecules must be fixed.
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Review Questions
4. Which of the following components is not used by both plants and cyanobacteria to carry out
photosynthesis?
a. chloroplasts c. carbon dioxide
b. chlorophyll d. water
5. What two main products result from photosynthesis?

a. oxygen and carbon dioxide
b. chlorophyll and oxygen
c. sugars/carbohydrates and oxygen
d. sugars/carbohydrates and carbon dioxide
6. In which compartment of the plant cell do the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take
place?
a. thylakoid c. outer membrane
b. stroma d. mesophyll
7. Which statement about thylakoids in eukaryotes is not correct?

a. Thylakoids are assembled into stacks.
b. Thylakoids exist as a maze of folded membranes. → technically it’s not a maze, but it may be
taken figuratively.
c. The space surrounding thylakoids is called stroma. → technically the stroma is a fluid, not a space
d. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll.
8. Which of the following structures is not a component of a photosystem?

a. ATP synthase c. reaction center
b. antenna molecule d. primary electron acceptor
9. How many photons does it take to fully reduce one molecule of NADP+ to NADPH?
a. 1 c. 4
b. 2 d. 8
10. Which complex is not involved in the establishment of conditions for ATP synthesis?
a. photosystem I c. photosystem II
b. ATP synthase d. cytochrome complex
11. From which component of the light-dependent reactions does NADPH form most directly?
a. photosystem II c. cytochrome complex
b. photosystem I d. ATP synthase
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12. Which molecule must enter the Calvin cycle continually for the light-independent reactions to
a take place?
a. RuBisCO c. 3-PGA
b. RuBP d. CO2

On a hot, dry day, plants close their stomata to conserve water. What impact will this have on photo-
synthesis?
The light-independent reactions, which require CO2, will lose their CO2 supply and shut down.

What is the initial source of electrons for the chloroplast electron transport chain?
a. water c. carbon dioxide
b. oxygen d. NADPH

Which of the following statements is true?
a. In photosynthesis, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. G3P or GA3P and
water are products.
b. In photosynthesis, chlorophyll, water, and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P or GA3P and oxygen
are products.
c. In photosynthesis, water, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. RuBP and oxygen are
products.
d. In photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P or GA3P and oxygen are products

13. What is the overall outcome of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
The production of ATP and NADPH
14. Why are carnivores, such as lions, dependent on photosynthesis to survive?

Surface-dwelling carnivores eat herbivores, which in turn derive their sustenance from photoau-
totrophs that rely on photosynthesis.
15. Why are energy carriers thought of as either “full” or “empty”?

Energy carriers have different chemical states that have different chemical potential energies.
The form of the carrier having higher potential energy (such as ATP or NADH or NADPH) is
the ‘full’ form.
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16. Describe the pathway of electron transfer from photosystem II to photosystem I in light-dependent
reactions.
Electrons are carried from PSII to plastoquinone, which transfers electrons to Cytochrome B6F, then
to plastocyanin. Light exciting PSI causes the uptake of electrons from plastocyanin to PSI.
17. What are the roles of ATP and NADPH in photosynthesis?

ATP is used to provide chemical potential energy for carbon fixation and generation of sugars,
while NADPH is used to provide electrons. Both are in the light-independent reactions.
18. Why is the third stage of the Calvin cycle called the regeneration stage?
This is the stage where the reactants (RuBP molecules) are regenerated via the shuffling of carbons
in the different sugar products.
19. Which part of the light-independent reactions would be affected if a cell could not produce the
enzyme RuBisCO?
Carbon fixation – in the transformation of RuBP to PGA – will not take place.
20. Why does it take three turns of the Calvin cycle to produce G3P, the initial product of photosynthesis?
Each turn acquires one carbon from CO2, and G3P contains three carbons, meaning that three
turns will produce a net of one G3P.
21. Give different factors that can affect the process of photosynthesis.
Availability of light in the proper wavelengths, carbon dioxide, and water are main external factors
that can affect photosynthesis.
22. Why are stomata usually more abundant in the lower epidermis of the leaf?
The upper surface is more exposed to direct light. Any stomata located there will cause the rapid
loss of water. Additionally, microbes and parasites tend to settle on the upper leaf surface. These
can enter the stomata and cause disease.
23. What are the effects of different light intensities on the rate of photosynthesis?
A higher light intensity means more photons are hitting the photosystems. A higher light intensity
means faster rate of photosynthesis if the other factors are not considered.
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Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration, p. 162

