125 Organisational Development

Organisational
Development
(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)

2019
Programme Coordinator
Dr. Padmpriya Irabatti
Course Design and Review Committee

Prof. Dr. Prasanna Deshmukh Prof. Dr. Asha Nagendra
Prof. Vijay Masarkar Prof. Sudhir Sant
Prof. Debashish Dutta Prof. P. A. Noronha
Mr. Rajendra B. Sabnis Prof. Safia Farooqui
Course Writer
Vishwanath Joshi
EDITOR
Ms. Neha Mule
Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune

July, 2006 (Revision 02, 2014)
Copyright © 2019 Symbiosis Open Education Society

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval
system without written permission from the publisher.
Acknowledgement
Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of materials reproduced in this book. Should any
infringement have occurred, SCDL apologises for the same and will be pleased to make necessary corrections
in future editions of this book.
PREFACE
My greetings to all the users of this compilation!
All achievements worth the mention are difficult and challenging. Writing this study material on
Organisation Development was no exception. Organisation Development as an area of study has been
going through multitude of changes based on not just the business environment but also the socio-
cultural norms of the environment. Today, OD Interventions are highly customised to address very
specific issues connected with each organisation. Cultural change was and shall never be easy for any
organisation. It will demand very special expertise, not just to manage the organisation bottom-line
but also to keep the people side of business in balance.
With the increasing and unique challenges confronted by business organisations, the role,
definition and strategies of OD also are changing constantly. To keep pace with this, OD Consultants
have been adapting, personally and professionally to keep the discipline growing. In these
circumstances, preparing this study material was like putting a sea of knowledge into a pot of a bound
book.
I have attempted to cover all the critical concepts connected with this field to get you started
into this long and unending, but exciting, journey of Organisation Development. Given its vastness,
I ardently recommend that you also refer OD journals and texts to strengthen your knowledge of OD
concepts and application. This study material is a conglomeration of the thoughts of various thinkers,
behavioural scientists and gurus of organisational development.
It is an honest and humble attempt to clear the basic concepts related to the subject for the students
of OD.
Happy Reading!
Vishwanath Joshi
iii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Vishwanath Joshi is a Post Graduate in Human Resource Management from Pune University.
Spanning his career of more than 8 years, he has worked with IT consulting organizations like
Mahindra Consulting, Patni and KPIT Cummins Infosystems Ltd., Pune. Before taking up the role of
Head – Training with Brainvisa Technologies, an e-learning solutions company, he was heading HR
with UBICS, a UB group IT consulting and products company in Pune.
He has also consulted with Infosys Technologies Ltd., one of the largest and reputed IT consulting
organizations in India, as a Certified Trainer on behavioural skills for their software professionals.
He is also associated with Corporate Learning Centres like National Insurance Academy, a training
institution for all insurance organizations in the country as a trainer-faculty in various HR as well as
behavioural areas.
His current role at Brainvisa, Pune is largely focused on designing and executing organization wide
training processes and interventions in Managerial and behavioural areas.
Overall, he has more than five years experience in designing and delivering value based programs
like High Impact Communication skills, Customer Orientation and Management, Telephone
Communication, Managing Relationships, Mentoring and Coaching etc. for a variety of participant
profile.
He is also involved in designing and delivering high-end Executive Education programs at Wipro,
Mphasis, Infosys, Intel, Reliance Infostream, EXL Services, Cognizant Technology Solutions etc. in
areas of People Management processes and skills for last five years.
His association with Symbiosis is now more than five years old.
iv
CONTENTS
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
1. Organisation 1 - 10
1.1 Organisation: Meaning and Definition
1.2 Need for Organisation
1.3 Classification of Organisations
1.4 Characteristics of Organisation
1.5 Development
Summary
Key words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
2. Organisation Change and Organisational Development 11 - 32
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Need for Change
2.3 Factors influencing Change
2.4 Barriers to Change
2.5 Planned vs. Unplanned Change
2.6 Elements of Organisation that yield to Change
2.7 A Model for managing Change
2.8 Organisational Development as a Change Strategy
2.9 Organisational Development and other Change Strategies
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
v
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
3. Characteristics of Organisational Development 33 - 52
3.1 Definition of Organisational Development
3.2 Characteristics of Organisational Development
3.3 Objectives of OD
3.4 Relevance of OD
3.5 Historical Development of OD
3.6 OD in the Present Context
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
4. Organisational Development: Foundation and Research 53 - 76
4.1 Foundations of OD
4.2 Models and Theories of Planned Change
4.3 Systems Theory
4.4 Participation and Empowerment
4.5 Teams and Teamwork
4.6 Parallel Learning Structures
4.7 Normative (Re-educative) Strategy of Changing
4.8 Applied Behavioural Science
4.9 Action Research
4.10 Introduction to the OD Process
4.11 Definition of Organisational Diagnosis
4.12 Weisboard Six Box Model of Diagnosis
4.13 Different Aspects of Diagnosis
4.14 Designing the Research Study
4.15 Techniques for Data Collection
4.16 Important Aspects of Diagnostic Process
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
vi
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
5. Action Research and OD 77 - 90
5.1 Introduction and Definition of Action Research
5.2 Action Research Model
5.3 Features of Action Research
5.4 Example: Unproductive Meetings
5.5 Varieties of Action Research
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
6. Interventions 91 - 114
6.1 Introduction and Definition
6.2 Need for Interventions
6.3 Factors in Planning and Implementing OD Intervention
6.4 Classification of OD Interventions
6.5 Results of OD Interventions
6.6 Successful Intervention
6.7 T-Groups
6.8 Behaviour Modelling
6.9 Life and Career planning
6.10 Life Goals Exercise
6.11 The Collage and other Life Goal Exercises
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
vii
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
7. Team Interventions 115 - 144
7.1 Teams and Work Groups: Strategic Units of the Organisation
7.2 Cross-functional Teams
7.3 Importance of Teams as Building Blocks of the Organisation
7.4 Effective Teams
7.5 Broad Team Building Interventions
7.6 Formal Group Diagnostic Meetings
7.7 Formal Group Team-Building Meeting
7.8 Process Consultation Interventions (PC)
7.9 Techniques and Exercises used in Team-Building
7.10 Interdependency Exercise
7.11 Role Negotiation Technique (RNT)
7.12 The Appreciation and Concerns Exercise
7.13 Responsibility Charting
7.14 Force Field Analysis
7.15 Visioning
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
8. Intergroup and Third Party Peacemaking Interventions and Structural 145 - 168
Interventions
8.1 Introduction to Group Interventions
8.2 Intergroup Team Building Interventions
8.3 Principled Negotiations
8.4 Third Party Peacemaking Interventions
8.5 Organisation Mirror Intervention
8.6 Introduction to Comprehensive Interventions
8.7 Socio-Technical Systems (STS)
8.8 Work Re-design
8.9 Quality of Work Life Projects
8.10 Quality Circles
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
viii
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
9. Organisation-Wide Interventions 169 - 192
9.1 Nature of Organisation wide Interventions
9.2 System and Culture Change
9.3 Survey Feedback
9.4 Grid Organisation Development
9.5 Goal setting and Management by Objectives
9.6 Total Quality Management
9.7 Business Process Reengineering
9.8 Trans-Organisational Development
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
10. Change Agents and Emerging Issues in OD 193 - 216
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Comparing Internal and External Change Agents
10.3 Building Trust in Working Relationships
10.4 Competencies of an OD Consultant
10.5 The international Organisation Development Code of Ethics
10.6 Ethical Issues and Guidelines for OD Professionals
10.7 Issues in Consultant - Client Relationship
10.8 The Dependency Issue and terminating the Relationship
10.9 Implications of OD for the Client
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
ix
Unit
TITLE Page No.
No.
11. Power and Politics and Organisation Development 217 - 230
11.1 Meaning and Definition of Power
11.2 Bases of Power
11.3 Organisational Politics
11.4 Diagnosing Political Power in Organisations
11.5 Power Tactics
11.6 The Role of Power and Politics in the Practice of OD
11.7 Operating in a Political Environment
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
x
Organisation
UNIT
1
Structure:
1.1 Organisation: Meaning and Definition

1.2 Need for Organisation
1.3 Classification of Organisations
1.4 Characteristics of Organisation
1.5 Development
Summary
Key words
Suggested Reading
Organisation 1
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
---------------------- After going through this unit, you will be able to:
●● Define Organisation
----------------------
●● State the need for organisation
---------------------- ●● Classify Organisation based on various parameters
---------------------- ●● Explain various characteristics of organisation
----------------------
----------------------
1.1 ORGANISATION: MEANING AND DEFINITION
---------------------- Organisation is a social system deliberately established to carry out some

definite purpose or goal. In some organisations, these goals are articulated in
---------------------- a well-documented form while in other organisations they are quoted verbally
and duly expressed by the top management. All organisations work towards
---------------------- achieving their objectives. These objectives could be categorised as Primary
---------------------- objectives and Secondary objectives. Primary objectives are those objectives
for which an organisation has been formed. Secondary objectives are those
---------------------- which are incidental to primary or main objectives.
---------------------- Even though organisations begin with set objectives subsequently it has to
be in consistence with changing situations. Accordingly depending upon needs
---------------------- these objectives can and often do undergo change over a period of time. The
ability of an organisation to redefine these objectives in the context of dynamic
---------------------- situation holds the key for its survival and growth. It is not necessary for any
---------------------- organisation that these purposes or objectives should be permanently defined
but what is important is their adaptability to environmental needs. However, it
---------------------- is essential that at any given time, an organisation is to function with a specified
and clear purpose, without which it will be reduced to a degenerated collectivity.
----------------------
To accomplish these goals organisations start acquiring different resources.
---------------------- Human resource is the most important of all these resources. Organisations
essentially need members with specific skills through which they contribute
----------------------
in achieving organisational purpose. Basically all the employees have to
---------------------- have minimum technical skills. These are important because they are hired
for these specific tasks which include elements of technical nature. However,
---------------------- only technical skills required to work at operating level are not enough. These
need be supported with supervisory skills and also managerial skills, customer
----------------------
relations skills and likewise.
---------------------- Hence, depending on the situation people working in the organisation
have to effectively practice technical skills, supervisory skill, the managerial
----------------------
skills, customer relations skills and likewise. These could be developed through
---------------------- suitable training.
----------------------
2 Organisational Development
1.2 NEED FOR ORGANISATION Notes
Organisations are known by their leadership and the human resource they ----------------------
have.
----------------------
Every organisation needs good people to run it effectively. This has
assumed importance to the human element. Basically Man is a social animal. ----------------------
He is different from all other species on this earth as he has been gifted with the
power of brain and mind. He basically loves to be associated with others and ----------------------
share his feelings with them. He primarily wants to be a part of society. It is his ----------------------
desire of association that leads to formation of groups. These groups may be
formal or informal. ----------------------
Formal groups are those which are created because of organisational ----------------------
structural relationship. Their basic need is to carry out assigned tasks. Official
relations get developed because of interdependency of work. They are often ----------------------
more demanding.
----------------------
A majority of jobs cannot be performed alone. Help of others is needed.
Hence, various groups are required to be formed to carry out multiple activities. ----------------------
This need of association brings various groups together to create groups in
----------------------
organisation. Thus, groups create organisations.
Similarly, organisations also create groups. These are its essential features. ----------------------
We come across various organisations in our day to day life. Perhaps, our family
----------------------
is the first and foremost organisation that we deal with.
In every organisation there is a variety of skills and talents available ----------------------
within it. Since the diversity of skills available in the organisation needs to be
----------------------
made use of most effectively, it is necessary for organisations to have work
divisions based on specialisation. ----------------------
This further creates the need for group formations. Each group can be ----------------------
assigned the responsibility of achieving certain sub objectives of the organisation.
Each group in itself needs to be bound by formalised work division amongst ----------------------
members, co-ordinations of their activities, well-defined rules, and procedures
governing their working relationships and communication modes. ----------------------
Organisations also need to have hierarchies of authority and accountability. ----------------------

Someone in a group is accountable for the output of all members of the group.
He or she is vested with a certain degree of authority to be able to plan, assign ----------------------
task, monitor and control the group’s activities. The members of the group start ----------------------
“reporting” to him and he, in turn, reports, to another person higher up in the
hierarchy and so on. The pyramids of the organisation thus take shape. This ----------------------
structure may be either formal or informal. In fact informal organisations also
operate within formal organisations. ----------------------
Organisational Structure is created to demonstrate the level of position ----------------------

and authority. It is also required for ease of operations. Modern Management
practices believe in de-layering and cutting down the organisational structure ----------------------
to a minimum level. Technology has progressively enabled emergence of ----------------------
Organisation 3
Notes flatter hierarchies; however, no technology has, as yet, eliminated the need
for hierarchies in organisation. In fact, most bureaucratic organisations cannot
---------------------- function without hierarchy.
----------------------
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISATIONS
----------------------
Multiple organisations operate in this universe. Hence, it is very difficult
---------------------- to classify all of them. However, they can be attempted to be broadly classified
on the basis of various features and characteristics, such as size. In such a case
---------------------- size of capital investment and manpower are the key parameters.
---------------------- I. Based on size
---------------------- i. Small Organisations
These can be small or tiny organisations i.e. having small manpower
----------------------
and a limited or small capital base.
----------------------
Examples of small organisations are Household business,
Goldsmiths, Weavers, Handicrafts, Embroidery, Food articles, etc.
----------------------
ii. Medium Organisations
----------------------
Medium organisations are those which are neither very large nor
---------------------- too small. They have moderate manpower and limited capital
investments.
----------------------
iii. Large Organisations
----------------------
Large organisations are those which have a very large capital base,
---------------------- high annual turnover and normally large manpower. However, in
these days of automation Manpower base need not be very large.
---------------------- Thus, their turnover and capital base is very high.
---------------------- II. Based on Ownership
---------------------- hese could be Own, Private, Partnership, Co-Operative, Government

T
Department, Government Undertaking, Corporations, Boards, Public
---------------------- Limited Companies etc.
---------------------- III. Based on Legal Status

I ndividuals, Hindu Undivided Family, Partnership Firms, Limited
---------------------- Company, Co-Operatives, Corporations etc
---------------------- IV. Based on Geography
---------------------- egions, i.e., area of operation –Local, Regional, National, Multi National,
R
Global, etc.
----------------------
V. Based on Purpose
---------------------- rganisations based on political, social, religious, educational, cultural,
O
---------------------- charitable etc. agendas.
----------------------
VI. Based on Service Notes
rganisations such as hospitals, hospitality, schools, airlines-aviation,
O
----------------------
state that are based on services.
VII. Based on Administrative Objective ----------------------
rganisations based on administrative objectives such as the Collectorate,
O ----------------------
Police, Military, Electricity Boards etc.
----------------------
VIII. Based on Commercial use
rganisations such as Factories, Shops, Malls, Super markets etc. fall on
O ----------------------
this category. ----------------------
hus, various classifications of organisations can be made and it is also
T
possible to further sub classify them in a number of ways. Understanding ----------------------
the classification of organisation is very important as all activities of any ----------------------
organisation are directed in such a manner that they support the basic
cause for which organisations come into being and then ensuring that ----------------------
the organisations are performing in consistence with its classification.
These become the areas of focus for any organisation. For example, if ----------------------
an organisation is labelled as charitable and religious it attracts a specific ----------------------
group of people who are in need of these services.
----------------------
eople look at Courts as a source of justice and solving multiple
P
disputes through judicial authority. Local administration is responsible ----------------------
for maintaining law and order and also for providing basic amenities to
people. But in case of Business organisations the class it attracts is likely ----------------------
to be entirely different.
----------------------
Nature of organisations
----------------------
It may further be noted that since organisations are social systems,
activities therein are governed by social laws as well as psychological laws. ----------------------
Just like people, they have social roles and status. Their behaviour is influenced
by their group as well as by individual drives. ----------------------
In fact, two types of social systems exist side by side in organisations. ----------------------
One is the formal (official social system) and the other is the informal social
system. ----------------------
Organisations may be either temporary or permanent. ----------------------

Temporary organisations are formed to accomplish a task which is of ----------------------
temporary nature. They get formed to achieve a purpose and normally either get
dissolved or stop functioning once the task is over and the purpose is achieved. ----------------------
Conferences and seminars are examples of these types as well as Ganesh
----------------------
festival, Durga Pooja Committees.
On the other hand, there are permanent organisations which exist for a ----------------------
very long span of time, for years together. Even in Permanent Organisations all
----------------------
its members may not be permanent. Some of the members may be replaced or
changed. For example, Lok Sabha is a permanent organisation but its members ----------------------
Organisation 5
Notes are changed every five years by way of General elections. Organisations may
continue with some members of the old group/people. But the basic character
---------------------- of an organisation does not undergo any major change. Basic values and beliefs
may change with the passage of time. For example, organisations created for
---------------------- freedom fighting are today political parties. Understanding this background is
---------------------- necessary for us to deal with organisations.
---------------------- Check your Progress 1

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Who has the greatest influence on the formation of organisation
---------------------- values?
---------------------- i. Top Management

ii. Employees attitude
----------------------
iii. Social system
----------------------
iv. Customers
---------------------- 2. Collectorate, Police, Military, Electricity Boards are the example of
organisations based on:
----------------------
i. Services
----------------------
ii. Administrative purpose
----------------------
iii. Commercial use
---------------------- iv. Legal status
---------------------- 3. What basic skills are required from the members for achieving
organisational purpose?
----------------------
i. Minimum Technical skills
---------------------- ii. Research and Development aptitude
---------------------- iii. Decision making skills
---------------------- iv. Public relations skills
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 1
---------------------- Choose any ten organisations you know well. Classify them on the
basis of the above points discussed in 1.3. Write down the purpose of each
----------------------
organisation in a few lines.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISATION Notes
All organisations have the following characteristics: ----------------------
i) Social Group: Every organisation is a social group. It consists of persons of ----------------------
different castes, creeds, religions, etc. It is therefore necessary to maintain a
balance of all these factors. Individuals operate in social environment. ----------------------
ii) Definite Purpose: Each organisation has a definite purpose. A specific ----------------------
need is a basic purpose due to which an organisation is established. For
example, a temple offers religious services and is a place of worship. ----------------------
Universities, colleges and schools are established to basically impart
education to desirous students. A hospital is opened to render medical ----------------------
facilities to patients. ----------------------
iii) Dynamic Nature: Organisations are dynamic in nature. They cannot
----------------------
be too rigid. They have to change with times. They have to incorporate
current trends in their functioning. ----------------------
iv) External Factors: Every organisation is influenced by external factors
----------------------
which operate in the environment. These external factors could be political
conditions, economic situations, climatic conditions, social atmosphere ----------------------
etc All these have a definite impact on the organisation.
----------------------
v) Definite Structure: Normally the structure of an organisation is well
defined. Persons holding various posts are well specified. These authorities ----------------------
may or may not be registered or published. It clearly demonstrates who is
responsible for what type of activities. ----------------------
vi) Human Behaviour: Human beings are an essential element of any ----------------------
organisation. One cannot ignore the basic nature of any individual in
organisational working. Hence people bring with them different ideas, ----------------------
ways of working, different perceptions about the same subject, policies, ----------------------
culture, likes and dislikes etc.
vii) Performance Behaviour: Organisations are influenced by the behaviour ----------------------
of its members. Members work together to exhibit performance. Norms ----------------------
of performance have to be clearly established.
viii) Values: An organisation has value systems of its own, which get formed ----------------------
over a period of time through a mix of societal values, influence of ----------------------
systems, imperatives of the organisational beliefs and attitudes of all
members, particularly the top management whose perceptions have the ----------------------
greatest influence. These are the typical characteristics of all organisations.
Any manager, academician or researcher should take cognizance of this ----------------------
characteristic when dealing with an organisation. ----------------------
An organisation is not merely a mechanical entity; rather explain it as
----------------------
an organic entity. Drawing an analogy with the human body, the structure
represents the anatomy while the processors represent the physiology of an ----------------------
organisation. The structural aspects include, for instance, job designs, work
levels, authority relationship and work methods. The processes include, on ----------------------
Organisation 7
Notes the other hand, the nature of information flow and communications within the
organisations, control and coordination functions etc.
----------------------
It is also important to mention behavioural aspect of organisations, which
---------------------- are akin to human behaviour, continuing with the analogy of the organisation
with the human body. These include factors such as motivation, leadership, and
---------------------- job satisfaction.
----------------------
1.5 DEVELOPMENT
----------------------
Thus having understood the nature of organisation, it is equally essential
---------------------- to understand the exact meaning of development. Development means basically
to improve, increase and to grow. Improvement or growth also has various
---------------------- dimensions. For example, when a child grows he / she adds to age, height,
---------------------- weight, education, habits, and mental capacity and so on.
Hence, when we talk of development we must be sure as to what type
----------------------
of development we are planning and aiming at. Growth may be vertical or
---------------------- horizontal. A child gaining height is a vertical growth. A child gaining weight is
a horizontal growth. The same analogy applies to organisations. Organisations
---------------------- may only grow in turnover and profits. They may not expand in operations or
employment. Sometimes manpower may increase but profitability may be very
----------------------
low.
---------------------- Growth may involve diversifications and diversities. It may take place
in same product or services or there may be altogether a change of the product
----------------------
in the same category. For example, a scooter manufacturer may decide to
---------------------- manufacture motor cycles. A state level organisation may become a multi-state
organisation. Even locations may be added or changed. The range of products
---------------------- or services offered by the organisation may also be increased or improved upon.
All these are cases of diversifications.
----------------------
Growth may be either positive or negative. Positive developments are
---------------------- those which we want to take place. For example, getting a good score of marks
in a examination, a win in cricket or hockey, a holiday trip, promotions and
----------------------
increments, addition to wealth and prosperity are examples of positive growth
---------------------- which normally are liked and appreciated by all concerned.
---------------------- On the other hand, negative developments are those which are not liked
and appreciated such as failures, catastrophes, diseases, strikes, lockouts, civil
---------------------- commotions, fire hazards etc. These are the developments which are basically
destructive in nature. Development of cancer in the body is a negative growth.
---------------------- These types of developments are undesired. These are avoided by all. Hence,
---------------------- organisational development efforts are to be directed to ensure that positive
developments take place, multiply and become stable. At the same time negative
---------------------- developments are to be as far as possible avoided, minimised or if possible
prevented altogether. Even if negative development takes place one must exert
---------------------- to minimise its evil effects. This is an art and skill of management. In fact in
---------------------- all the activities there is an element of management. Hence, to be effective and
efficient we must learn the techniques of Organisational Development.
Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------
1. External factors that affect every organisation are:
----------------------
i. Political conditions
----------------------
ii. Social Conditions
iii. Economic conditions ----------------------
iv. Geographical conditions ----------------------

2. Every organisation has characteristics such as: ----------------------
i. Definite purpose
----------------------
ii. Definite structure
----------------------
iii. Definite cash outflow
iv. Definite life span ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
----------------------
Write down any five parameters by which you feel development or
growth can be measured such as Increase in Sales Turnover by 10%. ----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● An organisation can be classified in terms of its size such as small,
medium, large. ----------------------
●● Organisations are of different types based on their purpose, such as ----------------------
political, religious, social, industrial, business, cultural etc.
●● Organisations are inevitable as complex tasks cannot be completed by ----------------------
individuals. ----------------------
●● Organisations have certain characteristics. Most of these are common to
all the organisatons. ----------------------
●● Development means growth in the area of activity of the organisation. ----------------------
How Organisational development could be started is a specilised technique
which we are going to learn in forthcoming units. ----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
----------------------
●● Organisation: A group of persons with a common objective
●● Socio Technical: Involving Society and Technological Changes ----------------------
●● Socio Clinical: Involving clinical analysis of social matters ----------------------
●● Psycho analytical: Theory involving analysis of mind
Organisation 9
Notes
----------------------
1. Define organisation. What are the different types of organisations?
---------------------- 2. Elaborate the role of human element in any organisation.
---------------------- 3. Explain the role of employees in achieving organisational objectives.
---------------------- 4. Explain the concept of development. Do you think development is

necessary?
----------------------
----------------------

----------------------
1. Who has the greatest influence on the formation of organisation values?
----------------------
i. Top Management
---------------------- 2. Collectorate, Police, Military, Electricity Boards are the example of
organisations based on:
----------------------
ii. Administrative purpose
----------------------
3. What basic skills are required from the members for achieving
---------------------- organisational purpose?
---------------------- i. Minimum Technical skills