■ describe the major features and chemical events in the 3 stages of cellular respiration;
■ tabulate the following information for each of the stages: location, input molecules, output
molecules;
■ account for net ATP produced per stage;
■ describe anaerobic respiration and its significance in cellular respiration;
■ differentiate from aerobic respiration; and
■ give examples of practical uses of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.
Lesson 1 GLYCOLYSIS, p. 163
Lesson Overview
Carbohydrates are a primary energy source for most organisms, including plants themselves. The
most common sugar molecule that is catabolized is glucose, in a process called glycolysis. Glycolysis
occurs in two main phases to be discussed in this lesson.
Objective
To explain the biochemical reactions involved in the process of glycolysis
Motivation
Ask the learners about what they do if they get tired or exhausted but they still have a project to
accomplish.
— Normally, tiredness will be remedied by rest. However, energy can be replenished by having a
handy source of carbohydrate (glucose) nearby – candy, bread, etc. This will normally improve
energy levels until the need to sleep comes along.
Learners may be motivated by food in this lesson (such as, they can bring candy)

Outline the process of metabolizing glucose into the cell
— Glucose entry
— Energy-requiring steps, preparatory phase, or the first half of glycolysis
— Energy-releasing steps, payoff phase, or the second half of glycolysis. Note that these steps will
run twice for each glucose molecule.
— The outcome of glycolysis
Explain the rate-limiting steps of glycolysis. These are required to control the energy output of the
cell and to limit glycolysis when energy is already abundant (as ATP).
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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Enzyme naming
— The learners may find the names of the enzymes too confusing and heavy for memorization.
This may be simplified by the following rules. Note that there are a number of enzymes that do
not follow these rules:
• Enzymes are typically named by the SUBSTRATE with the suffix –ase. For example, an
enzyme that processes lactose is called lactase.
• Enzymes can be named according to function. In this case, the name begins with the SUB-
STRATE followed by the FUNCTION. For example:
– Hexokinase = Hexose sugar + kinase (transfers phosphate from ATP to the sugar)
– Triose phosphate isomerase = Triose phosphate + isomerase (performs isomerization)
– Pyruvate kinase = Pyruvate + kinase (transfers phosphate from ATP to pyruvate)
— Special enzyme functions include:
• Kinase: a transferase that transfers the phosphate from ATP to a substrate or vice versa
• Isomerase: converts the substrate to its isomer
• Dehydrogenase: causes a redox reaction to take place. Typically requires NAD+/NADH or
FAD/FADH2
• Mutase: an isomerase that moves the position of one functional group
• Hydrolase: causes a hydrolysis reaction

Since it is essential that the learners be familiar with all the steps, ask the learners to illustrate the
steps of glycolysis in their own words.
Animations of glycolysis can be obtained online and used for a video presentation.
Deepening
Why is there a need to phosphorylate glucose twice before splitting it into two 3-carbon sugars?
— Answer: The addition of phosphate will destabilize the molecule, making the next enzyme able
to break the molecular bond.
Integration
DIABETES: In diabetes, there is too much glucose in the blood. The body’s means to command the
cells to take in glucose is impaired. The cells are actually starved of glucose, while the glucose is unable to
move from the blood to the cells. In diabetic patients, the cells are unable to carry out glycolysis normally.

Ask the learners to explain the control point of ATP in the rate-limiting step (step 3) catalyzed by
phosphofructokinase.
What happens to the glycolytic pathway if oxygen is not available (note: oxygen is required for
NAD+ regeneration).
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What is the significance of the glycolytic pathway and its steps?
Why do rate-limiting steps exist in the glycolytic pathway?
Reflection
I understand the function of the metabolic steps in glycolysis.
I understand the necessity to control the pathway’s activity through several rate-limiting steps.
Lesson 2 KREBS CYCLE, p. 167
Lesson Overview
Glycolysis results in the formation of two molecules of pyruvate from one molecule of glucose.
The next step, citric acid cycle/tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle), further harvests electrons from
pyruvate, ultimately oxidizing it to carbon dioxide. The electrons are transferred to electron carriers
NADH and FADH2.
Objective
To discuss the biochemical reactions in the Krebs cycle
Motivation
Challenge the learners with the following question:
— If plants consume carbon dioxide through the light-independent reactions in photosynthesis,
what biochemical pathway produces carbon dioxide?
— Answer: The CO2 being exhaled by everyone is produced mostly through the Krebs cycle.
(during the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, 1 CO2 is also released) Through the Krebs
cycle, the carbon in the sugars is ultimately converted to CO2.

Discuss the entry of pyruvate to the citric acid cycle/tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle) (through
the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase)
Introduce the steps in the Krebs cycle.
— Outline the purpose of each step and its chemical products
— ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: all steps in the citric acid cycle/tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs
cycle) can be grouped into two main functions:
A. To oxidize the substrate by transferring electrons to an electron carrier (NAD+ or FAD)
B. To prepare the substrate by converting it to a form that can be oxidized
— The Krebs cycle is an oxidative pathway. All the steps focus on the harvest of electrons from
pyruvate and acetyl CoA.
Discuss the products of the Krebs cycle.
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Let the students illustrate the Krebs cycle in their own words.
Ask the learners to summarize the steps in the Krebs cycle.
Following the enzyme naming scheme discussed in the previous lesson (in this teaching manual),
ask the learners to come up with enzyme names for each enzyme catalyzing the steps in the Krebs cycle.
Deepening
If an alternate version of the Krebs cycle exists, but accepts propionyl-CoA (a three-carbon version
of acetyl in acetyl-CoA), how many decarboxylation steps must the Krebs cycle contain?
— Answer: 3 (the number of decarboxylation steps must be equal to the number of carbon atoms
fed into the cycle.
Integration
THE KREBS CYCLE AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phospho-
rylation combined cause the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide, while the generation of glucose from
carbon dioxide and water is due to photosynthesis. In fact, the interconnection between these pathways
explain much of the energy transfer between all photoautotroph-dependent lifeforms on Earth.

Advanced studies: Let the students illustrate the Krebs cycle as connected to the glycolytic pathway
and oxidative phosphorylation pathway. This can be done after the discussion on the electron transport
chain / oxidative phosphorylation.

How do the steps in the Krebs cycle cause the oxidation of the products of glycolysis?
Will the Krebs cycle proceed without oxygen?
Reflection
I now understand the function of each step in the Krebs cycle.
Lesson 3 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION, p. 171
Lesson Overview
Remember all the electrons harvested during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle? These electrons will
now be put to use in the electron transport chain, where a large amount of ATP will be synthesized in a
process that ultimately requires oxygen.
Objectives
To learn the sequence of electron transfers across redox carriers in the electron transport chain
Show in a diagram the chemiosmotic process of ATP synthesis
77
Motivation
ANALOGY: Show the learners a photo or a diagram of a hydroelectric dam. The dam draws energy
from the pool of water behind it. The hydroelectric turbines allow water to move downwards, driving
the turbines and producing electricity.
— In the same way, the mitochondria draw energy from the pool of H+ (protons) in the intermem-
brane space. These protons are drawn by the electrochemical gradient through special molecular
turbines called ATP synthase, which powers the production of ATP. The proton motion through
the ATP synthase is what drives the ATP production.
— The electron transport chain itself serves as a pump to continuously refill the dam of protons.

Discuss the pathway of electrons through the electron transport chain:
— Complex I gets electrons from NADH, transfers them to Coenzyme Q, and pumps 4 protons
into the intermembrane space
— Complex II gets electrons from succinate, through FADH2, transfers them to Coenzyme Q, but
doesn’t pump any proton
— Complex III gets electrons from Coenzyme Q, transfers them to cytochrome C, and pumps 4
protons into the intermembrane space
— Complex IV gets electrons from cytochrome C, transfers them to oxygen (forming H2O) and
pumps 4 protons into the intermembrane space
— ATP synthase uses the proton gradient to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: ATP synthase works like a turbine – it has protein subunits that
actually rotate on a shaft. Videos of ATP synthase in action are available online.
Discuss the ATP yield of NADH and FADH2, and the total ATP yields of the catabolic pathways
discussed in this chapter.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Whenever a cell stops ATP synthesis for an extended amount of
time, the cell will die. This is unlike a battery-powered gadget that does not break even if it runs out of
power. The interior of a cell is a dynamic environment that will be disrupted if not for the continuous
maintenance powered by ATP.