----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. External factors which affect every organisation are
---------------------- i. Political conditions
---------------------- ii. Social conditions
---------------------- iii. Economic conditions
2. Every organisation has characteristics such as
----------------------
i. Definite purpose
----------------------
ii. Definite structure
----------------------
---------------------- Suggested Reading
---------------------- 1. Mehta, Amitabh. Organisation Development. New Delhi: Global India

Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
----------------------
2. Ramnarayan, S. &T V Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating
---------------------- Learning and Transformation. Sage Publications.
---------------------- 3. Singh, Kavita. Organisation Change and Development. New Delhi: Excel
Books.
Organisation Change and Organisational Development
UNIT
2
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Need for Change
2.3 Factors influencing Change
2.4 Barriers to Change
2.5 Planned vs. Unplanned Change
2.6 Elements of Organisation that yield to Change
2.7 A Model for Managing Change
2.8 Organisational Development as a Change Strategy
2.9 Organisational Development and other Change Strategies
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Organisation: Change and Organisational Development 11

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Identify the need for organisational change.
----------------------
• State factors causing resistance to organisational change.
----------------------
• Analyse various elements of organisation that yield to change.
---------------------- • Discuss organisational development as a change strategy.
----------------------
---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- The world is dynamic in nature. Technology, system, styles as well as
---------------------- human behaviour is changing with the times. Every organisation goes through
periods of change that can cause stress and uncertainty. Sometimes, changes are
---------------------- brought about by forces outside the organisation. Frequent use of mobiles by a
wide section of people all over India has forced Department of Telecoms to be
---------------------- a limited company first and also change their systems and approach. At other
---------------------- times, managers within the company want to initiate major changes but do not
know how to do it. Lack of innovation from within is widely recognised as one
---------------------- of the critical problems facing business today. To be successful, organisations
must embrace many types of changes. Businesses must develop improved
---------------------- production technologies, create new products desired in the marketplace,
---------------------- implement new administrative systems and upgrade employees’ skills.
It is worthwhile to note that many popular car models, which were heart
---------------------- winners in the past, are no more in existence. Typewriters have become obsolete.
---------------------- Cellular phones have almost replaced landline phones and many more such
changes are in the offing. Customer needs have made a great impact on various
---------------------- organisations.
---------------------- How important is organisational change? Consider this: The parents of

today’s college students grew up without digital cameras, e-mail, personal
---------------------- computers, VCRs, electronic games, CDs, cellular phones, video stores or laser
checkout systems in supermarkets. But is it possible for the present generation
---------------------- to live without these? A simple example is students are not able to do simple
---------------------- calculations visually. They require a calculator to do so. The calculator is also
available in his/her mobile phone. Companies that produce new products have
---------------------- prospered, but many companies caught with outdated products and technologies
have failed. Today’s successful companies are constantly striving to come up
---------------------- with new products and services. For example, automakers such as Daimler
---------------------- Chrysler, General Motors and Toyota are investing heavily to develop fuel-
cell power systems that could make today’s noisy, polluting piston engines as
---------------------- obsolete as the steam locomotive. Pharmaceutical companies around the world
are searching for new drugs and vaccines to fight diseases such as AIDS and
----------------------
cancer. Organisations that change successfully, such as General Electric (GE), Notes
Hewlett-Packard and Motorola, are both profitable and admired.
----------------------
Organisational change is defined as the adoption of a new idea or
behaviour by an organisation. Change is an alteration in the current status/ ----------------------
matter. We will look at how organisations can be designed to respond to the
environment through internal change and development. First, we will examine ----------------------
the need for change and the reasons people resist change. Then we will consider
----------------------
the factors influencing change on organisations. Finally, we will discuss the
elements of organisation that yield to change and also see how Organisational ----------------------
Development as a change strategy differs from other change strategies.
----------------------
Types of Change ----------------------
●● Change can be deliberate (planned) or accidental ( Unplanned)
----------------------
●● The scale of change may be either large or small
----------------------
Change may be initially classified into (1) First Order Change (2) Second
Order Change. ----------------------
In the process of change if only some features of the organisation change,
----------------------
i.e. structure, task, technology and systems (policies and procedures), it
results in first order change. Here the fundamental nature of the organisation ----------------------
remains the same. First order changes go by different labels i.e. transactional,
evolutionary or adoptive change. ----------------------
In second order change, the nature of the organisation is fundamentally ----------------------
altered; the organisation is transformed. Second order change basically affects
the culture of the organisation to transform it. Second order change goes by ----------------------
various labels i.e. transformational, revolutionary and radical change.
----------------------
Organisational Development (OD) programs are directed towards both
first order and second order changes with an increasing emphasis on second ----------------------
order change. Also meeting the challenge passed by an organisation often ----------------------
means not doing things piecemeal. To be successful change usually must
be organisation wide. As all the organisation variables i.e. technology, task, ----------------------
structure, systems and people are inter related and interdependent, a change
in any one usually results in a change in one or more of others. For example, ----------------------
a change in technology affects the attitude and behaviour of people involved. ----------------------
Many major OD efforts take into consideration this interdependence to have a
holistic approach. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Organisation Change and Organisational Development 13

Notes 2.2 NEED FOR CHANGE
---------------------- Both external and internal forces translate into a perceived need for
change within an organisation. Managers sense a need for change when there is
---------------------- a performance gap and a disparity between existing and desired performance
levels. The performance gap may occur because current procedures are not
----------------------
up to standard or because a new idea or technology could improve current
---------------------- performance. Managers try to establish a sense of urgency so that others
understand the need for change. In many cases, however, there is no obvious
---------------------- crisis and managers have to recognise and then make others aware of the
need for change. Management’s major responsibility is to monitor threats and
---------------------- opportunities in the external environment as well as strengths and weaknesses
---------------------- within the organisation to determine whether a need for change exists.
Managers in every company must be alert to problems and opportunities,
---------------------- because the perceived need for change is what sets the stage for subsequent
---------------------- actions that create a new product or technology. Big problems are easy to spot.
Sensitive monitoring systems are needed to detect gradual changes that can
---------------------- fool managers into thinking their company is doing fine. An organisation may
be in greater danger when the environment changes slowly, because managers
---------------------- may fail to trigger an organisational response. Failing to use planned change
to meet small needs can place an organisation in hot water, as illustrated in the
----------------------
following passage:
---------------------- When frogs are placed in a boiling pail of water, they jump out as they
don’t want to boil to death. However, when frogs are placed in a cold pail of
----------------------
water and the pail is placed on a stove with the heat turned very low, over time
---------------------- the frogs will boil to death.

----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Change may be broadly classified into first order change and second
---------------------- order change.
---------------------- 2. Growing customer needs have affected organisational change.
3. Change in technology does not affects the attitude and behavior of
----------------------
people
---------------------- 4. First order changes are also known as transactional, evolutionary or
---------------------- adoptive change.
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- Under what condition would you choose evolutionary and

revolutionary change? Write ten changes that have occurred around you
---------------------- and try to classify them.
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHANGE Notes
There are many forces in the environment that impact an organisation and ----------------------
recognising the nature of these forces is one of the manager’s most important
tasks. If managers are slow to respond to these forces the organisation will lag ----------------------
behind and its effectiveness will be lower. Here, we will examine three such
----------------------
forces.
1. Globalisation ----------------------
It means that major players in the world’s economy are now international ----------------------
or multinational corporations. Their emergence creates pressures on
domestic corporations to internationalise and redesign their operations. ----------------------
The primary forces at work in globalisation are: ----------------------

i) The economic recoveries of Germany and Japan. ----------------------
ii) The emergence of new industrial countries like Korea, Taiwan,
----------------------
Singapore and Spain.
iii) The dramatic shift from planned economies to market economics ----------------------
that has occurred in Eastern European, Russia and China. ----------------------
iv) The emergence of new power blocks i.e. European Economics
Council and the Yen block of Japan and its Pacific Rim trading ----------------------
partners. These and other powerful globalisation forces are pushing ----------------------
domestic firms around the world to abandon business.
2. Information Technology and Computers ----------------------
To cope with international competition organisations need to be flexible. ----------------------

The revolution in I.T. permits many organisations to develop the needed
----------------------
for flexibility in Information technology. Some of these changes are:
i) Changes almost everything about a company – its structures, its ----------------------
products it processes.
----------------------
ii) Increases the value of invisible assets such as knowledge,
competencies. ----------------------
iii) Democratises a company by enabling employees to share ----------------------
information.
----------------------
iv) Increases the flexibility of work by allowing more people to work
from home. ----------------------
v) Allows companies to unify their global operation. ----------------------
3. Changing Nature of the work force
----------------------
Managing a diverse work force was one of the biggest issues confronting
organisations in the 1990 and beyond. Increasingly changes in demographic ----------------------
characteristic of the work force has led managers to change their style of
----------------------
managing employees and to learn how to effectively understand, supervise
and motivate minority and female organisational members. As more and ----------------------

Notes more women enter the workforce, companies have to accommodate the
needs for dual career and single parent families.
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Fill in the blanks.

---------------------- 1. Transformational, revolutionary and radical changes are also classified
as ___________ change.
----------------------
2. Change is an _________ in the current status / matter.
---------------------- 3. Managers sense a need for change when there is a ___________ gap.
---------------------- 4. The adoption of new idea or behavior by an organisation is called as
________ change.
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 2
----------------------
Identify and list down major forces bringing about changes in the
---------------------- Insurance and Banking sector in India in the recent past.
----------------------
----------------------
2.4 BARRIERS TO CHANGE
---------------------- It is thus observed that all the factors cited above have made Indian
industries think in terms of new perspectives. The above forces have rendered
---------------------- many organisations ineffective and have lead to their total or partial decline.
The main reason for some organisation’s inability to change is organisational
---------------------- inertia - a condition in which organisations are resistant to change. Resistance
---------------------- to change that cause inertia are found at both the individual and organisation
level.
---------------------- Personal barriers to change
---------------------- 1. Failure to recognise the need for change: To invest the necessary time
and energy required changing and learning new ways of doing things,
----------------------
people must be convinced that change is important and necessary. If
---------------------- organisational members do not clearly recognise some significant problem
in the way their organisation currently operates, a change effort will have
---------------------- little chance of succeeding. In cases where senior management fails to
recognise the need for change, resistance may be so high that the change
----------------------
effort must be abandoned.
---------------------- 2. Misunderstanding the purpose, process and outcomes of change:
Effective change requires that people not only believe that change is
----------------------
necessary but understand how the change will come about and what the
---------------------- consequences will be. If people are unclear about the goals of the change
process, they may be reluctant to modify their behaviour or apply a new Notes
approach to their work. To help employees understand why change is
needed and what goals the change process is designed to achieve, many ----------------------
organisations develop a vision statement.
----------------------
3. Fear of the unknown: Just as most people do not like to walk into a
completely dark and unfamiliar room without turning on a light, ----------------------
organisational members generally dislike the element of uncertainty
----------------------
associated with change. Although some aspects of life in organisations
can be quite variable and dynamic, other features tend to be predictable ----------------------
and stable. These predictable features enable people to plan strategies and
anticipate situations. By increasing uncertainty, organisational change ----------------------
can interfere with people’s coping strategies and generate a considerable
----------------------
amount of anxiety and fear. Some typical behaviours associated with
fear of the unknown include turning down promotions to avoid new job ----------------------
duties and responsibilities and making negative remarks to friends and
co-workers about the change process. ----------------------
4. Fear of economic insecurity and loss of status: Even the most devoted ----------------------
employees are unlikely to endure personal sacrifice in the form of pay
cuts and demotions unless they perceive some long term personal benefits ----------------------
from change. Since both money and status are powerful motivators, any
----------------------
changes that are perceived to lower income or status, either directly or
indirectly, are likely to produce strong resistance. This kind of resistance ----------------------
often occurs when organisational change involves layoffs, reduced pay
and benefits, revised performance appraisal systems or new reporting ----------------------
lines.
----------------------
5. Threats to existing social relationships: Bosses, co-workers,
subordinates, and clients all represent critical components of the social ----------------------
environment within an organisation. When organisational change involves
----------------------
layoffs or even the rearrangement of workgroups, the changes may tear the
social fabric of the organisation. Friendships, mentoring relationships and ----------------------
the social support provided by established groups all may be jeopardised
by organisational change. ----------------------
6. Reluctance to give up old work routines and habits: A basic principle ----------------------
of learning is that behaviour that is rewarded is more likely to occur
again in the future. In organisations, behaviours that in the past have ----------------------
been rewarded by positive performance appraisals and promotions may ----------------------
be quite difficult to change even if they are actively discouraged by top
management. Hence, people normally do not change their habits. ----------------------
----------------------
Organisational Barriers to Change
Effective organisational change requires coordinated effort from all parts ----------------------
of the organisation. However, several features of an organisation’s structure ----------------------
and administrative procedures can stall or halt the change process. Some key
organisational barriers to change are: ----------------------

Notes 1. A reward system that reinforces old ways of doing things: Although
organisational change efforts can help people develop new job skills
---------------------- through various forms of training, behaviour on the job will only change if
these new skills are actively encouraged and rewarded. When the reward
---------------------- system of an organisation is not structured to support new kinds of work
---------------------- behaviour introduced by a change effort, employees may learn new skills
but may be unwilling to apply them. As long as old and familiar ways of
---------------------- doing things continue to earn praise and lead to bonuses and promotions,
change will be perceived as pointless.
----------------------
2. Threats to existing balance of power: Over time, groups and departments
---------------------- in organisations develop complex relationships, which involve mutual
influence and power. Since organisational change often entails shifts in
----------------------
the power and resources of an organisation, existing relationships between
---------------------- groups and departments are usually altered during the change process.
Groups or departments that control key resources or possess special
---------------------- expertise may view change as a threat to their power and influence.
---------------------- 3. Intergroup conflicts that inhibit cooperation: Increasing organisational
effectiveness often involves developing higher levels of cooperation
---------------------- among the various parts of an organisation. However, when resources
are limited, groups may compete with each other and intentionally or
----------------------
unintentionally block each other’s goals. The more intergroup conflicts
---------------------- escalate, the harder it becomes to implement effective change programs
that require groups to coordinate their efforts and share resources.
----------------------
4. Incompatibility of change process and organisational culture:
---------------------- Organisational change efforts must work with an organisation’s culture
in order to bring about lasting change. Change that requires people to
---------------------- function in very new and different ways will be at odds with powerful
norms and values that permeate the organisation. For example, a change
----------------------
process that demands that managers’ function in a more entrepreneurial
---------------------- manner when their organisation is highly bureaucratic and has a rigid
hierarchy of authority may be doomed from the start.
----------------------
5. Heavy investment in previous decisions and courses of action: In
---------------------- some cases, an organisation may recognise the need for change but be
unwilling to proceed due to high costs. Although an organisation may
---------------------- have considerable assets, large amounts of money may be tied up in fixed
---------------------- investments such as equipment or real estate. Change that may cause an
organisation to abandon a plan or project that has already been allocated
---------------------- significant resources will often be avoided. This kind of resistance is
particularly strong when the change effort may initially produce a short-
---------------------- term loss that must be reported and explained to stockholders.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Notes
----------------------
1. Personal barriers to change are:
----------------------
i. Fear of unknown
----------------------
ii. Fear of economic insecurity
iii. A reward system that reinforces old ways of doing things ----------------------
iv. Threat to existing social relationship ----------------------

2. Organisational barriers to change are: ----------------------
i. Intergroup conflicts that inhibit cooperation
----------------------
ii. Heavy investment in the previous decisions
----------------------
iii. Failure to recognise the need for change
iv. Reluctance to give up old work routines and habits ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
----------------------
Prior to the opening of the Insurance sector for public participation,
there was tremendous resistance to change from major player like LIC. ----------------------
Identify the factors that contributed to such a resistance.
----------------------
----------------------
2.5 PLANNED VS. UNPLANNED CHANGE
----------------------
Today as seen a number of factors outside and inside the organisation
influence organisational change. Change itself can be categorised as either a ----------------------
planned or an unplanned response to internal and external change forces. ----------------------
Planned change is a conscious decision to change the way an organisation
functions. Planned change unfolds as a part of a coherent strategy to alter some ----------------------
specific aspects of the organisation. In contrast, unplanned change involves a ----------------------
reactive response to internal and external change factions to avert a crisis. It
involves short-term goals and may not be a part of a completely formulated ----------------------
change strategy. The primary goal of unplanned change is to survive immediate
crisis. ----------------------
Though Organisational Development is a planned change neither a ----------------------

planned nor an unplanned change effort by itself can qualify as an OD effort.
Organisational Development has specific characteristics because it is based on ----------------------
certain values. ----------------------
----------------------

Notes 2.6 ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATION THAT YIELD TO
CHANGE
----------------------
As changes in organisations have become more frequent, a body of
---------------------- knowledge known as change management has emerged. To understand
---------------------- change management, we need to know what aspects of the organisation can be
changed, and how managers can apply the initiation and implementation ideas
---------------------- of each type of change. The vital aspects of the organisation that can change are
technology, structure, task, culture / people.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 2.1 : Elements leading towards Organisational Change
----------------------
---------------------- Changing Technology

---------------------- A technology change is related to the organisation’s production process.
Technology changes are designed to make the production of a product or service
---------------------- more efficient. An example is the adoption of robotics to improve production
efficiency. This is an example of technological change as is the adoption of laser
---------------------- scanning checkout systems for retail outlets.
---------------------- There are two approaches for encouraging technological change: the
bottom - up approach and the top - down approach. A top down approach usually
----------------------
does not work as top managers are not close to the production process and
---------------------- lack expertise in technological development. The bottom up approach means
that ideas are initiated at lower organisation levels and channeled upwards for
---------------------- approval. Employees at lower level understand the technology and have the
expertise needed to propose changes.
----------------------
---------------------- Changing the Structure

---------------------- Almost any change in the way an organisation is managed falls under the
category of structural change. Organisational structure is defined as the manner
---------------------- in which tasks are formally divided, grouped and co-coordinated. Therefore, key
elements in the organisational design can be altered. For instance, departmental
----------------------
responsibilities can be combined, vertical layers removed and span of control
---------------------- widened to make the organisation flatter and less bureaucratic. More rules and
procedures can be implemented to increase standardisation and increase in
---------------------- decentralisation can be made to speed up the decision-making process. The
actual structure can also be modified, for example; an organisation can shift Notes
from a simple structure to a team based structure. Jobs can be redesigned; job
descriptions can be redesigned or enriched. ----------------------
----------------------
Changing Task
----------------------
Task changes involve the redesigning of jobs using methods like job
enrichment, job enlargement etc. Because of their ease of implementation, task ----------------------
changes are among the most frequently used methods.
----------------------
Changing People / Culture ----------------------
It refers to a change in employee’s values, norms, attitudes, beliefs and
----------------------
behaviour. Changes in culture and people pertain to how employees think; these
are changes in mind set rather than technology, structure or process. Cultural ----------------------
change pertains to the organisation as a whole. A major approach to changing
people and culture is Organisational Development. ----------------------
----------------------
2.7 A MODEL FOR MANAGING CHANGE
----------------------
Every human being is resistant to change .Change always makes people
uncomfortable. People cannot sleep if they have to change a bed for a day. ----------------------
Change of residence, change of location etc. are equally difficult. If these
----------------------
changes in day-to-day life and trifles are so difficult for people to accept one
can imagine the difficulty at implementing organisation wide changes. Not only ----------------------
are they difficult to introduce but difficult to manage as well.
----------------------
Hence, it is necessary to understand key ingredients involved in a
successful change effort. Cummins and Worley identify five sets of activities ----------------------
required for effective change management. They are as follows:
----------------------
●● Motivating Change
●● Creating Vision ----------------------
●● Developing political support ----------------------
●● Managing the Transition and
----------------------
●● Sustaining the momentum
These are shown in the figure and are self-explanatory. ----------------------
The steps involved in Change Management are as under: ----------------------

a) People should want the change ----------------------
b) They should believe that change is necessary and
----------------------
c) There should be a commitment to discontinue present position for an
uncertain future. ----------------------
After this, when the need for change is desired, the next step is to create ----------------------
readiness for change.
----------------------

Notes A) There are three methods of creating readiness to change:
1. Sensitise people about pressure for change that is why change must
----------------------
take place
---------------------- 2. Show discrepancies between desired state of affairs and current
state of affairs.
----------------------
3. Communicate positive realistic expectations for advantage of
---------------------- change.
---------------------- This can be done by explaining with examples those things, which are not
working out, by showing how profit and market shares are dropping, how weak
---------------------- the financial position is, or how the survival of the organisaton is doubtful etc.
---------------------- A) The next set of activities is overcoming the resistance to change.
---------------------- i) This is done by dealing emphatically with feelings of loss and anxiety
ii) Providing extensive communication about the change effort
----------------------
iii) Encouraging participation and involvement
----------------------
Involving organisational members directly in planning and organising
---------------------- change is the most effective method.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Fig. 2.2 : Effective Change Management
Effective Change Management Notes
Motivating Change
----------------------
_ Creating readiness for change
----------------------
_ Overcoming resistance to change
Creating a Vision ----------------------
_ Mission ----------------------
_ Valued outcomes ----------------------
_ Valued conditions
----------------------
_ Midpoint Goals
----------------------
Developing Political Support
_ Assessing Change Agent Power ----------------------
_ Identifying key Stakeholders ----------------------

_ Influencing Stakeholders ----------------------
Managing Transition
----------------------
_ Activity Planning
----------------------
_ Commitment Planning
_ Management Structures ----------------------
Sustaining Momentum ----------------------

_ Providing Resources for Change ----------------------
_ Building a Support System for Change Agents
----------------------
_ Developing New competencies and skills
----------------------
_ Reinforcing New Behaviours
Creating a vision provides a picture of the future and shows how ----------------------
individuals and groups will fit into that future. Vision reduces uncertainty. ----------------------
The next step is developing a political support by identifying powerful
----------------------
individuals.
Then comes managing the transition by activity planning, developing ----------------------
commitment from the key players. Managing structure involves setting of
----------------------
parallel learning structures to lead and facilitate change etc.
----------------------
2.8 ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AS A CHANGE
----------------------
STRATEGY
----------------------
In recent news, we read about Indian Companies going really global.
Mr. Laxmi Mittal has acquired Arceller and Tatas have acquired Kores. Pepsi ----------------------
Cola is chaired by a person of Indian origin. This clearly signifies that today’s
organisation is becoming more and more complex and challenging as well. ----------------------