Let the students illustrate the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain on their own words.
Research: Let the students search for animations on how the electron transport chain works
78
Deepening
Poisons: Many highly toxic substances inhibit the electron transport chain. When ATP synthesis is
disrupted across a large number of cells, the organism will die.
— An example is cyanide, causing cyanide poisoning. Cyanide is used in the extraction of gold,
and as an agent of suicide and murder in World War II and the Cold War. Cyanide works by
disabling Complex IV or cytochrome c oxidase of the electron transport chain.
— Ask the learners to deduce the sequence of events that would disable the electron transport chain
due to cyanide poisoning.
Integration
EVOLUTION: the Cambrian explosion. Evidence of simple life on Earth was detected dating back
about 4 billion years ago. However, 542 million years ago, there occurred a sudden, large increase in
the number and complexity of organisms and fossils of these were unearthed. This corresponds to the
Cambrian explosion – an accelerated evolution of many different kinds of multicellular life.
— The current explanation for the Cambrian explosion is the accumulation of oxygen in the Earth’s
atmosphere as a waste product of early photosynthesis by cyanobacteria. The available oxygen
enabled the high energy output of the electron transport chain, causing life to adapt to higher
levels of physical and reproductive activity, and to colonize previously inaccessible environments
on Earth.

What will happen if holes or channels (that allow H+ to pass through) form in the intermembrane
space of the mitochondria? Will it increase or decrease the efficiency of ATP synthesis? Explain.
— ATP synthesis efficiency will decrease, and the energy will be released as heat. The H+ will
diffuse through the membrane, bypassing ATP synthase.

What roles do electron carriers do in the electron transport chain? What are these electron carriers?
What is the coupling between the proton pump mechanism in the different electron transport chain
complexes and ATP synthase?
How does oxidative phosphorylation consume oxygen?
What happens to ATP synthesis if one step of the electron transport chain is blocked or inhibited?
Reflection
I can understand the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain.
I have learned how the body makes most of its ATP.
79
Lesson 4 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION, p. 176
Lesson Overview
When oxygen is not available, many pathways will shut down due to the shortage of NAD+. In order
to counter this, the process of fermentation regenerates NAD+ via several means.
Objectives
To perform the process of anaerobic respiration thru fermentation
To cite the different applications of fermentation
Motivation
Ask the learners if they have experienced muscle soreness or fatigue after strenuous exercise. This
soreness is attributed to the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle, due to insufficient oxygen (O2 is
being used up faster than the rate at which the blood can transport it). However, according to the textbook
(and recent evidence), it may not be the true cause.
WINE-MAKING PROJECT: Making wine is a popular topic of investigatory projects at this level.
Several methods are available online and on biology laboratory manuals. It typically involves adding
brewer’s yeast to pasteurize fruit juice containing sugar, and allowing the mixture to ferment without
oxygen for several days or weeks.

Discuss the necessity for fermentation. Why does NAD+ run out when oxygen is not available?
— Answer: NAD+ is usually regenerated during oxidative phosphorylation, which has oxygen as
the terminal electron acceptor.
Discuss the types of fermentation and their applications:
— Lactic acid fermentation and exercise
— Alcohol fermentation and the production of alcoholic beverages

In performing any fermentation activity (such as wine-making), ask the learners to provide
diagrams on the process of brewing, they can ask their parents or neighbors on the indigenous way
of preparing wines.
Deepening
Let the learners answer Art Connection (p.177)
Clostridium botulinum is a cause of botulism, a fatal food poisoning. Explain why botulism is common
in improperly canned or bottled food, and almost nonexistent in unpackaged food.
— Answer: Clostridium botulinum requires the absence of oxygen to grow and multiply.
80
Integration
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES: There are many varieties of alcoholic beverages in the world. Most
of these are developed locally in many cultures and are a subject of different local customs and tradi-
tions. The yeast is naturally-occurring (meaning no inoculation or sterilization is required in traditional
methods). However, science has developed standardized means to improve the quality of these products.
CHEMISTRY: The yeast can only produce so much ethanol before it is inactivated (killed) by its
own waste product (according to the textbook, 5-21% (depending on the strain of yeast). To achieve a
higher concentration of ethanol (such as in whisky, gin, and brandy), distillation is performed.
INDUSTRY: Alcohol fermentation is used in different substrates to make bioethanol, which is
incorporated into fuel to reduce the carbon footprint of automobile transport.

What will happen to a wine-making factory if oxygen accidentally makes its way into the fermen-
tation tanks?
— Answer: The yeast will produce less alcohol (or none at all, if the oxygen is sufficient).

How does fermentation save the cell from running out of ATP in low-oxygen conditions?
Reflection
I can understand how and why fermentation occurs.
I can understand the different applications of fermentation.

Cellular respiration is an energy harvesting process that transfers the chemical energy from glucose
and other substrates to ATP. Glucose is processed by the cell into pyruvate via (1). This process begins
with energy-requiring steps that consume ATP, while the next half generate energy and usable electrons.
Glucose is ultimately broken down into two molecules of (2), with a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
The pyruvate moves to the next step where it is decarboxylated and becomes bound to (3), forming
Acetyl CoA. This is processed via the (4) where the acetyl initially reacts/condenses with oxaloacetate,
forming (5). Several rounds of oxidation and (6) to remove 2 molecules of CO2, the oxaloacetate is
regenerated. One round of the Krebs cycle produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 equivalent, plus a GTP or
an ATP molecule. The Krebs cycle takes place in the (7).
The electron transport chain utilizes the electrons in the NADH and FADH2 to power proton pumps.
The electron transport chain is composed of four complexes. Complexes I and II acquire electrons from
NADH and FADH2, respectively, and transfer the electrons to (8). Complex III transfers electrons from
Coenzyme Q to (9). Complex IV transfers electrons from cytochrome C to (10), forming water. All except
Complex II pump protons to the (11). This accumulation of protons drive the protein (12), which creates
ATP from ADP and phosphate using the potential energy of H+ diffusion.
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All this is possible with the use of oxygen as the final electron acceptor. If oxygen is scarce such as
in (13) conditions, the (14) must be regenerated to continue glycolysis. The pyruvate is reduced to (15)
via this method in humans. In yeast, this results in the production of (16).
Choices:
pyruvate Coenzyme A Coenzyme Q
ATP synthase cytochrome C ethanol
NAD+ mitochondrial matrix intermembrane space
oxygen glycolysis decarboxylation
anaerobic citrate Krebs cycle
lactic acid

Cellular respiration is an energy harvesting process that transfers the chemical energy from glucose and
other substrates to ATP. Glucose is processed by the cell into pyruvate via (1) glycolysis. This process begins
with energy-requiring steps that consume ATP, while the next half generate energy and usable electrons.
Glucose is ultimately broken down into two molecules of (2) pyruvate, with a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
The pyruvate moves to the next step where it is decarboxylated and becomes bound to (3) Coen-
zyme A, forming Acetyl CoA. This is processed via the (4) Krebs cycle where the acetyl initially reacts/
condenses with oxaloacetate, forming (5) citrate. Several rounds of oxidation and (6) decarboxylation
to remove 2 molecules of CO2, the oxaloacetate is regenerated. One round of the Krebs cycle produces
3 NADH and 1 FADH2 equivalent, plus a GTP or an ATP molecule. The Krebs cycle takes place in the
(7) mitochondrial matrix.
The electron transport chain utilizes the electrons in the NADH and FADH2 to power proton pumps.
The electron transport chain is composed of four complexes. Complexes I and II acquire electrons from
NADH and FADH2, respectively, and transfer the electrons to (8) Coenzyme Q. Complex III transfers
electrons from Coenzyme Q to (9) cytochrome C. Complex IV transfers electrons from cytochrome C
to (10) oxygen, forming water. All except Complex II pump protons to the (11) intermembrane space.
This accumulation of protons drive the protein (12) ATP synthase, which creates ATP from ADP and
phosphate using the potential energy of H+ diffusion.
All this is possible with the use of oxygen as the final electron acceptor. If oxygen is scarce such as
in (13) anaerobic conditions, the (14) NAD+ must be regenerated to continue glycolysis. The pyruvate is
reduced to (15) lactic acid via this method in humans. In yeast, this results in the production of (16) ethanol.