Notes Effective management of today and tomorrows’ organisation and the human
resources that make them either successful, stagnant or deteriorate, are facing an
---------------------- enormous challenge. Downsizing, re-engineering, knowledge and information
explosion, global competition and total quality are not only buzzwords, but are
---------------------- representatives of the harsh reality facing managers now and in future.
---------------------- There are many solutions as well as theories about how to deal with
these complex situations. Yet the simplest and most profound solution is no
----------------------
more a secret i.e. people are the key. It is obvious. People are the greatest
---------------------- asset to an organisation. It is “people” who can offer the strategic advantage
to an organisation. It is easy to imitate technology but it is impossible to copy
---------------------- people’s behaviour. People are particular to an organisation, culture is unique to
an organisation and it cannot be copied. It can be developed, learned, practiced
----------------------
through continuous efforts. Managing human assets is the most challenging job
---------------------- of today’s managers.
Manpower management is the most crucial job because managing people
----------------------
is the heart and essence of being a manager. No two people are similar in mental
---------------------- abilities, traditions, sentiments and behaviour. They differ widely in a number
ways. People are responsive, they feel, think and act, and therefore there is no
---------------------- single unique, rule to manage them. People are not cost; people are not product.
They are an important resource who generate assets by running technological
----------------------
processes effectively. They have the power to do this. A highly inspired group
---------------------- of employees with high aspiration can build a new organisation which can meet
the challenges of today and tomorrow. Today’s manager’s first task is to retain
---------------------- the human asset and utilise them in a better way. Organisational Development
(OD) is about people and organisations and people in organisations and how
----------------------
they function. Basically, organisational development is the process for teaching
---------------------- people how to solve problems, take advantage of opportunities, and learn how
to do that better and better with time. Organisational Development focuses on
---------------------- issues related to the human side of the organisation by finding ways to increase
effectiveness of individuals, teams, and the organisation’s human and social
----------------------
processes. Organisational development is a powerful set of concepts and
---------------------- techniques for improving organisational effectiveness and individual well-
being that had its genesis in the behavioural sciences and was tested in the
---------------------- laboratory of real world organisations.
---------------------- OD addresses the opportunities and problems involved in managing
human dynamics in organisations. It can:
----------------------
●● OD programs can improve individual performance, create better morale,
---------------------- and increase organisational profitability. Many chronic problems of
organisations can be cured by OD techniques.
----------------------
●● The use of OD is growing. The approach and methods of OD are applied
---------------------- to address the human problems of organisation & industries.
Human assets are now considered to be the greatest asset of any
----------------------
organisation. OD offers a variety of methods to strengthen the human side of an
---------------------- organisation to the mutual benefit of both the individual & the organisation. OD
is becoming a critical managerial tool. Today’s manager manages change, and Notes
OD is the prescription for managing change. Managers need to know what OD
is and how to use it. A good understanding of OD has great practical value for ----------------------
present and future managers.
----------------------
Check your Progress 4 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Which of the following is not the factor influencing organisational ----------------------
change?
----------------------
i. Globalisation
ii. Information Technology ----------------------
iii. Death of shareholders ----------------------
iv. Changing nature of the workforce ----------------------
2. Which of the statement is not true regarding unplanned change?
----------------------
i. Unplanned change involves a reactive response
----------------------
ii. Unplanned change is a conscious decision to change the way an
organisation functions. ----------------------
iii. Unplanned change involve short term goals which are not a part
----------------------
of change strategy
iv. Objective of unplanned change is to survive immediate crises ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
Identify any organisation around you. Ascertain the type of changes ----------------------
that have taken place in the organisation. Compare their features with ----------------------
features of OD.
----------------------
----------------------
2.9 ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND OTHER
CHANGE STRATEGIES ----------------------
OD is altogether a different strategy. It involves cultural development. ----------------------

A right participative culture in which people volunteer and are not compelled.
Organisational effectiveness can also be improved by other change strategies ----------------------
apart from OD. For example, BUSINESS PROCESS ENGINEERING, ----------------------
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT, ISO 9000, ISO 14000, Six sigma are
pre-dominant change strategies that focus on changing process, structure or ----------------------
systems. This change strategies are also called as mechanical focus on change
and their major focus is on observable, measurable business elements that can ----------------------
be changed. OD, which comes under the human focus of change, differs from ----------------------

Notes other change strategies by being people oriented. The focus of OD is changing
people and their values.
----------------------
Today OD as a strategy under human focus on change is converging with
---------------------- the strategies mentioned above under the mechanical forces of change. The
main reason for this is that an exclusive mechanical focus on change approach
---------------------- results in effective solutions that are seldom adequately implemented because
problems may emerge from the human side of an enterprise. On the other hand,
----------------------
having an exclusive human focus on change approach results in a business
---------------------- receptive to new things without an appreciation or understanding of what must
change for the business to succeed. Therefore, the convergence of the above-
---------------------- mentioned approaches is crucial for the successful design and implementation
of business change. In other words, a business must constantly examine strategy,
----------------------
processes and systems to understand what changes need to be made. However,
---------------------- organisations must also understand the implication of a new business change on
its employee given their culture, values, history and capacity for change.
----------------------
OD differs from them by being more people oriented. As mentioned above,
---------------------- today OD has converged with other change strategies to effectively manage the
people side of organisational change, to achieve the required business outcome
---------------------- and to realise that businesses change effectively within the social infrastructure
of the workplace.
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 5
----------------------
Identify any one process carried out in an organisation. Compare how
---------------------- it was carried out previously and how it is carried out now.
----------------------
---------------------- Case Study

---------------------- 1. LEADING THE REVOLUTION TECHNOLOGY: THE
---------------------- PAPERLESS OFFICE
One summer morning, Don Caulfield stormed through the headquarters of
---------------------- his company namely Hire Quality Inc carrying a large waste barrel. Employees
---------------------- laughed at first as he snatched yellow Post-it notes off of computer monitors,
crumpled up spread sheets and tossed out reports. However, they were stunned
---------------------- when he soaked the trash heap with lighter fluid and set it ablaze. Some
employees saw a month of their work go up in flames. Workers were definitely
---------------------- not amused, and one employee quit the company because of this incident.
---------------------- Caulfield now realises his method of implementing a change to a totally
paperless office may have been counter-productive. But, he felt that he needed
----------------------
to do something dramatic to get people to stop using paper and start taking
---------------------- advantage of huge investment in information technology systems that he had
got installed. He believed that paper is nothing but trouble when you are in
---------------------- a field that is driven by speed and high volume as his job placement firm. A
former lieutenant in U.S. Marine Corps, Caulfield started Hire Quality to place Notes
honourably discharged military personnel in mostly blue collared and service-
technician jobs. It is not unusual for the company to screen about 35,000 ----------------------
candidates and send out at least 3000 resumes each month. There is no way his
company could afford the number of staff it would take to handle everything on ----------------------
a paper-only basis. ----------------------
Hire Quality had a massive database that could store information of up
----------------------
to 2, 00,000 job candidates and be searched by more than 150 possible fields,
making it much easier to match candidates with potential jobs. Caulfield also ----------------------
instituted a policy of allowing the candidates to register only electronically
and he asked clients to send job descriptions electronically. Practically every ----------------------
employee’s desk has a scanner so that any paper that infiltrates the office can
----------------------
automatically be converted into an electronic file.
To eliminate paper calendars and schedule books he issued separate PCs ----------------------
to his employees who had been with the firm at least for six months.
----------------------
Caulfield’s mistake was that he did not educate employees and allow
them to participate in the change. For example to get them to stop using paper, ----------------------
he instituted a penalty system, enacting a fine of $ 1 for using fax machine and
----------------------
25 cents per page for printing résumé. Employees rebelled against the harsh
tactics and Hire Quality has not yet reaped the expected benefits from the new ----------------------
technology. However, Caulfield still believes his goal of a totally paperless
office is a wise one and many experts agree that there are major advantages to a ----------------------
paperless office system. Caufield is trying to tone down his brutal implementation
----------------------
and work gradually to change employee attitudes.
Questions ----------------------
1. Why was the change resisted by employees? ----------------------

2. Was the system of levying a fine the right remedy? ----------------------
3. If you were in Caulfield’s place, how would you have introduced the
----------------------
change?
2. MAKING CHANGE STICK ----------------------
Employees are not always receptive to change. A combination of factors ----------------------
can lead to rejection of, or even outright rebellion against management’s “new
and better ideas.” ----------------------
Lands’ End, Inc. of Dodgeville, Wisconsin began as a small mail order ----------------------
business specialising in sailing gear . Employees enjoyed the family like
atmosphere and uncomplicated work environment. By 1994, the company had ----------------------
mushroomed into a $ 1 billion company with several overseas outlets and has ----------------------
passed giant L. L. Bean as number one in specialty catalogue sales in the United
States. ----------------------
Such success encouraged its founder and Chairman Gary Comer to embark ----------------------
on a dramatic management experiment including many of today’s trends-teams
and plans, peer review and the elimination of Guards and time clocks. Comer ----------------------

Notes brought top talent, including former L.L. Beans executive William T End as
CEO, to implement the changes.
----------------------
But employees balked. Weekly production meetings became a nuisance to
---------------------- workers. “We spent so much time in meetings that we were getting away from
the basic stuff of taking care of business.” says one employee. Even a much-
---------------------- ballyhooed new mission seemed “pushy.” One long time employee complained,
“We don’t need anything hanging over heads telling us to do something we are
----------------------
already doing.”
---------------------- Confusion and frustration reigned at Lands End and was reflected in an
earnings drop of 17 percent. By the end of December 1994, William End was
----------------------
forced to leave the company, and a new CEO initiated return to the familiar
---------------------- “Land’s End” way of doing things. Teams were disbanded and many of the
once promising initiatives shelved as workers embraced what was familiar and
---------------------- uncomplicated.
---------------------- The inability of the people to adopt change is not new. Neither is the
failure of management to sufficiently lay the groundwork to prepare employees
---------------------- for the change. Harvard professor John P Kotler established an eight-step plan
for implementing change that can provide a greater potential for successful
----------------------
transformation of a company.
---------------------- ●● Establish a sense of urgency through careful examination of the market
---------------------- and identification of opportunities and potential crises.
●● Form a powerful coalition of managers able to lead the change.
----------------------
●● Create a vision to direct the change and the strategies for achieving the
---------------------- vision.
●● Communicate the vision throughout the organisation.
----------------------
●● Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers, changing
---------------------- systems and encouraging risk taking.
---------------------- ●● Plan for visible, short-term performance improvement and create those
improvements.
---------------------- ●● Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, make necessary adjustments
---------------------- in the new programs.
●● Articulate the relationship between the new behaviours and organisational
---------------------- success.
---------------------- Major change efforts can be messy and full of surprises, but following
these guidelines can break down resistance and mean the difference between
---------------------- success and failure.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Summary Notes
• Change has become an inevitable part of human and organisational life. ----------------------
Hence one should equip oneself to adapt to changes.
----------------------
• Changes are of two types: first Order Change is one, which essentially
does not change structure, and changes are incremental; Second Order ----------------------
change which changes entire structure of the organisation. ----------------------
• Globalisation, Information Technology and effective use of computer
system and internet and changing nature of the workforce are the major ----------------------
factors affecting organisational change. ----------------------
• In the model for managing change, Cummins and Worley identify
five sets of activities required for effective change management. They ----------------------
areMotivating Change, Creating Vision, Developing political support, ----------------------
Managing the Transition and Sustaining the momentum
----------------------
• We have also understood that OD is a planned change and different from
other techniques. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• First Order Change: Change involving only some features
• Second Order Change: Change involving complete nature of the ----------------------
organisation ----------------------
• Globalisation: Throwing economy open to the entire World
----------------------
• ISO: International Standards Organisation –Quality management System
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------
1. What are the forces affecting change in today’s organisations? ----------------------
2. What are the organisational factors resisting change in today’s ----------------------
organsations?
----------------------
3. What is a second order change? What aspects are required to be changed
in order to bring about second order changes? ----------------------
4. Give any one example of technological change, task change and structural
----------------------
change?
5. What are the other change initiatives? How does Organisational ----------------------
Development differ from them?
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Answers to Check your Progress
---------------------- State True or False.

1. True
----------------------
2. True
----------------------
3. False
---------------------- 4. True

1. Transformational, revolutionary and radical changes are also classified as
---------------------- second order change.
---------------------- 2. Change is an alteration in the current status / matter.
---------------------- 3. Managers sense a need for change when there is a performance gap.
4. The adoption of new idea or behavior by an organisation is called as
----------------------
organisational change.
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
---------------------- 1. Personal barriers to change are:
i. Fear of unknown
----------------------
ii. Fear of economic insecurity
----------------------
iv. Threat to existing social relationship
---------------------- 2. Organisational barriers to change are:
---------------------- i. Intergroup conflicts that inhibit cooperation
---------------------- ii. Heavy investment in the previous decisions
----------------------
----------------------
1. Which of the following is not the factor influencing organisational
---------------------- change?
---------------------- iii. Death of shareholders

2. Which of the statement is not true regarding unplanned change?
----------------------
ii. Unplanned change is a conscious decision to change the way an
---------------------- organisation functions.
----------------------
----------------------
Notes
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bhatia. S.K. Management of Change and Organisation Development:
Innovative Approaches. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. ----------------------
2. Bhatia, S.K. Organisation Development and Transformation. New Delhi:
----------------------
Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
3. Brunnings, Halina. Carol Cole, Clare Huffington Ed. A Manual of ----------------------
Organizational Development: The Psychology of Change. London: ----------------------
Karnac Books Limited.
4. Cummings, Thomas G & Christopher G Worley. Organization ----------------------
Development and Change. USA: Cengage Learning. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
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Characteristics of Organisational Development
UNIT
3
Structure:
3.1 Definition of Organisational Development

3.2 Characteristics of Organisational Development
3.3 Objectives of OD
3.4 Relevance of OD
3.5 Historical Development of OD
3.6 OD in the Present Context
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Characteristics of Organisational Development 33

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Define OD from various perspectives
----------------------
• Explain the characteristics of OD
----------------------
• Point out the relevance of OD for organisations
---------------------- • Correlate the events which led to the development of OD
----------------------
----------------------
3.1 DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
----------------------
OD has been defined in many ways and applied in different fashions by
---------------------- various authors.
---------------------- Organisation Development is an effort (1) planned (2) organisation wide
and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organisational effectiveness and
----------------------
health through (5) planned interventions in the organisation’s processes using
---------------------- behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1969).
OD is viewed as a long range programme that focuses on changing
----------------------
people’s attitudes and behavior thereby improving enterprise performance.
---------------------- A more refined and comprehensive definition of OD is given by French
and Bell. The authors indicate that they do not propose it as a right definition,
----------------------
but one which includes almost all the characteristics which are important.
---------------------- “Organisational Development is a long term planned effort, led
---------------------- and supported by top management, to improve organisation’s visioning,
empowerment, learning and problem solving processes, through an ongoing,
---------------------- collaborative management of organisation culture with special emphasis on
the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations utilising the
---------------------- consultant facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioural
---------------------- science including action research.”
Though this is a lengthy definition, it includes all essential components.
----------------------
Let us examine this definition in detail:
----------------------
a) Long-term effort
---------------------- It means that organisational change is a time consuming process and
development takes substantial time: several years in most cases. There
----------------------
are no quick solutions. It is a never ending journey of continuous change.
---------------------- b) Lead and supported by Top Management
---------------------- OD as a change strategy is successful only if the top management is
convinced about change themselves and subsequently facilitates and
---------------------- supports it.
c) Visioning Notes
‘Vision’ means the ability to think about the future with imagination
----------------------
or wisdom. Therefore those processes through which members of an
organisation develop a viable, coherent and shared picture of the products ----------------------
offered by the organisation is termed as visioning .
----------------------
d) Empowering
To empower means to give authority or power to employees to use their ----------------------
talents to its potential in order to achieve both organisational as well as
----------------------
individual goals.
e) Learning ----------------------
Learning means those interacting, listening and self examining processes ----------------------
that facilitate individual and team learning.
----------------------
f) Concentration on Organisational processes
----------------------
Processes are how things get done. Learning and problem solving are
crucial processes in any OD effort. The problem solving process refers to ----------------------
the ways organisation members diagnose situations, solve problems and
make decisions. The learning process means continuous self examining ----------------------
to learn new ways of doing things.
----------------------
g) Collaborative management of organisational culture
----------------------
This is one of the most important aspects for any organisation. Culture
is a shared pattern of values, attitudes and beliefs of its members. OD ----------------------
emphasises on changing the existing values and beliefs of the organisation
by widespread participation of all members of the organisation. When ----------------------
people are involved, they get committed to change.
----------------------
h) Intact work teams
----------------------
This implies the importance of the role of teams. Teams are the basic
building blocks of any organisation. When a team functions well ----------------------
individuals and the entire organisation function well. Hence, ‘impacting’
here implies impacting the individuals who comprise them. Over a period ----------------------
of time, teams start managing themselves. Today’s organisations make ----------------------
wide use of different types of teams for different purposes.
----------------------
i) Using consultant – facilitator role
This is based on the belief that leaders can benefit from seeking the ----------------------
assistance of professional help in planning and organising OD initiatives.
----------------------
In the early stage the third party role is very decisive. OD programmes
are usually initiated by change agents who render professional assistance ----------------------
in planning and implementing OD initiatives. Since they are a third party,
people believe in their neutrality. ----------------------
j) By using the theory of applied Behavioural Science ----------------------
OD utilises the theory of behavioural sciences like psychology, social ----------------------

Notes psychology, sociology and anthropology to understand people’s behaviour
in an organisation. Various other fields like economics and political
---------------------- science have contributed to the process of OD.
---------------------- k) Action Research
Action Research is the cornerstone of OD. It is a participative model
----------------------
of collaborative and iterative diagnosis and taking action in which the
---------------------- leader, organisation members and change agents work together to define
and resolve problems and opportunities.
----------------------
Due to this OD is recognised as an improvement through participant
---------------------- action research.
---------------------- 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS of ORGANISATIONAL

---------------------- DEVELOPMENT
---------------------- Having studied the definitions of OD in-depth, let us understand the
special characteristics which OD has.
----------------------
a) OD focuses on organisation culture
----------------------
OD focuses on changing the culture of an organisation. Culture is the
---------------------- prevailing pattern of values, attitudes and beliefs of an organisation.
Organisational culture is best managed in a collaborative way by
---------------------- widespread participation of its members.
---------------------- b) OD is an ongoing interactive process
OD is not a one shot solution to enterprise problems, but rather a dynamic
----------------------
process for changing dynamic systems. The interactive nature of OD
---------------------- involves a series of actions and reactions that require several years to
achieve permanent enterprise level improvements.
----------------------
c) OD is a long term planned change process
---------------------- An OD program involves a systematic diagnosis of the organisation and
---------------------- subsequently adopting an action plan to bring about a change which may
take several years to implement.
----------------------
d) OD encourages collaboration
---------------------- OD encourages collaboration between organisational leaders and
members in managing culture and processes.
----------------------
e) OD takes an open systems view
----------------------
OD emphasises the interconnectedness of enterprise phenomena. OD
---------------------- focuses on the development of an entire organisation not just individual
parts. If one wants to change an enterprise one must focus on the entire
---------------------- organisation then on individual parts.
---------------------- f) OD utilises the theory of applied behavioural science
---------------------- OD draws on the behavioral sciences as a basic discipline, particularly
industrial psychology. It also draws from anthropology, sociology and Notes
political science.
----------------------
Participation in Problem solving and decision making at all levels of the
organisation are hallmarks of OD. ----------------------
g) OD is data based
----------------------
OD programmes emphasise the value of data, change agents work
with enterprise members to generate, collect and analyse data to be ----------------------
used in problem solving. Data provide a basis for improving enterprise
----------------------
effectiveness.
h) OD is a normative re-educative process ----------------------
Change agents hold certain norms that they imbibe on organisation ----------------------
members that is open communication, participation in decision making,
feeling of self worth. By re-educative process, we mean old norms are ----------------------
replaced by new norms. ----------------------
i) OD is experience based
----------------------
It rests on a belief that people learn by doing things themselves and
reflect upon them. It attempts to increase people’s ability to ‘learn how to ----------------------
learn’ from their own experience. OD facilitates practitioners, facilitators,
----------------------
collaborators, and co-learners with client system. OD creates a win-win
situation as it takes a developmental view. ----------------------
1. Which one of the following means interacting, listening and self- ----------------------
examining process that facilitates individual and team effectiveness?
----------------------
i. Learning
----------------------
ii. Empowering
iii. Gearing ----------------------
iv. Communicating ----------------------

2. As a result of recent studies in OD, number of views are now being ----------------------
developed; one of the most important concept on which the OD is
constructed is that of ----------------------
i. A normative value for culture and change ----------------------
ii. Individual leadership
----------------------
iii. Partnership
----------------------
iv. Collaborative working
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 3. OD does not utilise the theory of behavioural sciences like
---------------------- i. Psychology
---------------------- ii. Social psychology

iii. Sociology
----------------------
iv. Ecology
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Can OD be implemented in the organisation that you work? Why or
----------------------
why not? Discuss this issue with your colleagues giving specific justification
---------------------- for your opinion.
----------------------
---------------------- 3.3 OBJECTIVES OF OD
---------------------- Although OD programmes should be specifically designed to match the

needs of individual situations, they all have certain common objective i.e.
----------------------
●● To increase trust and support among employees
---------------------- ●● To encourage confronting of enterprise problems both within groups and
among groups in contrast to sweeping problems under the rug.
----------------------
●● To increase open communication.
---------------------- ●● To increase employee enthusiasm and job satisfaction.
---------------------- ●● To augment formal authority by authority based on knowledge and skill.
---------------------- ●● To find synergistic solutions to enterprise problem.
---------------------- 3.4 RELEVANCE OF OD

---------------------- OD is a relatively new field. Because of the projected changes in the way
organisations operate the development of OD has gained momentum. Some of
----------------------
the important challenges that are changing the way organisations operate are as
---------------------- follows.
1. Pace of Competition
----------------------
Today technology advances faster than many people can learn to use it.
---------------------- To stay competitive organisations can no longer afford to delay adopting
new technology even if such changes are going to affect the organisation’s
----------------------
structural social relationships. O.D. helps us to understand the implication
---------------------- of technical change on the social entity of the organisation.
---------------------- 2. Trend towards Consolidation

Consolidation typically means layoffs and restructuring. Fewer
---------------------- employees are expected to accomplish organisational goals. This often
means increased stress for fear of being victims of restructuring and a Notes
subsequent disruption in the social system. O.D. interventions can help
organisation members to cope up with such change. ----------------------
3. Organisation have become increasingly complex and diverse ----------------------
Aside from technological change, legislation is mandating fairness
----------------------
towards all groups. Today’s managers are thus facing unique challenges
from demographic changes in the work force. OD can help managers ----------------------
handle individual aspirations and thus increase individual effectiveness.
----------------------
4. Mergers / Acquisitions
Growth through mergers and acquisitions has become rampant. Many ----------------------
mergers and acquisitions have failed. Executives may concentrate on ----------------------
potential synergies in technology, products, marketing and control
systems but fail to recognise that the two firms may have had different ----------------------
values, beliefs and practices. OD can be used to smooth the integration
process. ----------------------
5. Organisational Decline / Revitalisation ----------------------

An organisation undergoing a period of decline experiences a variety of ----------------------
problems including low levels of trust, lack of innovation, high turnover
and high levels of conflict and stress. The period of revitalisation requires ----------------------
opposite behaviours including confronting stress, open communication
and fostering innovation to emerge with high levels of productivity. OD ----------------------
can contribute to cultural revitalisation. ----------------------
State True or False. ----------------------
1. OD is employees initiative and do not require top management ----------------------

support.
----------------------
2. OD is an interactive process and focuses on Organisational Culture.
----------------------
3. OD is for organizational benefit and does not lead to individual
employee enthusiasm and job satisfaction. ----------------------
4. OD is normative and re-educative process.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
Of all the above given factors, which ones are applicable to your ----------------------
organisation or an organisation which you have observed over a period of
years? ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 3.5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF OD
---------------------- Although managing change has become a topic of great interest in modern
organisation the field of OD itself is only a few decades old. Pinpointing the
---------------------- exact birth date of OD is difficult as many events and scientific trends converged
to create this new field. It is believed that the Hawthorne studies conducted at
----------------------
the Western Electric Company in 1920 set the stage for the development of OD.
---------------------- Systematic OD activities have a recent history and they have emerged from four
major stems.
----------------------
1. Laboratory Training Stem
---------------------- In 1946, the Research Center for Group Dynamics under the direction
---------------------- of Kurt Lewin of MIT sponsored an intergroup relations workshop.
The workshop featured lectures, seminars and feedback on individual
---------------------- performance at the end of each day. It had an observer who made notes
about interactions among members. It was observed that participants
---------------------- appeared to gain more insight and learning from feedback than normal
---------------------- presentations. This experience led to the formation of the National
Training laboratory in Group Development organised by Lewin’s
---------------------- Associates. They held a three week session during the summer of 1947
at the Gould Academy in Bethel, Maine. The participants spent most
---------------------- of their days with the trainer where they gave and received feedback
---------------------- on their own and other group members’ behaviour. These groups were
eventually called T groups (Training Groups). These groups focused on
---------------------- improving communication between individual. The T-group is important
in the history of OD because it emphasises communication and relations
---------------------- between group members, which is of critical value for the success of OD
---------------------- interventions as organisation members become more open, interact more
openly and effectively and show more respect and support for others.
----------------------
2. The Survey Research and Feedback Stem
---------------------- Survey Feedback is associated with Renis Likert. It refers to the process
of gathering information about an organisation by allowing employees to
----------------------
give feedback to management.
---------------------- An intensive group discussion for utilising the results of an employee
questionnaire survey can be an ineffective tool for introducing a positive
----------------------
change in a business organisation. Likert found that when the results of the
---------------------- survey were provided to managers actions were taken and problems were
addressed but sometimes nothing happened. Research further revealed
---------------------- that improvement was far more likely when managers shared their survey
results with their co-workers and made plans for implementing change.
----------------------
Survey feedback is a cornerstone of OD. OD believes in proper diagnosis
---------------------- of organisational problems involving all organisation members to generate
data and formulate action plans.
----------------------
----------------------
3. Action Research Stem Notes
Action Research Stem was initially developed by researchers interested
----------------------
in studying and solving problems in groups and organisations at the close
of World War II. Action Research is a collaborative client-consultant ----------------------
inquiry consisting of understanding the relationship between preliminary
diagnosis, data gathering from the client group, feedback and planning ----------------------
for an organisational change. The T-Training has a heavy component of
----------------------
Action Research. The survey feedback stem is the history of a specialised
form of Action Research and Tavistock project which has led to our ----------------------
understanding of socio-technical systems. It also has a strong action
research thrust. ----------------------
4. The Socio-technical and Socio-clinical Stem ----------------------
A major influence on OD was the work of the Tavistock Institute of
----------------------
Human Relation at the end of World War II. Tavistock, founded in 1920
provided psychoanalytical and psychotherapy to victim of war neurosis. ----------------------
After World War II Tavistock researchers turned their attention to the
problems of the workplace. Each soldier was expected to join a group ----------------------
that both performed some task such as handicraft or map reading and
----------------------
discussed feelings, interpersonal relationships and administrative and
managerial problems. ----------------------
The basic idea of the socio-technical systems approach is that every ----------------------
organisation consists of a social system and a technological system
and that change in one system brings an expected change in the other. ----------------------
Changing one system without considering its effect on others will bring
about chaos. Recent example of use of ATMs – the introduction of a new ----------------------
technology has had a great impact both on customers and also the bank ----------------------
staff dealing with cash transactions. Customers find it very convenient
and also a lot of work of the bank staff has been reduced. Hence, now ----------------------
banks are also encouraging the facility of ATMs.
----------------------
The socio-technical approach focused on the non – executive rank of
organisations and especially the redesign of work. The focus on teams ----------------------
and the use of Action Research and participant was consistent with the
evolving OD approach. ----------------------
----------------------
3.6 OD IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT
----------------------
Even though it is necessary to understand how OD has emerged it is also
necessary to understand how OD is emerging in the present context. Since ----------------------
1990 there has been a dramatic change. The environment has become turbulent. ----------------------
Technological innovations, restructuring and growth through mergers and
acquisitions have intensified, workers are being empowered, globalisation ----------------------
of companies is common place. In light of all this second generation OD is
evolving which hopes to cope with 2nd order or transformational change. ----------------------
----------------------

Notes First – generation OD techniques that were more relevant to adaptive or
incremental change (1st order change) such as focus on teams, team building,
---------------------- process consultation, job design, participation in management is making way
for second – generation OD.
----------------------
Some of the second – generation OD areas of application are as follows:
----------------------
i) Interest in organisation Transformation
---------------------- Organisational Transformation through 2nd order change demands a
radical shift of leadership style, new ways of visioning, redefining the
----------------------
culture and simultaneous management of more additional variables.
---------------------- Interest in organisational culture
---------------------- Here the basic belief and value system of the organisation is changed.
---------------------- Interest in learning organisation
A learning organisation is an organisation that purposefully designs and
----------------------
constructs its structure, culture and strategy in order to enhance and
---------------------- maximise the potential for organisational learning to take place. Learning
organisations enable members to appreciate and respond quickly to
---------------------- changes. This is done by increasing the ability of its employees at every
level, to question the way the organisation is currently performing its
----------------------
activities, to experiment with new ways of doing things and to act to
---------------------- increase the effectiveness of O.D.
ii) Interest in TQM
----------------------
TQM is a company wide effort which aims at making permanent a
---------------------- climate where employees continuously improve their ability to provide
---------------------- customer products and services of value. OD today is contributing to the
TQM effort because TQM is dependent on effective process and people
---------------------- involvement which are two very important tenants of OD.
---------------------- iii) Renewed interest in Teams

There has been a renewed interest in high-performance, cross functional
---------------------- and self managed teams. This has become necessary in order to get
---------------------- better solutions to problems, increase empowerment, reduce layer of
management, increase quality and enhance employee morale. OD effort is
---------------------- effective team building, training team members in effective membership
and leadership behaviours.
----------------------
vi) Appreciation of Business Process Reengineering
----------------------
Most reengineering efforts do not underlie OD processes and values
---------------------- but many experts believe that BPR which concentrates on process is
converging with OD or peoples change because of the inter-relation of
---------------------- both.
---------------------- vii) Interest in Visioning
---------------------- Shared vision of an organisation is most important. It believes in

connecting organisational vision with individual or personal vision
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
1. Change agents hold certain norms that they imbibe on organization
members: ----------------------
i. Open communication ----------------------
ii. Participation in decision-making
----------------------
iii. Feeling of self-worth
----------------------
iv. Promising the implementation of decisions
2. Some important objectives of OD are: ----------------------
i. To increase trust and support among employees ----------------------
ii. To encourage confronting of enterprise problems both within ----------------------
groups and among groups in contrast to sweeping problems
under the rug ----------------------
iii. To create segmentation in the organization ----------------------
iv. To increase communication and employee enthusiasm
----------------------
3. What were the further contributions in the study of laboratory
training? ----------------------
i. Vertically structured groups ----------------------
ii. Interpersonal and organization effectiveness ----------------------
iii. Conflict management
----------------------
iv. Performance behaviour
----------------------
4. Major contributions in organization development have come from the
following stems ----------------------
i. Organisational Behaviour
----------------------
ii. Innovations in the field of laboratory training
----------------------
iii. Survey research and feedback technology
iv. Emergence of action research ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
----------------------
Business process reengineering is the need of the hour to bring about
rapid change. The fallout of such a change strategy would be loss of jobs due ----------------------
to redefining the process and overall apprehension in the minds of people.
How do you think OD can offset the negative effects of Business process ----------------------
reengineering?
----------------------

Notes
Case Studies
----------------------
---------------------- Case Study I

---------------------- PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS FIRM
---------------------- A medium sized company was facing problems in performing. The
main problems were due to lack of co-operation between sub-units, increasing
---------------------- complaints from customers, sagging morale, rapidly increasing costs which
induced the President of the company to confer with an OD consultant about
----------------------
ways to improve the situation. After a detailed discussion, between the President
---------------------- and the Consultant, it was clear to the Consultant that the president was ready to
examine the dynamics of the situation, including decision making process and
---------------------- his own leadership behaviour. Both of them agreed that certain organisational
development efforts might be worthwhile. It was decided to have a three day
----------------------
workshop away from the usual routine, with the executive (President) and his
---------------------- entire work team.
---------------------- The president then expressed his idea about the possibility of the workshop
to several of his subordinates, and their reactions varied from enthusiasm to
---------------------- some uneasiness. It was agreed to have the consultant meet with the executive
and all his immediate subordinates to explain the typical format of such a
---------------------- meeting and to discuss the probable content of such a workshop. At the end of
---------------------- this meeting, the group decided to give it a try.
A few days before the scheduled session, the consultant spent an hour
---------------------- interviewing each member of the team. The basic motive of these interviews
---------------------- was to obtain the data based on which the design of the workshop was to be
built.
---------------------- At the beginning of the workshop, the consultant gave them the general
---------------------- ideas which he got from the interviews. He reported the problematic areas and
expressed his feelings about these areas. He also told them to rank those problem
---------------------- areas in terms of importance, which he had grouped under some headings
like, ‘The boss’, ‘Meetings’, ‘Administrative services’, ‘Customer Relations’,
---------------------- ‘Relations between departments and Long-Range Goals’. The group was also
---------------------- asked to select the problem themes according to their importance and urgency.
The Consultant was acting more as a coach than as a moderator and with his help
---------------------- the group was able to examine the underlying dynamics of each problems area
and examined optimal solutions to problems. To obtain more effective results,
---------------------- the group was divided into sub-groups and in addition to provide suggestions,
---------------------- they took part in several decision making processes. Also many short duration
lectures on topics like team effectiveness, decision making, and work relations
---------------------- were arranged. The consultant interviewed members from time to time to
comment on the way in which the group was working and to help them to make
---------------------- explicit norms under which the group seemed to be operating with the sense
---------------------- of togetherness. During the three days, time was provided for such relation
activities as jogging, basketball, swimming and billiards. On the second day, the Notes
group worked until 6.00 or 6.30 p.m. and then had dinner and socialising. By
and large, these three days, although involving intense work, were fun for the ----------------------
participants. Some misunderstandings and tensions were worked through in the
group settings; others were worked out informally during breaks from the work ----------------------
agenda. It seemed to the consultant that there was a sense of enhanced team ----------------------
spirit. The last morning was spent developing ‘next action steps’ relating to
the items discussed under the headings listed earlier. Next meeting was decided ----------------------
for half a day after three months in the future with the consultant to review the
solutions and progress. ----------------------
The company President and the Consultant had several follow up meetings ----------------------
and it was reported that the group morale was increasing and the customer
----------------------
complaints were less in number, still they felt that it is better to have two-three
more staff meetings prior to the three-month review session. The three-month ----------------------
review session with the consultant revealed that significant progress had been
made on some action steps but the improvement seemed to be non-significant, ----------------------
particularly in areas requiring delegations in certain functions by the president
----------------------
to his key subordinates. This matter was extensively worked on by the group
and the president began to see himself how he could solve the problems. ----------------------
During the following years, the top-management team institutionalised
----------------------
an annual three-day ‘Problem Solving Workshop’ involving the consultant. In
addition, all the top managers utilised the consultant’s services in conducting ----------------------
comparable workshops with their own subordinates. The consultants and the
human resources director began to work as a consulting team to the organisation. ----------------------
In addition to having planning and control responsibilities in the areas of
----------------------
employment and compensation and in other and traditional personnel functions,
the human resources director also coordinated a management development ----------------------
program designed to supplement the company’s Problem-solving workshops.
For example, managers were supported in their request to attend specialised ----------------------
seminars in such areas as budgeting and finance, group dynamics and long
----------------------
range planning.
The human resources director thus assumed an expanded role in which ----------------------
he served as an internal OD consultant to the operating division, as a link with
----------------------
the external (original) consultant, and as a coordinator of the traditional human
resources functions. This is a case where transformation takes place and the role ----------------------
of different persons working in the organisation also undergoes change.
----------------------
Case Study II
----------------------
PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENTS THROUGH GROUPPROBLEM
SOLVING ----------------------
A large wood product company had been suffering from decreased rate in ----------------------
productivity. To solve the problem, initially it was suggested by the superintendent
of one saw mill to install the ‘quad saw’. A quad saw is a machine in which four ----------------------
saws cutting simultaneously process small logs into finished dimension lumber. ----------------------

Notes The quad saw had been installed several years earlier, and the engineers
had projected 1,150 logs per shift as the expected production rate. But production
---------------------- has peaked only at 800-825 logs per shifts, and the attempts to increase that rate
had been unsuccessful.
----------------------
In this context, the owner of the company contracted a consultant to
---------------------- conduct the OD programme in the company. The programme consisted of
a variety of activities – first line supervisor training, survey feedback, team
----------------------
building with various salaried work teams and numerous other problem-specific
---------------------- interventions. Two consultants divided the 2000 person strong organisation
equally between themselves.
----------------------
The first step was for the consultants to become known to the mill
---------------------- employees and to become familiar with mill operations, processes, and flows.
A total of about 15 persons working at ten different machine stations comprised
---------------------- the ‘quad saw system’. The mill operated in two shifts, a day shift and a swing
shift.
----------------------
The next step was to hold a series of weekly problem solving meetings
---------------------- devoted to understanding and solving whatever problems were getting in the
way of production. The meetings were attended by the quad saw crew, their
----------------------
supervisor, and the consultant. The meetings were held immediately after work
---------------------- in the saw mill conference room; they lasted for an hour; hourly employees
were paid overtime for attending. The mill superintendent launched the first
---------------------- meetings by saying that he wants 1,150 logs across the quad saw and was
getting only 825. He further stated that he wanted the crew to figure out how to
----------------------
accomplish their goal. He said he would support them in their efforts to improve
---------------------- production. He introduced the consultant as a person who would help them as
they worked on the problem. Then he answered a few questions and left. The
---------------------- first meeting was wild and tumultous: long-standing complaints were raised;
dissatisfaction and frustrations were voiced; a general permission that nothing
----------------------
could or would be done was in evidence.
---------------------- The consultant insisted that they were the people with the knowledge and
---------------------- ability to improve the situation and assured them that the superintendent was
sincere in asking for their help. The consultant laid out two broad questions to
---------------------- guide the discussion.
---------------------- 1. How can we do the job better?

2. How can we make this a better place to work?
----------------------
At later meetings, the process was more systematic. Every machine station
---------------------- was analysed in detail by the operators to discover the barriers and impediments
to production. Every step in operations flow was examined and studied. At
----------------------
this stage the predominant theme was that mechanical problems were the
---------------------- major sources of difficulty. A list of mechanical and maintenance ‘wants’ was
generated. The list was overwhelming for the two maintenance supervisors,
---------------------- so each operator was asked for his three highest-priority items. With the
more manageable list, the maintenance people went to work with enthusiasm.
----------------------
Interaction and problem solving between maintenance and operators increased.
The weekly meetings were used to report progress and check for effectiveness Notes
of repairs, adjustments and modifications.
----------------------
The equipments began to run significantly better.
Next, the group turned to an analysis of ‘human factors’ such as ----------------------
communication, co-ordination, operator technique, operator training needs etc.
----------------------
Again numerous specific problems were raised and systematically addressed,
and corrective actions were planned and implemented. Several persons, ----------------------
including the production supervisors, had to modify their behaviour for overall
system improvements to occur. ----------------------
As changes were implemented, production began to go up, slowly at first, ----------------------
then more rapidly and dramatically. The superintendent’s target of 1,150 was
achieved and surpassed about three months after the meetings were begun. The ----------------------
maintenance people kept improving the equipment, the operators kept improving
----------------------
their flows and techniques and the supervisors kept improving communications
and co-ordinations. Production increased to 1, 550 logs and then leveled off at ----------------------
a steady, stable 1,500 logs per shift. The crew members were pleased and proud
of their accomplishments. The consultant became even more firmly convinced ----------------------
of the power of group problem solving. The superintendent was amazed at the
----------------------
results.
----------------------
Case Study III
----------------------
LARGE SCALE SYSTEM CHANGE
A manufacturing company was in serious trouble: Losses were enormous, ----------------------
and in company analyses showed that the competition could produce the same ----------------------
products at lower cost with higher quality. The survival of the organisation
was threatened. Significant changes needed to be made quickly. But how does ----------------------
one make changes, quickly or otherwise, in a 12,000 persons organisation that
is divided into three major divisions, that has 12 layers in the managements ----------------------
hierarchy, and that has a long history of authoritarian management, an inflexible ----------------------
bureaucracy, and managers running their units is a very conventional way?
Realising the need of outside help, the chief executive of the organisations ----------------------
asked an OD consultant to develop a programme that would produce rapid ----------------------
changes in the way the company operated. The consultant enlisted the problem
and developed a proposal for a programme of action. The proposal was accepted ----------------------
and work began. The essence of large scale systems change programmes is to
stage ‘events’ in which large numbers of organisation members simultaneously ----------------------
collaborate to articulate a desired future for the organisation and commit to ----------------------
taking necessary actions to make that desired future a reality. Follow-up events
ensure the actions are being taken and the desired results are forthcoming. ----------------------
A designed team/steering committee of 24 people from all three divisions ----------------------
was appointed to help the consultants diagnose the situation, the chief executive
and top-management team to learn what they wanted to accomplish with the ----------------------
program.
----------------------

Notes The executive wanted the following:
a) To create a company that is competitive in the global market place,
----------------------
b) To make the company profitable again,
----------------------
c) To replace authoritarian management practice with increased employee
---------------------- involvement and participative management,
---------------------- d) To breakdown the barrier between functional units and to increase co-
operation and coordination between related units.
---------------------- e) In addition they wanted to impart a sense of urgency about the need
---------------------- for rapid change and a sense of crisis about customer’s satisfaction and
production quality.
---------------------- Next the design team collected additional information from employees,
---------------------- managers, and major customers to get a picture of current conditions. The
interviews showed numerous problems, considerable dissatisfaction with the
---------------------- status, and also considerable doubt that the company could or would change.
---------------------- With these nuggets of information, the design team developed an intensive
five days’ seminar for middle and upper managements of each of the three
---------------------- divisions.
---------------------- The seminars were specifically structured to;
---------------------- a) Cause increased interaction and communication among the participants,

b) To create an awareness of the trouble the company was in,
----------------------
c) To generate agreement on where the company was going and how it was
---------------------- going to get there and
---------------------- d) To encourage an in-depth exploration of better ways to run the company.
To cause these things to happen, the seminars contained the following elements:
----------------------
i) Get a large part of the total system in the same room at the same time
----------------------
ii) Conduct a business case analysis from the company similar to the case to
---------------------- be analysed
---------------------- iii) Have the participants generate a ‘derived future’ for the company and the
divisions
---------------------- iv) Take the first steps on action plans to change the company’s ways of
---------------------- operations.
Each seminar would begin with a three days’ offsite, highly interactive and
----------------------
participative programme attended by the top six levels of management in each
---------------------- division followed two months later with a two-day offsite follow up meetings.
The seminars were launched with one division, a week later the second division
---------------------- had its seminars; a week later the third division had its seminar.
---------------------- The seminars were designed to get people talking to each other across
hierarchy and functional boundaries about what was going well, what needed to
---------------------- change if the company was to survive and prosper, and what they really wanted
the company to be like. During the first day of the seminar, the participants Notes
analysed environmental demands and trends, became aware of the company’s
inadequate responses to external demands, and identified areas where the ----------------------
division and the company performed well or poorly. The second day was spent
on explaining the ‘desired future’ that people wanted for the division and the ----------------------
company. This included not only future products and services, but how they ----------------------
wanted to achieve these goals in terms of management practices, employee
relations and customer relations. ----------------------
The two days of the seminar caused a heightened awareness of cross ----------------------
functional and cross hierarchical Interdependence. Members became aware of
the enormous pool of talent and goodwill contained in the division. As three ----------------------
days progressed, people were engrossed in the desired future and new ways of
----------------------
operating which they had helped to create.
It became clear to all that, making better use of all the human resources ----------------------
of the company and promoting greater cooperation between functions were
----------------------
necessary ingredients for achieving the desired future.
The third day was spent examining the implementations of the business ----------------------
analysis and the desired future –what it meant in terms of needed changes, need
----------------------
collaboration, and required resources. First steps were planned to correct the
deficiencies, remove barriers, and to move forward on opportunities. Specific ----------------------
plans were developed, assignments were made monitoring and feedback
systems were established. ----------------------
The two days follow up sessions two months later continued to maximise ----------------------
cross-functional and cross-hierarchical interaction and communications. At
each seminar, people recommitted themselves to desired future, divisions and ----------------------
company goals, and the action steps. First, steps were evaluated to determine ----------------------
if they produced the desired effects. Follow up actions were developed and
assigned. ----------------------
Enthusiasm and energy levels were higher than they had been in years. ----------------------
The roaring success experienced by the first division due to participation in
the seminars was sufficient to ‘sell’ the programme to the other two divisions. ----------------------
Changes in interaction patterns and managements practices were immediate and
positive. Inter unit cooperation increased significantly. Improvements in product ----------------------
quality and customer relations were made. The chief executive declared:”This ----------------------
program was exactly what the company needed at this time.”
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Summary
---------------------- • OD is a long-term planned effort, led and supported by the top management,
to improve organization’s visioning, empowerment, learning and problem
----------------------
solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of
---------------------- organization culture.
---------------------- • OD’s basic aim is to improve organisational effectiveness through cultural

change.
---------------------- • OD is a relatively new field. Because of the projected changes in the way
---------------------- organisations operate the development of OD has gained momentum.
Some of the important challenges that are changing the way organisations
---------------------- operate are pace of competition, mergers and acquisition.
---------------------- • Laboratory training stems, Survey research and feedback stem, Action
research stem and the Sociotichnical and socioclinical stem have
---------------------- contributed towards the growth and development of OD.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• TQM or Total Quality Management: Customer centred approach to
---------------------- improve Organisational Quality and its effectiveness.
---------------------- • Business Process Re-engineering: New approach to look at organisationl
matters involving radical changes.
----------------------
---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Define OD. What are the characteristics of OD?
---------------------- 2. Why do you think OD as a change strategy is more relevant in the present
context?
----------------------
3. Discuss the contribution of socio-technical stem in the development of
---------------------- OD.
---------------------- 4. Explain current trends in the field of OD.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress Notes
1. Which one of the following means interacting, listening and self-
examining process that facilitates individual and team effectiveness? ----------------------
i. Learning ----------------------
2. As a result of recent studies in OD, number of views is now being ----------------------
developed; one of the most important concept on which the OD is
constructed is that of ----------------------
i. A normative value for culture and change ----------------------
3. OD does not utilise the theory of behavioural sciences like ----------------------
iv. Ecology
----------------------
----------------------
1. False ----------------------
2. True ----------------------
3. False ----------------------
4. True
----------------------
----------------------
1. Change agents hold certain norms that they imbibe on organization ----------------------
members:
----------------------
i. Open communication
----------------------
ii. Participation in decision-making
iii. Feeling of self-worth ----------------------
2. Some of important objectives of OD are: ----------------------

i. To increase trust and support among employees ----------------------
ii. To encourage confronting of enterprise problems both within groups
----------------------
and among groups in contrast to sweeping problems under the rug
iv. To increase communication and employee enthusiasm ----------------------
3. What were the further contributions in the study of laboratory training? ----------------------
i. Vertically structured groups ----------------------
ii. Interpersonal and organization effectiveness
----------------------
iii. Conflict management
----------------------

Notes 4. Major contributions in organization development have come from the
following stems:
----------------------
ii. Innovations in the field of laboratory training
---------------------- iii. Survey research and feedback technology
---------------------- iv. Emergence of action research
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bhatia, S K. Organisation Development and Transformation. New Delhi:
---------------------- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
---------------------- 2. Brunnings, Halina. Carol Cole, Clare Huffington Ed. A Manual of
Organizational Development: The Psychology of Change. London:
---------------------- Karnac Books Limited.
---------------------- 3. Cummings, Thomas G & Christopher G Worley. Organization
Development and Change. USA: Cengage Learning.
----------------------
4. Ramnarayan, S &T V Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Organisational Development: Foundation and Research
UNIT
4
Structure:
4.1 Foundations of OD
4.2 Models and Theories of Planned Change
4.3 Systems Theory
4.4 Participation and Empowerment
4.5 Teams and Teamwork
4.6 Parallel Learning Structures
4.7 Normative (Re-educative) Strategy of Changing
4.8 Applied Behavioural Science
4.9 Action Research
4.10 Introduction to the OD Process
4.11 Definition of Organisational Diagnosis
4.12 Weisboard Six Box Model of Diagnosis
4.13 Different Aspects of Diagnosis
4.14 Designing the Research Study
4.15 Techniques for Data Collection
4.16 Important Aspects of Diagnostic Process
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Organisational Development: Foundation and Research 53

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Explain the Organisation Development process in detail
----------------------
• Express the significance of participation, empowerment and teamwork
---------------------- in OD
---------------------- • Illustrate organisational diagnosis
---------------------- • Appraise the essentials of diagnostic process

• Design Research study
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 4.1 FOUNDATIONS OF OD

---------------------- The knowledge base of OD is extensive and is constantly being upgraded.
Some basic concepts on which OD is constructed are explained below.
----------------------
●● Models and theories of planned change
---------------------- ●● Systems theory
---------------------- ●● Participation and empowerment
●● Teams and team work
----------------------
●● Parallel learning structures
----------------------
●● A normative value for culture and change
---------------------- ●● Applied behavioural science
---------------------- ●● Action Research
---------------------- 4.2 MODELS AND THEORIES OF PLANNED CHANGE

---------------------- OD is planned change in an organisational context. An implication of
---------------------- planned changes means that the modalities of change are decided in advance.
However, the word change itself has different connotations. Social psychologist
---------------------- Kurt Lewin advocated that at any point of time what is occurring is a result of
opposing forces i.e. forces pushing up an activity and forces pushing it down
---------------------- and the result that is achieved is equilibrium. Secondly, he developed a model
---------------------- of the change process itself. The change process basically involves three stages.
They are as follows:
---------------------- Stage 1 Unfreezing: Creating motivation and readiness to change through
---------------------- a. Disconfirmation or lack of confirmation
---------------------- b. Creation of guilt or anxiety
c. Provision of psychological safety
----------------------
Stage 2 Changing through Cognitive restructuring: Helping the client to Notes
see, judge, feel and react to things differently based on a new point of
view obtained through: ----------------------
a. Identifying with a new role model, mentor etc. ----------------------
b. Scanning the environment for new relevant information
----------------------
Stage 3 Refreezing: Helping the client to integrate the new point of view into:
----------------------
a. The total personality and self concept
b. Significant Relationship ----------------------
Lewin’s three stage model is a powerful cognitive tool for understanding ----------------------
change situations.
----------------------
1. Unfreezing: In this phase, disconfirmation creates pain and discomfort.
There is a sense of anxiety which motivates the people to change. The ----------------------
first task is to make the people aware of the need for change. A climate of
----------------------
openness and trust is developed so that the group is ready for change.
2 Moving: Using the survey feedback method, the group makes a diagnosis ----------------------
of where it stands and develops action plans where it wants to go. A person
----------------------
needs information and evidence to appreciate that change is desirable and
possible. ----------------------
3. Refreezing: Once the plans have been carried out and an evaluation has ----------------------
been made, the group starts to stabilise into more effective performance.
This is a stage of integration of new behaviours into a person’s personality ----------------------
and attitudes.
----------------------
In recent years, there has been an effort to go beyond these historical
beginnings and develop an overall theoretical framework for the management ----------------------
of change in general and OD in particular. Burke and Litwin suggest that the
two most important aspects of OD are organisational functioning and especially ----------------------
organisational change. ----------------------
The change itself can be classified in following two types:
----------------------
 Transformational Change
----------------------
 Transactional Change
As the word suggests Transformational change means complete ----------------------
transformation. It occurs as a response to the external environment and directly
----------------------
affects organisational mission and strategy, the organisation leadership,
the culture. In turn, transactional factors such as the following are affected: ----------------------
structure, systems, management practices, and climate. These transformational
and transactional factors together affect motivation, which in turn, affects ----------------------
performance.
----------------------
Transformation of organisations and the transition of individuals are
widely used terms when referring to the management of change in recent years. ----------------------
The transactional/transformational concepts come from leadership research ----------------------

Notes where it was observed that some leaders are capable of obtaining extraordinary
performance while other leaders are not. Transformational leaders are ‘leaders’
---------------------- who inspires followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the
organisation and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect
---------------------- on their followers.
---------------------- Transactional leaders are the leaders who guide or motivate their followers
in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
----------------------
Transactional leadership inspires a fair exchange between the leader and
---------------------- the follower that leads to ‘normal’ performance. Transformational leadership
implies inspiration that leads to new heights of performance. Burke and Litwin
----------------------
propose that interventions directed towards leadership, mission, strategy and
---------------------- organisation culture produce transformational change or fundamental change
in organisational culture and interventions directed towards management
---------------------- practices, structure, and systems produce transactional change or change in
organisational climate.
----------------------
---------------------- 4.3 SYSTEMS THEORY
---------------------- Systems theory is the second foundation of OD. This theory views
organisation as an open system in active exchange with their surrounding
----------------------
environments. It is one of the most powerful tools for understanding the
---------------------- dynamics of organisation and organisational change.
To understand System, let us look at it this way: Every system has a
----------------------
boundary that separates it from its environment. The boundary draws the line
---------------------- between System and environment. What is inside the boundary is the System
and what is outside the boundary is the environment.
----------------------
Open systems have purposes and goals, the reason for their existence. It is
---------------------- important to note that these purposes must align themselves with the purposes
or needs in the environment; for example the organisation’s purposes will be
---------------------- reflected in its output, and if the environment does not want the outputs, the
organisation will cease to exist.
----------------------
A system in interaction with its environment
----------------------
Open systems thinking is the most required aspect for creating learning
---------------------- organisation.
---------------------- According to Peter Senge, learning organisation is able to cope effectively
with rapidly changing environmental demands. Senge believes that five
---------------------- disciplines must be mastered in order to create a learning organisation. They
are:
----------------------
●● Personal mastery
----------------------
●● Mental models,
---------------------- ●● Building shared vision
---------------------- ●● Team learning
●● Systems thinking Notes
Of all these disciplines, the fifth discipline, System thinking is the most
important. ----------------------
System theory has contributed in many ways in the theory and practice of ----------------------
OD. Basic elements of the discipline are as under:
----------------------
Issues, events, forces and incidents are not viewed as isolated phenomenon
but are seen in relation to other issues, events and forces. ----------------------
A System approach encourages analysis of events in terms of multiple ----------------------
reasons rather than single reason.
----------------------
One cannot change one part of a system without influencing other parts
in some ways. ----------------------
According to the Field theory postulated by Kurt Lewin, the forces in ----------------------
the field at the time of the event are the relevant forces for analysis. This idea
helps the OD practitioner to analyse the events in the light of the similar kind of ----------------------
historical events. Anyone wants to change a system, must ensure that the whole
system has to be changed not just its component parts. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Lewin’s model of planned change involves
----------------------
i. Unfreezing
----------------------
ii. Changing through cognitive restructuring
iii. Moving ----------------------
iv. Refreezing ----------------------

2. OD changes can be broadly classified as ----------------------
i. Transactional change
----------------------
ii. Transformational change
----------------------
iii. Internal or temporary change
----------------------
iv. External or permanent change
3. According to Peter Senge, which disciplines must be mastered in ----------------------
order to create a learning organisation?
----------------------
i. Personal mastery
----------------------
ii. Building Shared Vision
iii. Political Learning ----------------------
iv. Systems Thinking ----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- 1. Identify major changes that have taken place in your life in last five
years. Classify which ones are transactional and which ones are
---------------------- transformational.
---------------------- 2. Identify how BSNL is affected by present environment created by
private Telephone companies.
----------------------
----------------------
4.4 PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT
----------------------
One of the most important foundations of OD is its use of participation
---------------------- and empowerment model. The participation in OD programs is not restricted
to the top people; it is extended broadly throughout the organisation. Increased
---------------------- participation and empowerment have always been central goals and core
---------------------- values of the field. To empower is to give someone power. This is done by
giving individuals the authority to participate, to make decisions, to contribute
---------------------- their ideas, to exert influence, and to be responsible. Empowerment cannot
automatically come by issuing orders or by pure delegation or by signing a
---------------------- legal document. The most effective form of empowerment is participation by
---------------------- people. That is why participation is such an effective form of empowerment.
Participation enhances empowerment, and empowerment in turn enhances
---------------------- performance and individual well-being.
---------------------- OD interventions are deliberately designed to increase involvement and
participation by organisation leaders and members. For example, autonomous
---------------------- work groups, quality circles, team building, survey feedback, quality of work
life programmes, are all predicted on the belief that increased participation
----------------------
will lead to better solutions to problems and opportunities. OD interventions
---------------------- are basically methods for increasing participation. The entire field of OD is
concerned with empowerment.
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 2
---------------------- Study any five positions in your organisation and to what extent they
---------------------- are authorised to take decisions. Rate the level of empowerment on the
basis of this study. Suggest suitable steps only if you feel that the level of
---------------------- empowerment is very low.
----------------------
---------------------- 4.5 TEAMS AND TEAMWORK
---------------------- A team comprises a group of two or more people who interact and co-
ordinate their work to accomplish a specific goal. The team concept implies
---------------------- a sense of shared mission and collective responsibility. OD efforts are based
on creation and development of effective teams. OD fundamentally believes Notes
that work teams are the building blocks of an organisation. Once the teams
are formed the teams must manage their culture, processes, systems, and ----------------------
relationships if they want to be effective.
----------------------
Theory, research, and practice prove that teams play the central role in
organisational success. Teams and teamwork are part of the foundation of OD. ----------------------
Teams are important for number of reasons: ----------------------
●● Team is the sum total of individuals and their individual behaviour is
----------------------
rooted in the socio cultural norms and values of the work team. So any
change in those norms and values would have an immediate and lasting ----------------------
effect on individual behaviour.
----------------------
●● Many complex tasks cannot be performed individually; people must work
together to accomplish them. ----------------------
●● Teams create synergy, which helps its members to feel the united and
----------------------
strong as a group.
●● Teams help to fulfill people’s need for social entity, status, interaction and ----------------------
respect.
----------------------
●● Teams provide a sense of security to its members. This ultimately
motivates them to perform better. ----------------------
A number of OD interventions viz: Team Building, Inter-group Team ----------------------
Building, Process Consultation, and Quality Circles are specially designed to
improve team performance. These have been explained in detail in later units. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. __________ theory views organisation as an open system in active
exchange with their surrounding environment ----------------------
2. OD fundamentally believes that work teams are the building _______ ----------------------
of an organisation.
----------------------
3. OD interventions such as Process Consultations and Quality Circles
are specially designed to improve ____ performance. ----------------------
4. _________ concept implies a sense of shared mission and collective ----------------------
responsibility as a part of the foundation of OD
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
Analyse how many teams are operating in your organisation or an ----------------------
organisation you closely know. Study how they function. Check which of
the criteria mentioned above they meet? ----------------------

Notes 4.6 PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES
---------------------- Parallel learning structures are specially created organisational structures
developed to plan and guide change programmes. This constitutes another
---------------------- important foundation of OD. These were first introduced in the name of Collateral
Organisation and is defined as “a supplemental organisation coexisting with the
----------------------
usual formal organisation.” The purpose of the collateral organisation is to deal
---------------------- with ill structured problems that the formal organisation is unable to resolve.
Parallel learning structures explain the mechanism by which innovation in
---------------------- large bureaucratic organisations can be introduced. This is required especially
in those organisations where the forces of inertia, hierarchical communication
----------------------
pattern, and standard ways of addressing problems inhibit learning, innovation,
---------------------- and change. In essence, parallel learning structure is a vehicle for learning how
to change the system, and then leading the change process.
----------------------
The essential characteristics of these are as follows:
---------------------- ●● A structure a specific division and co-ordination of labour is created.
---------------------- ●● It operates parallel with the formal hierarchy
---------------------- ●● It has the purpose of increasing organisational learning that is creation of

new thoughts and behaviours by employees.
---------------------- It consists of a steering committee and a number of working groups that
---------------------- study what changes are needed.
Parallel learning structures are a foundation of OD because they are
---------------------- prevalent in many different OD programs. They are often used to co-ordinate
---------------------- self-directed teams in high performance organisations. Parallel learning
structures are a powerful tool for creating organisational change.
----------------------
4.7 NORMATIVE (RE-EDUCATIVE) STRATEGY OF
----------------------
CHANGING
----------------------
This deals with the strategy of change that underlines most Organisational
---------------------- Development activities. Definition of OD refers to improving and managing the
organisation’s culture. This is a clear reference to socio-cultural norms and to
----------------------
the normative nature of organisational change. This approach is based on the
---------------------- assumption that norms form the basis of behaviour and change comes through
the re-educative process in which the old norms are discarded and supplanted
---------------------- by new ones.
---------------------- Since norms are socially accepted beliefs about appropriate and
inappropriate behaviours held by groups, focusing on the group, not the
---------------------- individual, can best change norms.
---------------------- Burke writes:
---------------------- “If one attempts to change an attitude or the behaviour of an individual

without attempting to change the same attitude or behaviour in the group to
---------------------- which the individual belongs then the individual will be a deviate and either
will come under pressure from the group to get back into line or will be rejected Notes
entirely. Thus, the major leverage point for change is at the group level; for
example, by modifying a group norm or standard.” ----------------------
----------------------
4.8 APPLIED BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE
----------------------
The primary knowledge base of OD is behavioural science. It creates the
basic foundation of OD. OD programmes apply scientific and practice principles ----------------------
from behavioural sciences to intervene in the human and social processes of
organisation. OD is application of behavioural science knowledge, practices ----------------------
and skills in ongoing systems in collaboration with system members. ----------------------
OD is both a result of applied behavioural science as well as a form of
applied behavioural science. More precisely, OD is a programme of applying ----------------------
behavioural science to organisations. ----------------------
4.9 ACTION RESEARCH ----------------------
This is a scientific model. Three processes are involved in the scientific ----------------------
method of enquiry namely. ----------------------
i. Data collection
----------------------
ii. Feedback of the data to client system members
----------------------
iii. Action planning based on data
Most OD activities are based on a basic model that is data based, problem ----------------------
solving, and scientific method of enquiry also known as Action Research model.
----------------------
Action Research is a method for ‘learning and doing’: learning about
the dynamics of organisational change and doing or implementing change ----------------------
efforts. Action research is the process of gathering information, feeding it ----------------------
back, and developing plans for implementing desired changes. In a typical OD
programme, Action Research involves gathering information (usually through ----------------------
interviews and questionnaires), making that information visible, (for example,
reporting interview themes to a group on flip-chart, paper), and facilitating ----------------------
employee participation in a diagnostic and problem solving effort. Action ----------------------
Research is especially well suited for planned change programmes and has been
the foundation of OD from the very beginning. ----------------------
Action: Implementation of plans by members or subgroups of work teams ----------------------
Action: Planning by work team
----------------------
Discussion & diagnosis of high priority items by work team
----------------------
Feedback of data to intact work teams
Extraction of themes or patterns from the data (usually by Facilitator) ----------------------
Research Data gathering from Organisation members (interviews or ----------------------
questionnaires)
----------------------

Notes Action: Carrying plans further, new actions
Further action planning by teams
----------------------
Discussions of progress, further diagnosis of problems by teams
----------------------
Feedback of new data, progress reports (in team meetings)
---------------------- Research: Data gathering (Follow-up on progress: how are things going?
---------------------- Any new problems?)
---------------------- 4.10 INTRODUCTION TO THE OD PROCESS

---------------------- So far in previous units we have already come across a number of case
studies in which normal methods of improving an organisation fail to produce
----------------------
results. Hence a very strong form of change strategy has to be adopted. Here
---------------------- lies an opportunity to initiate OD programmes. All OD programs have three
basic components;
----------------------
●● Diagnosis
---------------------- ●● Action or Intervention planning
---------------------- ●● Programme Management
The OD process is based on the action research model which begins with
----------------------
an identified problem or need for change. The process proceeds through
---------------------- ●● Assessment of needs (akin to problems and goals)
---------------------- ●● Planning of an intervention (content, extent, structure, duration)
●● Implementing the intervention
----------------------
●● Gathering data to evaluate the effect of the intervention and
---------------------- ●● Determining if satisfactory progress has been made or if there is need for
---------------------- further intervention.
The process is cyclical and ends when the desired developmental result
---------------------- is obtained. The OD process begins when an organisation recognises that a
---------------------- problem exists which impacts the mission or health of the organisation and
change is desired. It can also begin when leadership has a vision of a better way
---------------------- and wants to improve the organisation. An organisation does not always have to
be in trouble to implement organisational development activities.
----------------------
Once the decision is made to change the situation, the next step is to assess
---------------------- the situation so as to fully understand it. This assessment can be conducted
in many ways including documentation review, organisational sensing, focus
----------------------
groups, interviewing, or surveying. The assessment could be conducted by
---------------------- outside experts or by members of the organisation.
After the situation is assessed, defined, and understood, the next step is to
----------------------
plan an intervention. The type of change desired would determine the nature of
---------------------- the intervention. Interventions could include
●● Training and development,
----------------------
●● Team interventions such as teambuilding for management or employees Notes
●● The establishment of change teams,
----------------------
●● Structural interventions or individual interventions.
Once the intervention is planned, the core team has to ensure that it is ----------------------
implemented. During and after the implementation of the intervention, relevant ----------------------
data is gathered. The data gathered has to be properly tabulated and analysed.
The exact use of relevant data would be determined by the changed goals. ----------------------
For example, if the intervention were training and development for individual
employees or for work groups, data to be gathered would measure changes in ----------------------
knowledge and competencies of the employees after implementation of training ----------------------
programmes.
These data are used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. It is ----------------------
reported to the organisation’s decision-makers. The decision-makers determine ----------------------
if the intervention met it goals. If the intervention met its goals, the process can
end, which is depicted by the raising of the development bar. If it did not, the ----------------------
decision is made whether to continue the cycle and to plan and carry out another
intervention or to end it. ----------------------
An outside change agent typically begins his work in a change project ----------------------
with an organisational diagnosis. During feedback sessions, members of an
organisation often say: “There is nothing new about these results, we knew ----------------------
this already”. The outsider might say: “The problems that come up are almost ----------------------
similar in every organisation”. If this is true, what then is the role of diagnosis in
the change effort? Does it serve any purpose? Is it needed or useful in any sense? ----------------------
Answers to these questions lie in scientific collection of data and relevance
of diagnosis. The forthcoming paragraphs will throw some light on the above ----------------------
aspects. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. A supplemental organisation coexisting with the usual formal
organisation are known as competitors group. ----------------------
2. Collateral Organisations are also known parallel learning structure. ----------------------
3. Action Research refers to programs and interventions designed to
solve problems and improve conditions ----------------------
4. The primary knowledge base of OD is Behavioural Science ----------------------

Knowledge
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 4
----------------------
---------------------- List out the behaviours of five different persons who you think are
detrimental to the organisational interest. Suggest ways in which you can
---------------------- change them.
----------------------
---------------------- 4.11 DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL DIAGNOSIS

---------------------- Organisational Diagnosis has been defined by Harrison as a process
of using conceptual models and methods from the behavioural sciences to
----------------------
assess the organisation’s current state and find ways to solve specific problems
---------------------- or increase their effectiveness. The organisation diagnosis is applying the
knowledge and practices of behavioural sciences to help organisations achieve
---------------------- greater effectiveness, including financial performance and improved quality
of working life. This is postulated by Cummings and Worley, 1997. They
----------------------
also believed that the values and ethical beliefs that underlie OD suggest that
---------------------- both organisational members and change agents should be jointly involved in
discovering the root causes of organisational problems.
----------------------
It is a collaborative process between organisational members and the
---------------------- OD consultant to collect pertinent information, analyse it, feed it back to
the organisation and draw conclusions for action, planning and intervention.
---------------------- The change literature provides a lot of guidance to conducting the diagnosis.
However, that guidance is primarily given in the form of proposing diagnostic
----------------------
models and developing specific data collection methods.
---------------------- Emphasis, therefore, has been on how to derive relevant and accurate
---------------------- information from the organisation. Less has been written about the feedback
phase of the diagnosis. This seems to be the case despite the fact that it has
---------------------- been described as: “perhaps the most important step in the diagnostic process is
feeding back diagnostic information to the client organisation” Cummings and
---------------------- Worley, 1997.
---------------------- To summarise, diagnosis is:
---------------------- 1. A continuous collection of data about the total system or its sub units,
systems, processes, culture
----------------------
2. To identify the strengths, problem areas, unrealised opportunities or
---------------------- any discrepancy between the vision of the desired future and the current
situation.
----------------------
Continuous diagnosis is necessary and leads to a discovery of gap between
---------------------- actual and desired conditions.
Diagnosis thus helps in several ways:
----------------------
●● To know the status: how things really are
----------------------
●● To know what are the consequences of actions taken Notes
●● Enhances organisation’s capacity to assess and change its culture
----------------------
●● Provides members with insight into dysfunctional aspects of their culture
and behaviour ----------------------
●● Patterns: basis to develop a more effective organisation. ----------------------
●● Ensures organisational engagement in the process of continuous
improvement. Continuous diagnosis is necessary for planned change: it is ----------------------
basic to all goal-oriented activity (in all aspects of life).
----------------------
According to Argyris, the consultant has three primary responsibilities:
----------------------
●● To help the client system to generate valid data
●● To enable the client to have free informed choice and ----------------------
●● To help the client System generates internal commitment to the choices ----------------------
made.
----------------------
4.12 WEISBORD’S SIX BOX MODEL OF DIAGNOSIS ----------------------
Marvin Weisboard’s Six Box Model was developed from his experience ----------------------
of consulting to organisations on their problems. He suggests a practical
framework as illustrated below: ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 4.1: Six Box Model of Organisational Diagnosis
----------------------
Six critical areas to focus on in diagnosis are as follows:
Purposes: This involves basic purpose for which any organisation comes ----------------------
into being. It involves an organisation clarifying and agreeing on its mission ----------------------
and goals. This is required for clarity of employees so that all their actions could
be directed accordingly. Many a times, activities carried out by the organisation ----------------------
are not in consistence with its basic purpose.
----------------------
Structure: This involves how various activities of the organisation
are divided. What are the different hierarchical levels, if any? Do people ----------------------

Notes carry sufficient authorities to perform their work? It also addresses how the
organisation assigns tasks to different categories of employees and how the
---------------------- work gets done.
---------------------- Rewards: Rewards play an important role in human performance. It deals
with the incentives the organisation provides and how people feel about those
---------------------- incentives. The importance of monetary rewards need not be overemphasised.
The consultant would like to know which behaviours the organisation rewards
----------------------
and whether the workers value these rewards.
---------------------- Helpful mechanisms: It concerns systems, such as budgeting,
management information systems, planning and control systems existing in
----------------------
the organisation that assists employees in achieving their work objectives.
---------------------- For example, what systems are in place to help the employees become more
productive?
----------------------
Relationships: Good working relationship is a key to success. There is a
---------------------- need to examine how the employees relate to each other. How well do they get
along and how do they resolve their conflicts.
----------------------
Leadership: In every organisation, people need a controller to whom they
---------------------- look up to for guidance on day to day matters and need proper support. Hence
somebody should be available for this guidance. Also desired to be known is the
---------------------- style of management including the systems the leader uses.
----------------------
4.13 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF DIAGNOSIS
----------------------
Formal and Informal aspects of the organisation need to be diagnosed
---------------------- to get a complete and better picture of the current state of the organisation.
Formal aspects are those aspects which determine how things are supposed
----------------------
to be done as per guidelines and the norms of management. But, in practice
---------------------- sometimes they are carried in a different way. These are the ways of Informal
systems indicating how things are really done. Studying of both these aspects
---------------------- is essential in solving various issues. Many rules are framed without looking
at the convenience of users. The root cause of most people-related problems
----------------------
in organisations can be found in a combination of these factors. However, this
---------------------- should not be an opinion based activity drawn from some samples.
---------------------- This is a data-based activity: reliant on valid information about current

problems and improvement possibilities. Hence proper collection of data
---------------------- becomes most important activity.
---------------------- Diagnosis focuses on 2 broad areas:

●● Various sub-elements (subsystems) that make up the organisation
---------------------- (divisions, departments etc.)
---------------------- ●● Organisational processes (communication, problem-solving, decision-
making, leadership styles, conflict management etc.)
----------------------
----------------------
Limitations Notes
As with any complex program, OD has problems and limitations. It is
----------------------
time consuming and expensive. Some benefits have a delayed pay off period,
and an organisation may not be able to wait that long for potential benefits. ----------------------
Even if a professionally capable consultant is used, it may fall flat. There are
questions of invasion of privacy and psychological harm in some of its methods. ----------------------
There are charges that participants are sometime coerced towards group attitude
----------------------
and conformity. There are other charges that excessive emphasis is given to
behavioural processes rather than to job performances. Group processes seem ----------------------
to be given priority over needs of the organisation. Some critics say that OD has
conceptual ambiguities that prevent its consistent application. ----------------------
In spite of its problems and limitations, OD generally seems to be a ----------------------
useful and successful practice. It has contributed to improved results. For better
understanding of OD programme, let us read the description of a few actual ----------------------
OD programme, which would provide and enhance the basic knowledge of OD
----------------------
interventions.
Research questions: ----------------------
●● What is the degree of dependence between operating teams, departments ----------------------
or units?
----------------------
●● What is the quantity and quality of the exchange of information and
communication between units? ----------------------
●● What is the degree to which the vision, mission and goals of the
----------------------
organisation are shared and understood by members?
●● What are the norms, attitudes and motivations of members? ----------------------
●● What are the effects of the distribution of power and status within the ----------------------
system?
Once these questions are asked to different people in the organisation, one ----------------------
is able to understand the current state of affairs. These data cannot be accepted ----------------------
as they are. It needs further analysis. It has also to be correlated with many other
systems and data, before a conclusion can be arrived at. ----------------------
----------------------
4.14 DESIGNING THE RESEARCH STUDY
----------------------
The basic aim of any research study is that after selecting a particular
topic for research there is an essential requirement of gathering as much as ----------------------
information as possible about it. This can be done in various ways.
----------------------
Interview: By holding structured interviews. The reason for conducting
interview should be fact-finding and not fault finding, or the interview will lose ----------------------
its sanctity. This is the reason why many results of interview are not fruitful.
Interviewing is a skill and needs be learned thoroughly. ----------------------
Questionnaire: Preparation of a well designed questionnaire and its ----------------------

monitoring the same on key/all employees
----------------------

Notes Study: It is necessary to study various existing systems in the organisation.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 4.2: Three Levels of Organisational Analysis
---------------------- The Diagnosis can be undertaken at three levels as illustrated in the fig.
---------------------- 4.2 above:
●● Organisation wide analysis that cuts across the organisational divisions
----------------------
●● Group Analysis that examines data on group level
---------------------- ●● Individual analysis that collects and examines data at individual level.
----------------------
4.15 TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION
----------------------
i. Primary Source of Data: This information is directly received by talking
---------------------- to the concerned employees, key executives, related personnel outside but
connected with the organisation etc.
----------------------
ii. Secondary Sources of Data: Existing information such as accounting
---------------------- information, productivity data, HR records, performance indicators etc.
---------------------- This might be a good starting point, but may not be sufficiently detailed.
iii. Employee Satisfaction Surveys are critical sources of data. They:
----------------------
Serve as information/improvement tools. They help identify opportunities
---------------------- for improvement and help evaluate the impact of changes made.
---------------------- Are an effective communication tool. They facilitate dialogue on potential
improvements between managers and employees.
----------------------
They can be of any one or more of the following types:
---------------------- 1. Questionnaires (quantitative): Questionnaire could be well designed

for surveys of attitudes, values, beliefs etc. It can follow a pattern suitable Notes
to the employees in any particular organisation and its existing culture.
----------------------
It may be impersonal, anonymous, easy to analyse but must be reliable.
The information gathered must a valid. Information gathered may sometimes ----------------------
has limited depth but can be useful for general overview of commonality
of perception among employees. In such surveys it is necessary to inform ----------------------
employees the purpose and how the information will be used etc. (informed
----------------------
consent).
It is obligatory on the part of the Consultant to ensure the confidentiality ----------------------
of all data and to provide feedback to all participants.
----------------------
2. Socio-metric approach focuses on interrelationships between groups,
according to specific dimensions. Asks open questions such as ‘Who do ----------------------
you prefer to work with?’ ‘Who do you prefer to communicate with?”,
----------------------
‘Who helps you most with technical problems?’ etc. A diagram is
developed (sociogram) which indicates frequently named persons (stars) ----------------------
and infrequently named (isolates). Individuals who choose each other are
called as falling into the mutual choice category. This helps to identify ----------------------
one-way choices and clichés.
----------------------
3. Direct observation about how people perform their tasks and how they react
in response to certain situations. It identifies attitudes, norms, inconsistent ----------------------
/ discordant behaviour etc. The observer should be inconspicuous / ----------------------
unobtrusive and non-threatening.
Interviews are flexible. They should be a 2-way communication that ----------------------
can give way to probing / questioning of responses for a detailed and better ----------------------
diagnosis. They can be of the following types:
Directed, open-ended, closed, non-directed (structured, unstructured, ----------------------
semi- structured). They require sufficient time and honesty. ----------------------
----------------------
1. Which two areas are focused by Diagnosis? ----------------------
i. Subsystems and organisational processes ----------------------
ii. Systems and people
iii. People and structure ----------------------
iv. Rewards and relationship ----------------------
2. What are the three levels of organisational diagnosis?
i. Department, teams and organisation ----------------------
ii. Organisation, group and individual ----------------------
iii. Systems, structure and people
----------------------
iv. Rewards, relationships and organisation
----------------------

Notes 3. In Marvin Weisbord’s Six Box Model of Diagnosis, which box is
responsible to keep rest all the boxes in balance?
----------------------
i. Purpose box
----------------------
ii. Leadership box
---------------------- iii. Rewards box
---------------------- iv. Relationship box
---------------------- 4. Existing information such as accounting information, productivity
data, HR records and performance indicators are sources of;
----------------------
i. Historical records
---------------------- ii. Primary data
---------------------- iii. Employee Satisfaction Survey
---------------------- iv. Secondary data
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 5
---------------------- After discussing the problems you face in your organisation with
five to ten of your colleagues, tabulate them. Try to find out whether these
----------------------
problems belong to organisationals level, group level or Individual level.
----------------------
----------------------
4.16 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS
----------------------
Diagnostic process must watch out for the following:
---------------------- 1. Validity of data: It should be ensured that the data collected in the process
---------------------- is valid data. It should not be fictitious or based on assumptions.
2. Time required collecting data: The period of data collection should not be
----------------------
too short nor Should it should be too long.
---------------------- 3. Cost of data collection: It should be obtained at a reasonable cost.
---------------------- 4. Organisation culture and norms
---------------------- 5. Hawthorne effect (is your presence influencing the data that is being
collected?)
---------------------- 6. Confidentiality of data should be maintained. Source of data should not
---------------------- be disclosed to others. If at all required some of the contents pertinent to
the person may be revealed.
----------------------
7. A tendency to over-diagnose or to overestimate should be discouraged.
---------------------- 8. Threatening and overwhelming diagnosis must be avoided at all costs.
----------------------
It is important that Diagnosis is conducted efficiently for further interventions. Notes
Bear in mind that most of the time it is because of faulty diagnosis that
----------------------
OD programmes fail.
----------------------
Case Studies
----------------------
Case Study 1 ----------------------
ABC Company is a manufacturing unit in engineering sector having ----------------------
manufacturing operations in more than one state .The company has been
operating in one location for more than 25 years. It has more than 800 ----------------------
employees. It is a professionally managed company with a Vice President as ----------------------
Chief Executive Officer. It has a tradition of appointing the senior most person
at this position .Whenever a vice President retires the position is occupied by ----------------------
the next in command. Recently, its Vice President retired from services having
reached his age of superannuation. He was a strict disciplinarian and had very ----------------------
good command over both workers and Staff members. After his retirement, ----------------------
the post was offered to the next senior person of the rank of General Manager.
This person was excellent in his technical knowledge and commanded respect ----------------------
from all concerned. But he was a little shy by nature and an introvert. Only a
few years were left for his retirement. Hence, he informed the top management ----------------------
of his ability to take up this position restricting himself to the present head of a ----------------------
technical division.
Within a couple of years, different managers started feeling that their ----------------------
autonomy and vested interests had led to organisational chaos. The management ----------------------
appointed an ad hoc Vice President. However he was unable to control the
situation. Though the company had only one representative union, soon there ----------------------
were warring factions. A section of the workers organised another forum by
the name of Sangharh Samiti. Industrial relations started deteriorating at a very ----------------------
fast rate. Profits soon started coming down. The company decided to appoint ----------------------
a Vice President belonging to a competitor company. He tried normal ways of
controlling the situation but losses were mounting. ----------------------
In one of the important meeting of Board of Directors, a decision was ----------------------
taken to close the unit. One option was to shift this unit to other place or close
it down. The present wage level in the company was very high. The company ----------------------
followed a system of time scale promotion due to which many incapable
----------------------
persons got promoted by virtue of their length of service. The Vice President
of the company was very optimistic. He still felt that though the company had ----------------------
suffered huge losses, still the right steps could save it from closure or shifting.
----------------------
Questions
1. Please suggest what Organisational Development measures should he ----------------------
initiate and what tools he should use.
----------------------
2. Which techniques from those studied above would be more appropriate?
----------------------

Notes Case Study 2
---------------------- Reliable Enterprises was established 10 years ago at Lonapur when it
was a small, almost deserted village near the district town of Vijapur. The firm
---------------------- produced a number of decorative fixtures. In the beginning the management
was just one person-Seth Chandan Das. But as the demand for profits grew,
----------------------
some executives mostly Seth’s distant relatives were employed. These people
---------------------- were content to take the line of least resistance and merely kept on the right
side of Seth. Meanwhile, Lonapur became more and more inhabited and soon
---------------------- became a large housing area where the factory and few other workshops got
surrounded by residential housing. Mr. Seth was however reluctant to move
----------------------
the factory to another large plot which he owned in an industrial area, on the
---------------------- grounds that he was sentimentally attached to Lonapur. Mr. Seth rarely came to
the factory especially since he appointed Mr. Kaveri,B.E. M.B.A. as the Chief
---------------------- Executive Officer of the firm on the strong pleading of his sons. Mr Kaveri’s
working style was resented and he had to fire a few people who were inefficient
----------------------
and obstructionists. He tried to reason with his officers and supervisors that the
---------------------- main weaknesses were poor machines and manpower utilisation.
---------------------- He also tried to convince the officers that the growing grip of employees’
union needed to be dealt with more firmness through the use of disciplinary
---------------------- provisions against erring and negligent employees. His concern over
deterioration of employee discipline was shared by the officers and supervisors,
---------------------- though they were reluctant to confront the Union. Another point that he shared
---------------------- with the officers was relatively stagnant market, which was attributed by
him to lack of organised marketing efforts. All these aspects of working of
---------------------- Reliable Enterprises ultimately got reflected in the declining profitability and
the difficulties in paying suppliers on time. One day the Chief Executive called
---------------------- the meeting of all the officers and supervisors and addressed them as follows
---------------------- “Gentlemen, I have been here for nearly one year but I find that I have
made very little progress in the unit’s working because my ideas are not well
---------------------- accepted by a section of employees. I am therefore forming an inter departmental
---------------------- team consisting of Mr. A from production Mr. B from finance and my executive
assistant. Let the team find out facts, the weaknesses and what has to be done to
---------------------- improve matters. Let scientific management be the criteria of working and not
sentimental attitudes. In other words, don’t accept things because I am saying
---------------------- so; let the team say so. However once the team makes a critical study and makes
---------------------- recommendation let everyone wholeheartedly support them. I shall give a full
brief to the team which should be carefully studied and which can become the
---------------------- starting point for the team’s work.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Questions Notes
1. Do you think measures adopted by Mr. Kaveri will be sufficient to solve
----------------------
current problem?
2. If not, what remedial action would you suggest in the light of whatever ----------------------
you have studied about OD so far?
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● Intervention is a term used for a specific technique that is used in OD. The ----------------------
type of intervention has to be properly planned after thorough Diagnosis
----------------------
by the key stakeholders.
●● System theory is the one of the foundation of OD. This theory views ----------------------
organisation as an open system in active exchange with their surrounding
environment. ----------------------
●● One of the most important foundations of OD is its use of a participation ----------------------

and empowerment model, which involves every individual in the
organisation across the levels. ----------------------
●● The concepts of parallel learning structures and Action Research have ----------------------
been explained. The purpose of the collateral organisation is to deal with
the ill structured problems that are formal organisations are unable to ----------------------
resolve. ----------------------
●● Organisational diagnosis is a collaborative process between organisational
members and the OD consultant to collect pertinent information, analyse ----------------------
it, feed it back to the organisation and draw conclusions for action planning ----------------------
and intervention.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
●● Diagnosis: Assessment of current state of affairs ----------------------
●● Transformational: Involving complete change
----------------------
●● Transactional: Only selected features changed
●● Norms: Socially accepted Beliefs / Standard Guidelines ----------------------
●● Job Enrichment: A process of vertical loading of responsibilities as a ----------------------
motivator.
----------------------
1. What are different techniques used as OD interventions? ----------------------
2. Critically examine the importance of Parallel Learning Structures? ----------------------
3. Analyse the importance of System approach.
----------------------
4. What are the different steps involved in Action Research?
----------------------

Notes 5. What are the different aspects of organisational diagnosis?
6. Explain Weisboard’s six boxes model of Organisational Diagnosis.
----------------------
7. Explain the various methods of collecting Data in research.
----------------------
8. Explain the various levels of analysis of organisation as a whole.
---------------------- 9. What are Primary Data and Secondary Data?
---------------------- 10. Comment on the interview method of Data Collection.
---------------------- 11. Website is a secondary source of data. Elaborate.
12. In Organisational studies, what factors are important and which of them
----------------------
need to be investigated in details?
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Lewin’s model of planned change involves
---------------------- i. Unfreezing
---------------------- iii. Moving
---------------------- iv. Refreezing

2. OD changes can be broadly classified as
----------------------
i. Transactional Change
----------------------
ii. Transformational Change
---------------------- 3. According to Peter Senge, which disciplines must be mastered in order to
---------------------- create a learning organisation?
i. Personal mastery
----------------------
ii. Building Shared Vision
----------------------
iv. Systems Thinking
---------------------- 1. Systems theory views organisation as an open system in active exchange

with their surrounding environment
---------------------- 2. OD fundamentally believes that work teams are the building blocks of an
---------------------- organisation.
3. OD interventions such as Process Consultations and Quality Circles are
----------------------
specially designed to improve team performance.
---------------------- 4. Team concept implies a sense of shared mission and collective
responsibility as a part of the foundation of OD
----------------------
Check your Progress 3 Notes
----------------------
1. False
----------------------
2. True
3. True ----------------------
4. True ----------------------
----------------------
1. Which two areas are focused by Diagnosis?
----------------------
i. Subsystems and organisational processes
2. What are the three levels of organisational diagnosis? ----------------------
ii. Organisation, group and individual ----------------------

3. In Marvin Weisbord’s Six Box Model of Diagnosis, which box is ----------------------
responsible to keep rest all the boxes in balance?
----------------------
ii. Leadership Box
4. Existing information such as accounting information, productivity data, ----------------------
HR records and performance indicators are sources of;
----------------------
iv. Secondary data
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Bhatia, S.K. Organisation Development and Transformation. New Delhi: ----------------------

----------------------
2. Brunning, Halina, Carol Cole, Clare Huffington. Ed. A Manual of
Organizational Development: The Psychology of Change. London: ----------------------
----------------------
3. Cummings, Thomas G & Christopher G Worley. Organization
4. Ramnarayan, S. & T.V. Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating ----------------------
Learning and Transformation. SAGE Publications.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Action Research and OD
UNIT
5
Structure:
5.1 Introduction and Definition of Action Research

5.2 Action Research Model
5.3 Features of Action Research
5.4 Example: Unproductive Meetings
5.5 Varieties of Action Research
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Action Research and OD 77

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Explain the exact meaning of Action Research.
----------------------
• Illustrate Action Research model.
----------------------
• Examine the features of Action Research.
---------------------- • Distinguish between varieties of action research
----------------------
----------------------
5.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF ACTION
---------------------- RESEARCH
----------------------
As the name suggests, Action Research is research in current working of
---------------------- organisational issues focusing on selected ones. A number of issues come up in
an organisation requiring deep attention of the persons concerned. The general
---------------------- tendency is to sort them out by getting necessary instructions from superiors
and act over directions given. In case the issues are very important and if they
----------------------
involve many people then they are sorted out by holding discussions in various
---------------------- fora or meetings of a team of managerial persons from time to time. In this
process an analysis of the working is also regularly done by them. But this by
---------------------- itself does not amount to Action Research. We have to follow a scientific method
of conducting research to take action to sort out the problem. The technique
----------------------
developed for the same over a period of years is called as Action Research.
---------------------- Action Research is research on action with the goals of making that action
most effective, simultaneously building a body of scientific knowledge. Action
----------------------
refers to programmes and interventions designed to solve problems and improve
---------------------- organisational conditions.
---------------------- Behavioural Scientist Kurt Lewin has been instrumental in basically

developing this concept and giving it proper shape. He believed that research
---------------------- on action programmes especially social change programmes was imperative
if the progress was to be made in solving social problems. Action research
---------------------- would address several needs simultaneously. Action Research is one of the
---------------------- cornerstones of Organisation development. It uses both theory and practice of
the field. It can be viewed in terms of two perspectives:
---------------------- a) As a process and
---------------------- b) As a problem solving approach
---------------------- Definition
Action Research is a process of systematically collecting research data
----------------------
about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal or need of that system;
---------------------- feeding these data back into the system; taking action by altering selected
variables within the system based on both the data and on hypotheses; and Notes
evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data.
----------------------
This definition characterises Action Research in terms of the activities
comprising the process. Let us examine the steps involved: ----------------------
●● First a static picture is taken of an organisation
----------------------
●● On the basis of ’what exists’ hunches and hypotheses, suggest actions;
----------------------
●● These activities typically involve manipulating variables in the system
that are under control of the action researcher; ----------------------
●● Later a second static picture is taken of the system to examine the effects
of the action taken. ----------------------
Several authors have noted the importance of viewing action research ----------------------
as a process. In one of the action research programmes behavioural scientists
developed a process for applying human relations research findings to the ----------------------
changing of organisational behaviour. The word process is very important is ----------------------
as it was not a one shot affair. The project requires continuous gathering and
analysis of human relations research data and the feeding of the findings into ----------------------
the organisation in such a way that it helps to bring change behaviour of the
people working in it. We know that changing behaviour is not an easy affair. ----------------------
This particular study of hotel industry was conducted long before the ----------------------
present term Organisational Development was introduced. But it was based
solely on an action research model. ----------------------
Behavioural scientist French shows how Action Research can be used ----------------------
as a generic process in organisation development. The process is iterative and
----------------------
cyclical. The model consists of the following elements.
The key aspects of the model are diagnosis, data gathering, feedback to ----------------------
client group, data discussion and work by the client group, action planning and
----------------------
action. The sequence tends to be cyclical, with the focus on new or advanced
problems as the client group learns to work more effectively together. Action ----------------------
Research is processed in two different ways. It is a sequence of events and
activities within each iteration (Data collection, feedback and working with ----------------------
data, and taking action based on the data and it is a cycle of iterations of these
----------------------
activities, sometimes treating the same problem through several cycles and
sometimes moving to different problems in each cycle.) ----------------------
Action Research may also be described as an approach to problem solving, ----------------------
thus suggesting its use as a model, guide, or paradigm. Used in this way Action
Research may be defined as follows: ----------------------
Action Research is the application of the scientific method of fact ----------------------
finding and experimentation to practical problems requiring action, solutions
and involving collaboration and cooperation of scientists, practitioners and ----------------------
laypersons. In the process, scientific analysis is done and solutions to the
problem are obtained by the involvement of all concerned. The data generated ----------------------
could further be used as models for various decisions. ----------------------

Notes 5.2 ACTION RESEARCH MODEL
---------------------- This model has been developed by Herbert Shepard. It combines objective,
planning and action.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Fig. 5.1: Action Research Model
---------------------- Action Research was the conceptual model for an early organisation
improvement programme in a group of oil refineries. Herbert Shepard, one of
----------------------
the behavioural scientists involved in that programme, defines the nature of
---------------------- Action Research as follows:
The Action Research model is the normative model for learning, or a
----------------------
model for planned change. Its main features are these: In front of intelligent
---------------------- human action there should be an objective, even if it is fuzzy or distorted. In
advance of human action there should be planning, although knowledge of
---------------------- paths to the objective is always inadequate. Action itself should be taken a step
at a time. After each step it is a good policy to do some fact-finding. The fact-
----------------------
finding may disclose whether the objective is realistic, whether it is nearer or
---------------------- more distant than before, whether it needs alteration. Through fact-finding, the
present situation can be assessed. This information together with information
---------------------- about the objective can be used in planning the second step. Movement towards
an objective consists of a series of such cycles of planning-acting-fact finding-
----------------------
planning.
---------------------- Thus, Shepard highlights the relationship between goals, planning and
---------------------- action in his diagram. Action Research is thus research with a purpose.
Role of a consultant /change agent
----------------------
The role of a consultant or a change agent is to help the manager plan his
---------------------- action and design his fact finding procedures, in such a way that he can learn
from them, to serve such ends so that s/he becomes a more skillful manager,
----------------------
setting more realistic objectives, discovering better ways of organising. In this
---------------------- sense, the staff concerned with follow-up, are research consultants. Their task is
to help managers formulate management problems as experiments.
----------------------
5.3 FEATURES OF ACTION RESEARCH Notes
It is thus seen that Action Research has the following features; ----------------------
●● Normative nature of this model ----------------------
●● Importance and centrality of goals and objectives
----------------------
●● Different role/requirement of Consultants/ change agents vis a vis the
clients ----------------------
Three additional features deserve discussion:
----------------------
●● The elements of Action Research Model that link it to the scientific
method of enquiry ----------------------
●● Collaborative relation among scientists, practitioners, and laypersons that ----------------------
often is a component of Action Research.
----------------------
●● Increased richness of knowledge that can be derived from Action Research
programmes. ----------------------
The model for action research was introduced by the philosopher John
----------------------
Dewey in his book How We Think. He identified the following five phases of
reflective thinking: ----------------------
a) Suggestion
----------------------
b) Intellectualisation
----------------------
c) Hypothesising
d) Reasoning and ----------------------
e) Testing of the Hypothesis. ----------------------

This approach to problem solving is translated into scientific method as ----------------------
follows:
----------------------
First, a scientist is confronted with a problem/obstacle or new idea that he
or she wants to understand. This is referred to as the ‘suggestion’ phase. ----------------------
Scientist identifies the problem, intellectualises about it. This is what we ----------------------
call as ‘thinking’; this would be the ‘Intellectualisation’ phase.
The scientist then develops some base or assumption. The ----------------------
‘Hypothesising’stage. ----------------------
S/he starts analysing and making certain observations and logical
deductions. This would be the ‘Reasoning’ phase. ----------------------
The final stage is observing, testing or experimenting to see if the ----------------------

relationship between the phenomena expressed in the hypothesis is verified or
----------------------
confirmed.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Similar steps are useful and essential in Action Research
The significant elements of a design for Action Research are:
----------------------
●● Identification of a problem area about which an individual or a group is
---------------------- sufficiently concerned to want to take some action.
---------------------- ●● The selection of a specific problem and the formulation of hypothesis or
prediction that implies a goal and procedure for reaching it. This specific
---------------------- goal must be viewed in relation to the total situation.
---------------------- he advancement of Action Research is credited to Kurt Lewin, who, in
T
1946, used it as a methodology for intervening in the post-war issues of
---------------------- the day. In 1953, Stephen Corey, a researcher from Columbia University’s
Teacher’s College, published Action Research to Improve School Practice.
----------------------
The steps outlined by Stephen Corey for action Research are as under:
----------------------
●● The identification of a problem area about which an individual or a group
---------------------- is sufficiently concerned to want to take some action.
●● The selection of a specific problem and the formulation of hypothesis or
----------------------
prediction that implies a goal or procedure for reaching it. The specific
---------------------- goal must be viewed in relation to the total situation.
●● Careful recording of actions taken and accumulation of evidence to
----------------------
determine the degree to which the goal has been achieved.
---------------------- ●● The inference from this evidence of generalisations regarding the
relationship between actions and desired goal.
----------------------
●● Continuous retesting of these generalisations in action situations.
---------------------- It has been observed that in many cases the problem is concerning many
---------------------- persons and the experiment is likely to affect them. Hence, Action Research
requires that all concerned should be involved in the process. It then becomes
---------------------- Co-operative Action Research.
----------------------
5.4 EXAMPLE: UNPRODUCTIVE MEETINGS
----------------------
The following example will illustrate the technique of Action Research
---------------------- coherently.
---------------------- In one organisation, staff meetings were conducted at regular intervals. In

the beginning they were very productive. But after a period of time they were
---------------------- found to be unproductive. They were poorly attended and members expressed
low involvement and commitment. It was generally agreed that the meetings
---------------------- were unproductive.
---------------------- The help of Action Research model can be taken in this situation as under:
---------------------- ●● The first step is to gather data about status quo
●● If the data suggests that these meetings were disliked and felt as
----------------------
unproductive
---------------------- ●● Then search for the causes of the problem
●● Generate one or more hypothesis Notes
●● Test these hypotheses
----------------------
Suppose the above analysis gives the following information:
●● Staff meetings will be more productive if the agenda is generated by the ----------------------
staff members. ----------------------
●● Staff meetings will be more productive if the chairmanship is rotated
from among the members of the committee. ----------------------
●● If the meetings are held once a week rather than twice a week ----------------------
●● The pattern of discussions is changed to encourage more discussion.
----------------------
Each of these Action Research hypotheses has a goal i.e. better productivity
of staff meetings. Also each of the actions has an activity or a procedure for ----------------------
achieving the goal. Additional work would be done to clarify specific goal and
----------------------
the actions in more detail and the hypotheses would be systematically tested
one at a time and evaluated for their effects through data collection. ----------------------
Action Research thus serves as a most powerful tool. It essentially ----------------------
involves collaborative efforts on the part of all concerned. First, there is
collaboration between the members in the system. Secondly, these members ----------------------
have collaboration with other members who may not be part of a specific team.
Thirdly, these members have collaboration with those outside the system such ----------------------
as change agents or researchers. ----------------------
Almost all practitioners and authors stress the need for collaborative
----------------------
nature of Action Research. This can make OD more effective. It is widely
believed that people support what they have helped to create. Hence, researchers ----------------------
and the client system should jointly decide the problem they want to address,
define the models used for data collection, identify the hypotheses relevant to ----------------------
the situations, and evaluate the consequences of action taken. This aspect of
----------------------
Action Research is highly important.
----------------------
----------------------

1. Who has been instrumental in developing Action Research?
----------------------
i. Kurt Lewin
ii. Edi Burke ----------------------
iii. John Murphy
----------------------
iv. Litwin Jones
2. The Action Research model of planning-action-fact-finding-planning ----------------------
was developed by
i. French and Bell ----------------------
ii. Kurt Lewin ----------------------
iii. Burke and Litwin
iv. Herbert Shepard ----------------------

Notes
3. OD relies heavily on
---------------------- i. Action research model with participation by all
ii. Scientific research in the area of human development
---------------------- iii. Management Theory
---------------------- iv. Practical aspects of the people side of the organisation
4. Action Research is a method for
---------------------- i. Searching and researching
---------------------- ii. Observing and analysing
iii. Acting and reacting
---------------------- iv. Learning and doing
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 1
----------------------
Recall a burning problem in your organisation. Think of the various
---------------------- causes of its generation (Hypotheses).Use the Action Research model for
further planning. For example, Dispatches are not made in time or staff
----------------------
members frequently coming late.
----------------------
---------------------- 5.5 VARIETIES OF ACTION REASEARCH

---------------------- Lewin stresses the need for development of high quality reaction between
action researchers and organisational members. Members have vested interest
----------------------
in getting true facts. This leads to making some important information easily
---------------------- available. In the process, the scientist is in a position to understand social
processes. These processes are of immense help for research in the study of
---------------------- organisational psychology. Social scientists can never create social change on
their own initiative. They have a lot to gain through the cooperation of various
----------------------
social agencies that attempt to produce social and community change.
---------------------- John Dewey first translated the method of problem solving into terms
understandable by practitioners and laymen. After many years these ideas were
----------------------
incorporated into Action Research. The origin of Action Research can be traced
---------------------- to two independent sources: One source was John Collier, was a man of practical
affairs. He was the commissioner of Indian affairs from 1933 to 1945 and was
---------------------- entrusted with the responsibility of diagnosing the problems and recommend
programmes for improvement of racial relations. The second person was Kurt
----------------------
Lewin, a man from the field of behavioural sciences.
---------------------- Collier found that effecting change in ethnic relation was an extremely
---------------------- difficult process and required the joint effort from the scientist (the researcher),
the administrator (practitioner), and the layperson or client.
---------------------- He expressed the thought that research and more research is essential
---------------------- for the programme in the ethnic field. Research itself is made out as a tool.
Integration of various units is also essential in the process. This research has Notes
to be carried into effect by the administrator and the layman. Hence both must
criticise them through their experience. They must participate creatively in the ----------------------
research.
----------------------
Collier called this form of research as Action Research.
----------------------
Subsequently, Kurt Lewin a social psychologist was interested in applying
his knowledge of social science to help solve social problems. During 1940s ----------------------
and 1950s he and his students carried out many projects in bevioural domain.
Lewin successfully applied Action Research principles to inter-group relations ----------------------
and to changing eating habits. He succinctly stated “no action without research ----------------------
and no research without action.”
The models of action were used by a number of behavioural scientists in ----------------------
their studies and applications. ----------------------
Lewin suggested two broad categories of Action Research:
----------------------
●● Investigation of general laws and the diagnosis of a specific situation.
----------------------
●● The study of general laws leads to contributions to theory and practice
and generalisations about natural phenomena; ----------------------
Diagnosis of a specific situation leads to solving immediate, practical
----------------------
problems.
Reymond Katzell ----------------------
Reymond Katzell carried out an Action Research Project in one refinery ----------------------
and his findings are as under
----------------------
There are three types of situations in Action Research. They are:
i) This is described as ‘adventitious’ that the research group happened to ----------------------
have already collected data which is quite useful to someone at a later ----------------------
point of time
ii) Complete organisation wide collection of data in systematic and ----------------------
preplanned nature, that is to say periodic pulse taking of the organisation. ----------------------
iii) Work intensively with a small demonstration group continuously
----------------------
collecting data on all sorts of topics and feeding them back to the group.
All these situations could be made use of in action research. ----------------------
There are four varieties of Action Research. They are: ----------------------
Diagnostic Action Research ----------------------
In this type, the researcher enters a problem situation, diagnoses
it and makes recommendations for remedial treatment of the client. The ----------------------
recommendations are intuitively derived not pretested, and usually come from ----------------------
the scientist’s experience and knowledge. Often the recommendations are not
put into effect by the client group. ----------------------
----------------------

Notes Participant Action Research
Another type of Action Research is Participant Action Research in which
----------------------
people who are to take action are involved in the entire research and action
---------------------- progress from the beginning. This involvement both facilitates carrying out the
actions once decided upon and keeps the recommended actions feasible and
---------------------- workable.
---------------------- Empirical Action Research
Empirical Action Research is one in which the actor keeps a systematic
----------------------
and extensive record of what he or she did and what effects it had. This is
---------------------- similar to a practitioner keeping a diary. The limitations of this method are the
difficulties faced in any clinical data collecting: the actor may have too few
---------------------- experiences to draw from; there may be divergent situations or certain situation
may be unique. Also the actor may lack objectivity in evaluating his or her own
----------------------
performance. There are difficulties in being both researcher and change agent
---------------------- simultaneously.
---------------------- Experimental Action Research
The fourth variety of action research is Experimental Research. It is a
----------------------
controlled research on the relative effectiveness of various techniques. There
---------------------- is always more than one possible way of trying to accomplish something. The
problem is to find what the best is. This research on action is in the strictest
---------------------- sense of both words.
---------------------- These authors indicate that experimental Action Research may make the
greatest contribution to the advancement of scientific knowledge, but at the
---------------------- same time it is most difficult to accomplish.
---------------------- Appreciative Inquiry
---------------------- Another variation of action research is ‘appreciative enquiry.’ According

to some scientists current Action Researches are too problem centered and
---------------------- action oriented and not sufficiently concerned with creating a theory. Hence,
they propose appreciative inquiry.
----------------------
The focus of appreciative inquiry is on discovering, understanding and
---------------------- fostering innovations in social-organisational arrangements and processes.
Its basic interest is in knowledge gain. According to these scientists a good
---------------------- theory is a must for effecting any change. Appreciative inquiry represents a
---------------------- viable complement to conventional forms of Action Research. Through our
assumptions and choice of methods we largely create the world we later discover.
----------------------
Appreciative Inquiry advocates four principles for research on
---------------------- organisations. Such a research should begin with appreciation. It should be
applicable, provocative and collaborative.
----------------------
Action Research in Organisational Development
---------------------- The OD process is basically an Action Research programme in organisation
---------------------- designed to improve the functioning of the organisation. Effective improvement
programmes require a data-base. Action Research helps in providing such data. Notes
It is very useful and effective because of collaborative nature. Practitioners
and laypersons jointly determine central needs, critical problems and make ----------------------
hypotheses and actions. The potential experimental nature of action inherent
inaction research provides a different perspective to managers. It also takes ----------------------
into consideration cultural issues of the organisation. This coupled with other ----------------------
variables offer a new tool for understanding organisational dynamics. All these
features fit with a programme to improve the organisation. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. The hypothesis for unproductive weekly staff meetings:
i. Staff meetings will be productive if the agenda is generated by ----------------------
the staff members ----------------------
ii. Rotationwise Chairmanship among the members leads to
involvement ----------------------
iii Changed pattern of discussion encourage more discussion ----------------------
iv. Increased number of members leads to successful meeting
2. The limitations of empirical action research: ----------------------
i. The actor may have too less experiences to draw from ----------------------
ii. Actor favours only favourable experiences
----------------------
iii. The actor may lack objectivity in evaluating his or her own
performance ----------------------
iv. There may be divergent situations or the situations may be
----------------------
unique
3. The different varieties in action research: ----------------------
i. Diagnostic ----------------------
ii. Participant and empirical
----------------------
iii. Appreciative
iv. Theoretical ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
Take out the information from the internet to contrast Action Research ----------------------
models suggested by Herbert Shepard and John Dewey.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Summary
---------------------- ●● wo philosophical and pragmatic values underlie Action Research. The
T
first value is that action plans and programmes designed to solve real
----------------------
problems should be based on valid public data generated collaboratively
---------------------- by clients and practitioners. The principle is: ‘action should follow
research’.
----------------------
●● he second value is that the action in the real world should be accompanied
T
---------------------- by research on that action so that we can build a cumulative body of
knowledge and theory. The principle here is: ‘research should follow
---------------------- action’.
---------------------- ●● he four varieties of action research are diagnostic action research,
T
participant action research, empirical action research and experimental
---------------------- action research.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Appreciative Inquiry: A process needing appreciation and understanding
---------------------- of a problem.
----------------------
----------------------
1. Explain the concept of Action Research. Explain the process in detail
----------------------
2. Explain the four different varieties of Action Research.
---------------------- 4. Explain the importance of Action Research in OD.
---------------------- 5. Elaborate on the contribution of Kurt Lewin to the field of Action
Research.
----------------------
---------------------- Answers to Check your Progress

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Who has been instrumental in developing Action Research?
----------------------
i. Kurt Lewin
----------------------
2. The Action Research model of planning-action-fact-finding-planning was
---------------------- developed by
---------------------- iv. Herbert Shepard

3. OD relies heavily on
----------------------
i. Action research model with participation by all
----------------------
4. Action Research is a method for
---------------------- iv. Learning and doing
----------------------
1. The hypothesis for unproductive weekly staff meetings:
----------------------
i. Staff meetings will be productive if the agenda is generated by the
staff members ----------------------
ii. Rotationwise Chairmanship among the members leads to ----------------------
involvement
iii Changed pattern of discussion encourage more discussion ----------------------
2. The limitations of empirical action research: ----------------------

i. The actor may have too less experiences to draw from ----------------------
iii. The actor may lack objectivity in evaluating his or her own
----------------------
performance
iv. There may be divergent situations or the situations may be unique ----------------------
3. The different varieties in action research: ----------------------

i. Diagnostic ----------------------
ii. Participant and empirical ----------------------
----------------------
1. Cummings, Thomas G. & Christopher G Worley. Organization
2. Goel, Sumer Lal. Development Administration: Potentialities and
----------------------
Prospects. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications.
3. Ramnarayan, S, T V Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating ----------------------
Learning and Transformation. Sage Publications. ----------------------
4. Virmani, B.R. The Challenges of Indian Management. Sage Publications.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Interventions
UNIT
6
Structure:
6.1 Introduction and Definition

6.2 Need for Interventions
6.3 Factors in Planning and Implementing OD Intervention
6.4 Classification of OD Interventions
6.5 Results of OD Interventions
6.6 Successful Intervention
6.7 T-Groups
6.8 Behaviour Modelling
6.9 Life and Career planning
6.10 Life Goals Exercise
6.11 The Collage and other Life Goal Exercises
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Interventions 91
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Explain the need of intervention in the OD process
----------------------
• Contrast different types of interventions and their relative impact on
---------------------- organisations
---------------------- • Justify the importance of T-Group
---------------------- • Assess the concept of behavior modeling

• Write steps of Life and Career Planning
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 6.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

---------------------- In previous units, we had seen the different requirements of organisation.
We also studied a number of cases involving organisational development. We
---------------------- have learned about various stages in which development of an organisation
---------------------- takes place. We have seen certain failures as well. The success of an OD
programme depends up on how effectively these techniques are used and also
---------------------- in the selection of proper techniques.
---------------------- OD programmes thus engage leaders and members systematically, address

problems and opportunities, usually guided by OD practitioners. Interventions
---------------------- such as team building, survey feedback, role analysis, and intergroup conflict
resolution were developed during the early years of Organisational Development.
---------------------- Interventions such as quality of work life, work redesign using socio technical
---------------------- systems collateral organisations (also known as parallel learning structures and
strategic planning methods were developed as the field continued to evolve.
---------------------- Today there are interventions aimed at development of self directed teams, high
performance work systems, and self designing organisations as well as large
---------------------- system change models to help organisations cope with competition and survive.
---------------------- But OD is much more than just reaching into the “kit bag” and executing an
intervention. OD is a strategy for change that encompasses theory, practice
---------------------- methods and values. Interventions are just one component of the OD formula.
---------------------- It is necessary that we understand the exact definition and concept.
Interventions are actions taken to produce desired changes. They are
----------------------
structured activities in which selected organisational units engage in a task
---------------------- or sequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to
organisational improvement, balancing the individual need satisfaction.
----------------------
---------------------- 6.2 NEED FOR INTERVENTIONS
---------------------- Practice methods have improved in OD over the period of years. The
knowledge in the field is leading to perfection. However, its OD technique Notes
is unique and application of OD requires due care and caution. People often
resist change and there is a tendency to go back to old habits after change has ----------------------
occurred. Practice theory tells how to deal
----------------------
with such situation. Hence, there is a need for OD interventions. A few
analysed reasons are given below: ----------------------
●● Feedback, which has the purpose of providing existing new information ----------------------
that, may lead to change.
----------------------
●● Raising awareness of organisational norms, particularly those that are
dysfunctional, which typically lead people to adjust their behaviour to ----------------------
norms they consider more appropriate.
----------------------
●● Increased interaction and communication, which allows people to test
their views about organisational norms and proper standards of behaviour. ----------------------
●● Confrontation, which brings differences that hinder effectiveness into the
open and ----------------------
●● Education, which is designed to upgrade knowledge, outmoded beliefs ----------------------

and skills.
----------------------
Intervention strategies are based on results of the diagnostic process and
the specified goals of the client system. ----------------------
e.g. The client system may want to modernise the production process ----------------------
by moving from an assembly line with simple task structure and complexity
to complex tasks performed by self-managed teams. The diagnosis process ----------------------
examines the extent to which the work environment is amenable to such a
system, employees’ willingness to change, time and effort required to make the ----------------------
change and possible benefits or disadvantages. ----------------------
Using a System model to guide the programme, the OD practitioner
----------------------
would need to suggest a series of interventions in order to facilitate the change:
training and education, modified reward systems, group and team building ----------------------
programmes, reworking of the organisational structure etc.
----------------------
6.3 FACTORS IN PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING OD
INTERVENTION ----------------------
In organisational development, no situation is unique. The objectives of ----------------------

different organisations and their types are different. Hence, what is suitable to ----------------------
a manufacturing industry may not be suitable to a software industry. Hence,
individual interventions would need definite planning. Some important points ----------------------
are clarified as under:
----------------------
Strategy: There has to be an Intervention strategy. This strategy
integrates the problem or opportunity to be addressed, the desired outcomes of ----------------------
a programme and the sequencing and timing of various Interventions.
----------------------
Structure: Activities to promote learning and change must be structured
effectively. ----------------------
Interventions 93
Notes Techniques to achieve this include:
Make sure all the relevant people are included.
----------------------
Allow the client group to identify problems and opportunities themselves.
---------------------- Let them be the ones to solve their own problems and capitalise on their own
opportunities.
----------------------
Ensure that goals are absolutely clear to all, as are the strategies for goal
---------------------- attainment; make sure that activities are structured in such a way that there is a
---------------------- high probability of success. Goals must be manageable and attainable. Success
is highly motivating to the client group.
---------------------- Include both experience-based learning and conceptual learning. This is
---------------------- not meant to be an academic exercise.
Make sure that the climate is appropriate for openness. If the client group
---------------------- is defensive or anxious, the exercise is futile.
---------------------- Ensure that the client system not only learns how to solve one particular
problem, but also how to learn, i.e. acquires skills and knowledge, which may
----------------------
be utilised with future problems and changes.
---------------------- Teach them about both task (what) and process (how).
---------------------- Engage the whole person in the intervention, not just the intellect. Change
stirs up powerful emotions. Get them to talk about thoughts, feelings, ideas,
---------------------- concerns, beliefs etc.
---------------------- Choose and sequence Intervention activities carefully. Some thumb rules
for choosing the interventions are given below:
----------------------
a) Maximise diagnostic data: Not knowing the full facts of the situation can
---------------------- lead to inappropriate Interventions.
---------------------- b) Maximise effectiveness: Early Interventions should enhance the
effectiveness of subsequent Interventions. Those that build motivation,
---------------------- readiness, knowledge and skills required for future change should come
first. Leapfrogging can lead to regression.
----------------------
c) Maximise efficiency: Sequence Interventions to conserve time, energy
---------------------- and money.
---------------------- d) Maximise speed: Delays in achieving organisational improvement could
lead to loss of momentum and motivation.
----------------------
e) Maximise relevance: Interventions that relate to immediate problems
---------------------- should be tackled first.
---------------------- f) Minimise psychological and organisational strain: Sequence Interventions

that are least likely to cause anxiety, insecurity, distrust, disillusionment
---------------------- and poor performance.
---------------------- g) Include built-in evaluation, monitoring and feedback mechanism.
----------------------
Notes
----------------------
1. People resist change and there is a tendency to go back to old habits
----------------------
after change has occurred.
2. Irrespective of the type, a uniform OD intervention can be applied to ----------------------
all types of industries.
----------------------
3. OD interventions are required to raise awareness of organisational
norms, particularly those that are dysfunctional. ----------------------
4. Engaging the whole person in the intervention in the change process ----------------------
is important, because change stirs up powerful emotions.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Examine the working of any of the government department near ----------------------
you, which. according to you. is not functioning properly. Find out where
and why improvements are required. Also, suggest the type and level of ----------------------
intervention required.
----------------------
----------------------
6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF OD INTERVENTIONS
----------------------
Different Interventions have different dynamics. Each Intervention should
be selected in relation to causal factors and the nature of underlying problems. ----------------------
Some OD interventions and their underlying causal mechanisms are described
----------------------
below:
Discrepancy Intervention: Calls attention to a contradiction in action or ----------------------
attitudes that then leads to exploration.
----------------------
Theory Intervention: Behavioural science knowledge and theory are
used to explain present behaviour and assumptions underlying behaviour. ----------------------
Procedural Intervention: This involves deciding a particular method, ----------------------
which is the best one, as against the present one, which may not be suitable.
----------------------
Relationship Intervention: Focuses on interpersonal relationships,
especially where there are strong negative feelings; brings issues to the surface ----------------------
for exploration and resolution.
----------------------
Experimentation Intervention: In Experimental Intervention, two
different plans are tested. Their response is analysed and tested for consequences ----------------------
and then a final decision is made.
----------------------
Dilemma Intervention: In some cases, there may be imposed dilemma.
The same is closely examined and possible choices are explored. Underlying ----------------------
Interventions 95
Notes assumptions are also analysed. The dilemma may also emerge due to certain
situations.
----------------------
Perspective Intervention: This involves analysis of past history, context
---------------------- and future objectives in order to assess whether or not the actions are meeting
the desired target.
----------------------
Organisation structure Intervention: Examines and evaluates structural
---------------------- reasons for organisational ineffectiveness.
Cultural Intervention: Cultural Intervention examines traditions,
----------------------
precedents and practices, which form the fabric of the organisations’ culture, in
---------------------- a direct, focused approach.
---------------------- These different kinds of Interventions can be made use of. The consultant
identifies the most appropriate of the above and begins intervening in the client
---------------------- system.
---------------------- Factors considered in planning and implementing OD:

An overall game plan
----------------------
Effective structuring of activities to promote learning & change
----------------------
Choosing and sequencing activities (Diagnostic data/Effectiveness
---------------------- Efficiency/Speed/Relevance/Reduce Organisational Strain)
---------------------- Dynamics of various interventions (Theory/Structure/Culture etc.)

OD interventions are classified, or grouped according to:
----------------------
i) The objectives of the Interventions
----------------------
ii) The targets of the Interventions
---------------------- There are 14 major ‘families’ of OD Interventions.
---------------------- 1. Diagnostic Activities are fact-finding activities designed to ascertain the
state of the system or the status of a problem.
----------------------
2. Team Building Activities are designed to enhance the effective operation
---------------------- of System teams. These can focus on task-related issues such as the way
things are done, necessary skills and resources, relationship quality
---------------------- between team members and between team and leader, and effectiveness.
---------------------- In addition, structural issues must be addressed (the nature of the team).
‘Outdoor Adventure’ team building programmes are currently very
---------------------- popular.
---------------------- 3. Intergroup Activities are designed to improve the effectiveness of

interdependent groups, i.e. those that must co-operate to produce a
---------------------- common output. These focus on joint activities and the output of the
groups as a single system rather than two subsystems.
----------------------
4. Survey Feedback Activities are activities that focus on the use of
---------------------- questionnaires to generate information, which is then used to identify
problems and opportunities.
----------------------
5. Education and Training Activities are designed to improve skills, Notes
abilities and knowledge of the employees of the organisation. Several
activities and approaches are possible, depending on the nature of the ----------------------
need. There are many scientific methods of identification of training
needs of the employees at various levels. ----------------------
6. Techno-structural or Structural Activities are designed to improve ----------------------

organisational structures and job designs. Activities could include either:
----------------------
a) Experimenting with new organisational structures and evaluating
their effectiveness with respect to specific goals ----------------------
b) new ways to bring technical resources to bear on problems. ----------------------
7. Process Consultation Activities are activities that help the client ----------------------
“perceive, understand and act upon process events, which occur in the
client’s environment”. Many of the events are not accidental. They grow ----------------------
over a period of time. They may be either positive or negative. The client is
trained to gain insight into the human processes in organisations and learn ----------------------
skills in diagnosing and managing them. Emphasis on communication, ----------------------
leader and member roles in groups, problem solving and decision-making,
group norms, leadership and authority and intergroup co-operation and ----------------------
competition are given at the time of training.
----------------------
8. Grid Organisation Development Activities are based on a six-phase
model designed by Blake and Mouton involving the whole organisation. ----------------------
The model first classifies the leadership styles in different categories based
on the basic way of belief and concern and then starts with designing a ----------------------
phase wise programme for upgrading an individual manager’s skills and ----------------------
leadership abilities. Subsequently there is also a design to transform if
the present style to current to a desired state. This is done by arranging ----------------------
improvement activities, and initiating specific steps affecting intergroup
relations’ activities. Later phases include corporate planning for ----------------------
improvement, developing implementation tactics and finally evaluation ----------------------
of the change in organisation culture. This could be a long-term process
lasting up to 5 years. ----------------------
9 Third Party Peacemaking Activities are interventions by a skilled third ----------------------
party aimed at helping the organisation members manage their interpersonal
conflict. These are based on confrontation and an understanding of conflict ----------------------
and conflict resolution processes.
----------------------
10. Coaching and Counseling Activities are interventions in which the
consultant works with organisation members to: ----------------------
a) Define learning goals ----------------------
b) Learn how others see their behaviour ----------------------
c) Learn new behaviours to better achieve their goals
----------------------
The key features are non-evaluative feedback and joint exploration of
alternative behaviours. ----------------------
Interventions 97
Notes 11. Life and Career Planning Activities are activities focused on life and
career objectives of individuals and the ways and means of attaining
---------------------- them. The process begins with goal setting. The most important factor
to be considered is that the goal should also conform to certain norms. It
---------------------- includes assessment of goals and performance against goals and arrange
---------------------- for suitable training.
12. Planning and Goal Setting Activities are based on theory and experience
----------------------
in planning and goal setting, making use of problem solving models,
---------------------- planning paradigms and ideal organisations versus real organisations. It
also makes use of discrepancy models. The goal is to improve these skills.
----------------------
13. Strategic Management Activities are interventions, which basically
---------------------- begin with the process in which key policy-makers begin with defining
the organisation’s basic vision, mission and goals, study environmental
---------------------- demands, threats and opportunities. It considers long-range planning of
both a reactive and a proactive nature.
----------------------
These activities focus the attention in two important directions: outside of
---------------------- the organisation under environment and away from present to the future
requirements.
----------------------
14. Organisational Transformation Activities are activities focusing on
---------------------- large-scale system changes that will fundamentally transform the nature
---------------------- of the organisation. Virtually every aspect of the organisation is changed:
structure, management philosophy, reward systems, work design, mission,
---------------------- values and culture.
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The intervention, which examines the tradition, precedents and
---------------------- practices, which form the fabric of the organisation’s culture in a
direct, focused approach, is known as _________ Intervention.
----------------------
2. Fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of the system or
---------------------- the status of a problem are termed as _________ activities.
---------------------- 3. Activities that focus on the use of questionnaires to generate
information, which is then used to identify problems and opportunities
---------------------- are termed as _________ activities.
---------------------- 4. Interventions by skilled third party aiming to help organisational
members manage their interpersonal conflict is known as _________
---------------------- activities.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Notes
Activity 2
----------------------
Without bothering for the detailed scheme and techniques of any ----------------------
interventions, think of any five organisational problems and in case you
are required to find solution to them what type of Intervention you would ----------------------
prefer. Match the problem with the intervention. Detailed techniques will
----------------------
follow subsequently.
----------------------
6.5 RESULTS OF OD INTERVENTIONS ----------------------
We have already understood that the basic need for OD is introducing ----------------------
an effective change. Hence, at every stage it is necessary to verify how far
----------------------
change has started taking root and consequential problems, if any. Hence, this
involves continuous evaluation. Let us now examine the effects or results of ----------------------
such interventions.
----------------------
Feedback: It is a feedback to the organisation and its members about the
current state of affairs in the organisation. It is a mirror image of organisational ----------------------
working. It indicates what is really happening in the organisation. It also sets
the focus for improvement activities for the future. ----------------------
Awareness of changing socio cultural norms or dysfunctional present norms: ----------------------
In an organisation, many a times we are so used to seeing things in a ----------------------
particular way that we never understand the defects in the system. We become
habitual to them. People hence do not feel the need to change them. Only when ----------------------
some outsider points them out to us, do we start realising their importance.
Interventions also make the organisation aware of such existing socio-cultural ----------------------
issues and relationships in the organisation. ----------------------
●● Increased interaction and communication: Any Intervention promotes
increased communication and interaction amongst the participants of the ----------------------
intervention. This increases understanding and co-operation amongst the ----------------------
members. This is further explained in detail in the subsequent units.
●● Confrontation: Interventions are all about confronting the issues and ----------------------
resolving them by participation. Though, the word confrontation appears ----------------------
to be a simple one, facing the situation is not an easy job. Interventions
teach us to face situations methodically. ----------------------
●● Education: Interventions help in educating members about better ways ----------------------
of working together and increasing their knowledge, skills, outmoded
beliefs and attitudes. In the process, it also attempts to change some of ----------------------
the beliefs and assumptions, which retard progress and cultural change in
the organisation. ----------------------
●● Participation: Interventions are participatory efforts to cultural change. ----------------------
OD is, by definition, a team effort. The OD processes are so designed
that participation of various constituent members becomes an essential ----------------------
Interventions 99
Notes feature. It has been observed that knowingly or unknowingly participation
improves.
---------------------- ●● Increased accountability: Interventions are result-oriented activities and
---------------------- hold members accountable for outcomes. It makes the top management
commit to the OD efforts, thereby making them also responsible for the
---------------------- outcomes.
---------------------- ●● Increased energy and optimism: Overall, Interventions bring in energy
and enthusiasm about changes to be bought about in the organisation.
---------------------- Participation from members for resolving problems or realising
opportunities also adds to creating enthusiasm in the organisation.
----------------------
The list of results is not exhaustive. Many more results could be added to
---------------------- the list above. The most important of all is the overall cultural development of
the organisation.
----------------------
---------------------- 6.6 SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTION

---------------------- The success of an OD programme depends on proper collaboration of
the Consultant and the members of the client system. It has been observed that
---------------------- across all the above interventions, all aspects need not undergo a change, and
some aspects remain constant.
----------------------
Interventions may involve some additional activities and some activities
---------------------- instead of others. So, they will demand some changes in the way things have
---------------------- been happening in the organisation. These are to be carefully studied.
Organisational objective always serves as a guideline for the above.
----------------------
Interventions focus on real life organisational situations and the problems
---------------------- that the members of the organisation and the consultant work on are issues,
which are faced in day-to-day life. OD does not work on fictitious or imaginary
---------------------- matters.
---------------------- For interventions to be successful, it is critical that:
---------------------- ●● Valid and useful information about organisation and its members is
obtained and maintained.
----------------------
●● There is a free choice for choosing from a variety of action points
---------------------- ●● There exists or is developed Internal commitment of members and feeling
of ownership and responsibility for actions drawn.
----------------------
●● Participation is voluntary and not generated coercion.
---------------------- ●● Since it is a long-term process all concerned have sufficient patience.
---------------------- Individual interventions
---------------------- A number of training experiences or educational experiences aimed at

individuals have utilisation in the successful evolution of OD effort. These are
---------------------- complementary to the OD process. In this unit we would like to focus on the
human and social processes in the organisations, especially those which are
---------------------- relevant to leadership, interpersonal and group skills and to career development.

These types of Interventions are more suitable for individuals. Most of them are Notes
related to behavioural improvements.
----------------------
6.7 T-GROUPS ----------------------
An Inter Group Relations workshop held at the State Teachers’ College ----------------------
in New Britain
Connecticut, in the summer of 1946 was important in the emergence of ----------------------
laboratory training. The workshop was sponsored by the Connecticut Interracial ----------------------
Commission and the Research Centre for Group Dynamics, then at MIT. The
Research Center for Group Dynamics (RCGD) had been founded in 1945 under ----------------------
the direction of Kurt Lewin, a prolific theorist, researcher and practitioner in
the interpersonal group, intergroup, and personal relationships. Lewin had been ----------------------
recruited to MIT largely through the efforts of Douglas McGregor of the Sloans’ ----------------------
School of Management.
----------------------
What was later to be called the “T-Group” began to emerge through a
series of events at the New Britain workshop of 1946. Three learning groups ----------------------
were formed. Each group in addition to the group members and a leader had
an observer who made notes about interactions among members. At the end ----------------------
of the day, the observers met with the staff and reported what they had seen
----------------------
on the third evening session. Three women members of the workshop asked
if they could sit in the reporting session, and were encouraged to do so. One ----------------------
woman disagreed with the observer as to the interpretation of her behaviour
during the day’s session and a lively discussion ensued. The three women were ----------------------
asked to return to the next reporting session. These discussions were lively
----------------------
and many members attended the feedback session. The sessions soon became
the most significant learning experience of the conference. More research was ----------------------
carried out on the findings the conference and the same was equally influenced
by other Management Scientists especially Role plays, psychodrama, concepts ----------------------
of learning change and management theories of integrative solutions to the
----------------------
problems of management. Trainers started to work with social systems of more
permanency and complexity than T groups. The transfer of laboratory behavioural ----------------------
skills and insights of individuals into solution of problems of organisation was
found to be difficult. There were further contributions in studies like vertically ----------------------
structured groups, Interpersonal and organisational effectiveness, the Human
----------------------
side enterprise, emphasis on intergroup and internal personal relations ,Conflict
management etc. ----------------------
The T-groups were initially used for team building exercises. Its focus
----------------------
is more on problem solving, diagnostic and organisation. In this process, the
individuals forming part of the group have tremendous educational experience. ----------------------
It therefore helps them in developing skills for personal growth and development
of individuals. ----------------------
T-group is essentially unstructured, without agenda, a group session for ----------------------
about 10 to 12 members and a professional trainer who acts as a catalyst and
facilitator for the group. The data for discussion are the data provided by the ----------------------
Interventions 101
Notes interaction of the team members. They work hard to create a viable society for
themselves. The data consists of actions, reactions, interactions and feelings of
---------------------- the group members. The group usually exists from three days to two weeks.
---------------------- The group experience is the main learning in the process. The learning
experienced from T-group vary for different individuals.
----------------------
However, common factors are learning to be more competent in
---------------------- interpersonal, relationships. One is trained to analyse one’s own behaviour and
also reactions of others to one’s behaviour.
----------------------
Benne, Bradford and Ronald Lippitt list the goals of the laboratory method
---------------------- as follows:
---------------------- 1. One hoped outcome for the participants is increased awareness and
sensitivity to emotional reactions of others as well as self-expression.
---------------------- 2. Another desired objective is greater ability to perceive and learn from
---------------------- the consequences of his actions through attention to feelings, his own
and others. Emphasis is placed on development of sensitivity to the cues
---------------------- furnished by the behaviour of others and the ability to utilise “feedback”
in understanding his own behaviour.
----------------------
3. The staff also attempts to stimulate the clarifications and developments
---------------------- of personal values and goals consonant with democratic and scientific
approach to problems of personal decisions and actions.
----------------------
4. Another objective is the development of concepts and theoretical insights,
---------------------- which serve as tools in linking personal values, goals and intentions to
actions consistent with these inner factors and with the requirement of
----------------------
the situation. One important source is valid concepts in the findings and
---------------------- methodologies of behavioural sciences.
5. All behavioural programmes foster the achievement of behavioural
----------------------
effectiveness in transaction with one’s own environment such as the
---------------------- learning of concepts, setting of goals, the clarification of values etc.
---------------------- T-group is a powerful learning laboratory where individuals gain insight

into the meaning and consequences of their own behaviour and learning the
---------------------- meaning and consequences of others’ behaviour. This trains an individual to
acquire basic skills for more competent action taking in the organisation.
----------------------
There are many ways in which T Group training can be conducted. One
---------------------- such method is “stranger” method. In this method, the lab consists of people from
a variety of organisations. There may be three trainers and 30 to 36 participants-
---------------------- all strangers to each other. Another format involves several clusters of two or
---------------------- three persons from the same organisation where people who know each other
are assigned to different groups.
---------------------- It has been clarified by different scientists from behavioural sciences that
---------------------- the success of T-group training depends on continuous encouragement to the
learners and practitioners. It has been found to be the most powerful learning
---------------------- structure.

6.8 BEHAVIOUR MODELLING Notes
Behaviour modelling is a training technique designed to improve ----------------------
interpersonal competence. It is an effective technique as problems of
interpersonal relations are common in organisations. It is an important training ----------------------
option.
----------------------
Based on Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and utilising
procedures developed subsequently, behaviour modelling has been shown to be ----------------------
an excellent way to make first line supervisors more effective and to improve ----------------------
organisational performance.
The basic premises of Social Learning Theory are that for persons to ----------------------
engage successfully in a behaviour. They: ----------------------
●● Must perceive a link between behaviour and certain outcomes.
----------------------
●● Must desire those outcomes (called positive valence)
●● Must believe that they can do it (called Self efficacy) ----------------------
For example, first line supervisors find it difficult to discipline their ----------------------
subordinates.
----------------------
To learn this behaviour they must know desired outcomes i.e. the ease
with which they will be able control the subordinates and get them to perform ----------------------
tasks. There must be a will to do so and they must be made aware that they are
capable of doing it. If these things take place success is certain. This belief in ----------------------
them can be generated through examples, telling success stories, keeping before ----------------------
them a role model etc. Practising these skills is equally important. This is the
methodology of behaviour modelling. The problem-solving model underlies ----------------------
most behviour modelling training. Porras and Singh describe it as follows:
----------------------
The problem solving approach consists of the following three phases:
----------------------
●● Problem Identification
●● Problem solving and Implementation ----------------------
This basically requires five behavioural skills. They are as follows: ----------------------
●● Behaviour description: The ability to describe behaviour of self or others
----------------------
in specific concrete terms and to avoid generalisations or inferences drawn
from observed behaviours. Human behaviour by itself is a complicated ----------------------
subject. One single behaviour should not be taken as representative of
one’s character. A detailed study of behaviour is necessary. ----------------------
●● Justification: The ability to clearly explain the impact of an observed ----------------------
behaviour on the individual, the observer or the organisation. It has been
observed that many persons are not able to understand the actual impact ----------------------
of their behaviour. Many a times people become wildly angry on trifle
----------------------
matters.
●● Active Listening: The ability to accurately reflect both content and ----------------------
feelings of another’s communication. Understanding it in exact sense
is important. Even same words have different meanings. An excellent ----------------------
Interventions 103
Notes example of this is: ‘Aswathama is dead’ in Mahabharata, which changed
the entire status of Mahabharata War.
---------------------- ●● Participative problem solving: The ability to involve another person
---------------------- meaningfully and appropriately, in the process of solving a work related
problem. People should not do any task mechanically. Their active
---------------------- involvement is necessary.
---------------------- ●● Positive reinforcement: The ability to compliment another in a sincere
and authentic manner. This increases confidence and mutual trust. It
---------------------- further creates a sense of enthusiasm.
---------------------- The above stated five behavioural skills should be acquired by individuals
for their personal growth and development.
---------------------- The steps involved in behaviour modelling are simple.
---------------------- First, decide the most pressing problems facing a target group, say first line
supervisors. These usually consist of such issues as counselling poor performer,
---------------------- correcting absenteeism, encouraging the average performer, correcting unsafe
---------------------- working behaviour and so forth.
Subsequently, Training modules for each of the above ten problems are
----------------------
developed. The specific behaviour exhibited by the model is highlighted by
---------------------- learning points. Weekly training programmes are scheduled.
At the training sessions the problem situation is announced and briefly
----------------------
discussed. Demonstration by a model is given in which solution to the problem
---------------------- enacting behaviour skills is given. Trainees discuss behavioural skills and then
role-play the situation receiving feedback from the participants and the trainer on
---------------------- their performance. Role-play is continued until each of the participants masters
all the specific skills. Participants then commit to practice acquired skills on the
----------------------
job in the coming week. The next participants report on these new skills worked
---------------------- on on the job. A new problem is addressed and Role-play is continued until all
the participants learn how to solve the new problem. Behavioural modelling
---------------------- works excellently. Participants are enthusiastic as they undergo a new learning
experience. It teaches them skills needed to deal with the problems.
----------------------
---------------------- 6.9 LIFE AND CAREER PLANNING

---------------------- A number of approaches exist to help individuals think through their life
and career. Career has been defined as a sequence of positions occupied by a
----------------------
person over a lifetime. Sometimes career may not be constant or continuous.
---------------------- There are many cases when people desire and decide to change their career for
a number of reasons. In order to develop a career everyone needs to have certain
---------------------- career anchors. These form the base on which their entire career rests.
---------------------- Career Anchors
Edger Schein has provided the concept of career anchors, which have
----------------------
been found to be extremely useful. There are five basic career anchors. They
---------------------- are:

Technical / Functional Competence Notes
This means a individual must have technical competence in his/her field.
----------------------
The entire career is organised around a particular set of technical or functional
skills which the person is good at. This is perhaps the reason why one is normally ----------------------
chosen for a particular position. For example, a civil engineer should have civil
engineering knowledge such as road construction, knowledge of structures of ----------------------
buildings and other civil systems etc.
----------------------
Managerial Competence
----------------------
This is one of the most important of the career anchors. As we know
managerial ability is basically the ability to get work done through others. This ----------------------
is not an easy job. It requires use of all functions of a management vis. Planning,
Staffing, leading, Organising and Control. The entire career is organised around ----------------------
climbing an organisational ladder to achieve a position of responsibility. This
----------------------
involves his decision making skill in addition to efforts at analysing problems,
dealing with people and making decisions in difficult situations. ----------------------
Creativity ----------------------
It is the ability of a person to always think of new things. This quality
creates value addition for every person. It may be related to a new service or a ----------------------
new product. This is highly necessary to build a new business. ----------------------
Security and Stability
----------------------
This means guarantee of continued employment. It is a must for every
human being. A person should be comfortable in his place of work and also in ----------------------
his family matters so that one can freely contribute.
----------------------
Autonomy
----------------------
It means freedom to work i.e. freedom to take certain decisions. This also
an important base on which the entire career of a person is organised. Every ----------------------
person should be allowed to choose his own hours, lifestyles etc.
----------------------
Steps involved in career development
The steps involved in career development are as under: ----------------------
Determine your interest and skills ----------------------

The process of career development starts with first deciding your interest ----------------------
and skills. List out various activities from which you derive pleasure. It may not
be possible to pursue all of them together. Decide priorities. Explore possibilities ----------------------
and opportunities, which are easily available. Think about challenges ahead.
----------------------
Take an inventory of your own talents. Search your soul for hidden talents. The
total characteristics should be evaluated to finally decide your interests. ----------------------
Find out career options
----------------------
With Indian economy being thrown open to the globe, the opportunities
for various careers have multiplied. The information of the same is available ----------------------
through various sources. It appears in various columns in magazines and ----------------------
Interventions 105
Notes newspapers. Various seminars are held in large cities on choosing a career of
your choice. Information is also available on the internet. In this way, collect
---------------------- information of options. Decision-making becomes easy in the process. Friends’
professors and relatives can also be useful for these purposes.
----------------------
Understand your strengths; recognise your limitation
----------------------
The career assessment process should be an open one. There should not
---------------------- be any limitations on the aspirations of any individuals. However, one has to
estimate one’s own strengths. Technical and educational knowledge are no doubt
---------------------- very important. But other skills have also to be taken into account. Check your
potential and capabilities. Examine special characteristics of your personality.
----------------------
Similarly, look at your limitations. All limitations need not be treated as
---------------------- weaknesses. But it definitely serves the purpose to take care of those areas.
They also create an opportunity for improvement and development. Address the
----------------------
key issues involved therein. Ensure that these provide you mental satisfaction.
---------------------- Define your Career Path and Career Goal
---------------------- A career goal is something, which you want to ultimately achieve. It helps
in selecting a particular profession. It may be a particular job, which you want
---------------------- to do. Clearly look at the basic purpose. Some people are not worried about
---------------------- monetary gains. They look towards recognition and self-satisfaction. Others
have purely monetary considerations. Some others have social intentions.
---------------------- Clearly defined goal also prevent career breaks and career deviations. Hence,
the same has to be properly defined. It should not be vague, but precisely
---------------------- defined. It should be capable of measurement. It should be realistic as well.
---------------------- Lastly, it should time bound i.e. achievable in a particular time frame. Then
strategically go about as to how you would like to attain it. There are various
---------------------- ways of accomplishing your goal. The same have to be properly studied to
ensure success.
----------------------
Train yourself
----------------------
The next issue is the training to achieve desired goals. Identify the gaps.
---------------------- Check technical qualifications required for pursuing a career. If you do not have
it, it needs be acquired. Check where such education is available. Check various
---------------------- skills required. Find out sources from which the same would be available.
Choose a suitable time for it.
----------------------
Search for the Career
----------------------
Find out various formalities required for the proposed career. If you want
---------------------- to appear for a competitive examination, there may be prescribed form. If your
career requires foreign travel you may need a Passport and a visa. Prepare your
---------------------- suitable introductory write up.
---------------------- Enjoy your chosen profession
---------------------- Once the profession is chosen, you must take keen interest in it. This also
serves as a source of motivation. This also avoids stagnancy and apathy.
----------------------

Value addition Notes
Keep yourself abreast of the latest developments in the field. This adds
----------------------
value to work that you are performing. It also helps in meeting competition. It
prevents obsolescence. This can be done by attending seminars, reading books, ----------------------
discussions with learned people etc.
----------------------
Self-Assessment /Formal Assessment
There is a need for continuous evaluation of the progress at every stage. It ----------------------
is seldom possible that we achieve everything planned by us. Frequent checks
----------------------
can help identifying the gaps and take remedial actions.
Enjoy the bouquets and brickbats too ----------------------
The journey to success is not always an easy one. There may be ----------------------
appreciations. Do not get overwhelmed by them. There could be certain failures
as well in the process of growth and career achievement. One should not be ----------------------
discouraged by them either. Find out the route for success. Forget about failures. ----------------------
Always get engaged in hard work. Performance comes through continuous
efforts. Always keep your destination before you. ----------------------
Self-Analysis ----------------------
Behavioural Scientist Schiein provides a self-analysis form. It is a
----------------------
questionnaire, which can be used to decide career interests. This can serve to
be quite useful. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. The activities, which are designed to improve skills, abilities and
knowledge of employees, are ----------------------
i. Education and training activities
----------------------
ii. Intergroup activities
iii. Team building activities ----------------------
iv. Diagnostic activities
----------------------
2. Grid Organisation Development activities are based on six-phase
organisation Developmental designed by; ----------------------
i. French and Bell
----------------------
ii. Kurt Lewin
iii. Edi Murphy ----------------------
iv. Blake and Mouton
----------------------
3. Organisation transformation activities focus on;
i. Large scale system changes ----------------------
ii. Small-scale system changes in phase wise manner ----------------------
iii. Partial system changes
iv. Process changes ----------------------
Interventions 107
Notes
Activity 3
----------------------
---------------------- On the basis of the guidelines given above decide how you would like
to develop your career. Use the process as the guideline.
----------------------
---------------------- 6.10 LIFE GOALS EXERCISE

----------------------
Herbert Shepard is generally acknowledged as the author and originator
---------------------- of this exercise
First phase
----------------------
A. Draw a straight horizontal line from left to right to represent your life
---------------------- span. The length should represent the totality of your experience and
future expectations.
----------------------
B. Indicate where you are now.
----------------------
C. Prepare a life inventory of important “happenings” for you, including the
---------------------- following
---------------------- i. Any peak experiences you have had
ii. Things you do well /Things which you do poorly
----------------------
iii. Things which you would like stop doing
----------------------
iv. Things which you would like to learn and do well
---------------------- v. Peak experiences you would like to have
---------------------- vi. Values (e.g., power, money, etc.)
---------------------- vii. Things you would like to start doing now
D. Discussion in subgroups
----------------------
Second Phase
----------------------
a) Take 20 minutes to write your obituary.
---------------------- b) Form pairs. Take 20 minutes to write a eulogy for your partner.
---------------------- c) Discussion in Subgroups
----------------------
6.11 THE COLLAGE AND OTHER LIFE GOAL EXERCISES
----------------------
Another example is the outline of activities suggested by Fordyce and
---------------------- Weil. It has the following steps:
---------------------- First: individuals working in small groups are asked to make a collage
- a symbolic representation of their lives constructed out of art materials, old
---------------------- magazines and news papers, and the like; these are posted on walls for later
discussion.
----------------------

Second:, individuals write two letters, the instructions for which are as Notes
follows.
----------------------
Imagine that you have died ten years from now. Write a letter from one of
your best friends to another good friend, telling about you and your life. What ----------------------
do you want him to be able to say about you? Next, you have been killed in an
auto accident next week. Now write a similar letter. What would you like to say ----------------------
about you?
----------------------
At this stage, the group discusses the collage and letters from each
individual, giving the individuals the chance to get a feedback from the rest of ----------------------
the group about their reactions and also allowing the group to learn more about
----------------------
each other.
Third: The third set of public sharing serves to prepare members for the ----------------------
next step, consisting of building a ‘life inventory’, similar to ‘life goals’ exercises
----------------------
discussed earlier. After preparation of the life inventory, each individual prepares
career inventory by writing answers to the questions such as: ----------------------
What do you think are my best skills, abilities and latent talents that I can ----------------------
bring to work situation?
What kind of rewards do I seek from my job? ----------------------
My emphasis is on money /status /recognition. ----------------------

What career areas do I want to pursue? ----------------------
What are the new skills that I would require to acquire to persue a new
----------------------
career?
These inventories are shared and discussed within the group. ----------------------
At the final stage, the individuals set down a plan of action: steps for ----------------------
achieving these goals that they have identified.
----------------------
Life and career planning may take a