Dinitrophenol (DNP) is an uncoupler that makes the inner mitochondrial membrane leaky to pro-
tons. It was used until 1938 as a weight-loss drug. What effect would you expect DNP to have on the
change in pH across the inner mitochondrial membrane? Why do you think this might be an effective
weight-loss drug?
The pH will increase due to the loss of protons from the intermembrane space.
Since uncoupling results in less ATP effectively gained for the same amount of food, weight loss is
expected with its use.
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Cyanide inhibits complex IV or cytochrome c oxidase, a component of the electron transport chain. If
cyanide poisoning occurs, would you expect the pH of the intermembrane space to increase or decrease?
What effect would cyanide have on ATP synthesis?
Cyanide stops the electron transport chain and thus the pumping of protons into the intermembrane
space. The pH will increase. ATP synthesis thru oxidative phosphorylation will stop.

Tremetol, a metabolic poison found in the white snake root plant, prevents the metabolism of lactate.
When cows eat this plant, it is concentrated in the milk they produce. Humans who consume the milk
become ill. Symptoms of this disease, which include vomiting, abdominal pain, and tremors, become
worse after exercise. Why do you think this is the case?
If tremetol prevents lactate from being recovered and removed, then lactate will accumulate in
the blood and muscles, causing the above symptoms. Exercise, being a lactate-generating activity (if
anaerobic) will worsen the symptoms.
Review Questions
4. The energy currency used by cells is:
a. ATP c. AMP
b. ADP d. adenosine
5. A reducing chemical reaction:

a. reduces the compound to a simpler form
b. adds an electron to the substrate
c. removes a hydrogen atom from the substrate
d. is a catabolic reaction
6. What occurs during the second half of glycolysis?

a. ATP is used up. c. ATP is made.
b. Fructose is split in two. d. Glucose becomes fructose.
7. What is removed from pyruvate during its conversion into an acetyl group?
a. oxygen c. B vitamin
b. ATP d. carbon dioxide
8. What do the electrons added to NAD+ do?

a. They become part of a fermentation pathway.
b. They go to another pathway for ATP production.
c. They energize the entry of the acetyl group into the citric acid cycle.
d. They are converted to NADP.
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9. GTP or ATP is produced during the conversion of:
a. isocitrate into α-ketoglutarate c. fumarate into malate
b. succinyl CoA into succinate d. malate into oxaloacetate
10. How many NADH molecules are produced on each turn of the citric acid cycle?
a. one c. three
b. two d. four
11. What compound receives electrons from NADH?

a. FMN c. cytochrome
b. ubiquinone c1 d. oxygen
12. Chemiosmosis involves:

a. the movement of electrons across the cell membrane
b. the movement of hydrogen atoms across a mitochondrial membrane
c. the movement of hydrogen ions across a mitochondrial membrane
d. the movement of glucose through the cell membrane
13. Which of the following fermentation methods can occur in animal skeletal muscles?
a. lactic acid fermentation c. mixed acid fermentation
b. alcohol fermentation d. propionic fermentation

14. Why is it beneficial for cells to use ATP rather than energy directly from the bonds of carbohydrates?
Energy from carbohydrates require a large input of activation energy before the stored energy
can be released. On the other hand, ATP readily releases energy to any reaction that requires it.
What are the greatest drawbacks to harnessing energy directly from the bonds of several dif-
ferent compounds?
Harnessing energy directly from bonds entails (1) more complex enzymes to couple the reactions
to other processes and (2) the requirement of activation energy to start the reactions
15. Nearly all organisms on earth carry out some form of glycolysis. How does that fact support or not
support the assertion that glycolysis is one of the oldest metabolic pathways?
If the enzymes for glycolysis are conserved across many organisms, then it supports that glycolysis
is an ancient pathway – it may have evolved before other pathways. However, it is possible that
convergent evolution resulting in similar sugar-consuming pathways has occurred. In this case, we
do not expect the enzymes to be similar or conserved across different organisms.
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16. Red blood cells do not perform aerobic respiration, but they do perform glycolysis. Why do all cells
need an energy source, and what would happen if glycolysis were blocked in a red blood cell?
Cells, at the very least, require energy to maintain their internal environment. As a red blood cell has
no mitochondria, oxidative phosphorylation is not possible. RBCs will degrade rapidly if glycolysis
were blocked.
17. What is the primary difference between a circular pathway and a linear pathway?
A linear pathway results in the transformation of reactants into products, while some of the reac-
tants are regenerated in a circular pathway.
18. How do the roles of ubiquinone and cytochrome c differ from the other components of the electron
transport chain?
Ubiquinone and cytochrome C are electron carriers that shuttle electrons across different electron
transport chain complexes. Unlike the complexes, these are freely mobile.
19. What accounts for the different number of ATP molecules that are formed through cellular respiration?
In some situations, the proton gradient is not directly converted to ATP – such as in cases where
uncouplers are present. The ratio of H+ to ATP generated is not always exact, but differs depending
on the cell.
Additionally, the sources of NADH / FADH2 can differ – some consume more ATP than others.
This ATP will be subtracted from the net ATP generated via oxidative phosphorylation.
Some products of glycolysis and other catabolic pathways are not fed into the electron transport
chain, but instead are processed to make different metabolites that are needed by the cell.
20. What is the primary difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration?
Fermentation occurs when NAD+ is regenerated by an alternative means as a way to compensate
for the lack of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration occurs via fermentation OR the use of an alternate final electron acceptor
that does not depend on oxygen (such as sulfate, etc.)
21. Why do we still need energy when we sleep?

All bodily systems stay active even during sleep; thus, energy is still required.
22. What are the causes of fatigue and muscular pains?

Some studies point to the accumulation of lactate in the muscles as the culprit.
Some muscle pains and fatigue are due to the loss of electrolytes or vitamins needed for energy
production
The inability to generate ATP – needed to restart the movement of muscle actin-myosin bun-
dles – results in impaired movement.
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23. Would you describe metabolic pathways as inherently wasteful or inherently economical, and why?
The pathways are inherently economical, overall. An inefficient pathway will be subject to natural
selection and is likely to be removed and replaced by more efficient means.
Trivia: human metabolism is several times more efficient than a car’s internal combustion
engine for comparison.
24. How does citrate from the citric acid cycle affect glycolysis?
Citrate inhibits glycolytic enzymes (specifically, phosphofructokinase 1), thus slowing down the
process of glycolysis
25. Why might negative feedback mechanisms be more common than positive feedback mechanisms
in living cells?
Negative feedback results in the maintenance of a physiological parameter (such as solute con-
centration or temperature) within set limits by counteracting any destabilization. Thus, it is much
more relevant to homeostasis.
86
Teacher's Note
87
Teacher's Note
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AVISSAR • CHOI • DESAIX •

JURUKOVSKI • WISE • RYE

Copyright © 2016 by Vibal Group, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in

Published and printed by Vibal Group, Inc. with main office at

Regional Offices: 0290 Nivel Hills, Lahug, Cebu City

32 Chapter 1 Biological Macromolecules 33

Evolution Connection Activity

Scientific Method Connection

106 Chapter 4 Cell Division 107

Ties biological concepts to emerging issues and discuss science in

terms of everyday life

Branches of Biological Study

Presents information on a variety of careers in the biological

sciences, introducing students to the educational requirements Forensic Scientist

and day-to-day work life of a variety of professions, such as

Introduction to Biology: The Study of Life 5

add a fuller context and examples to core content

8. Which of the following sequences represents the hierarchy of biological

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

The Endomembrane System

the classroom, engage students’ critical thinking and analytical

Unit I Chemistry and Structure of the Cell••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7

Chapter 2 Cellular Structure ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20

Unit II Basic Cellular Processes ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31

Chapter 4 Cell Division •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 43

Chapter 6 Photosynthesis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 65

Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 74

Lesson 1 THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY, p. 3

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Remediation and Reinforcement

Processing and Generalizing

Lesson 2 THEMES AND CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGY, p. 7

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Remediation and Reinforcement

Processing and Generalizing

Introductory Chapter Answer Key:

2. Which of the following sciences is not considered a natural science?

4. Viruses are not considered living because they:

5. The presence of a membrane-enclosed organelle is a characteristic of:

Critical Thinking Questions

Chapter 1: Biological Macromolecules, p. 13

Lesson 1 SYNTHESIS OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES, p. 14

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Remediation and Reinforcement

Processing and Generalizing

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Processing and Generalizing

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Remediation and Reinforcement

Processing and Generalizing

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Processing and Generalizing

Presentation of Content/Reading Materials

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Remediation and Reinforcement

Chapter 1: Diagnostic Test

6. An example of a monosaccharide is: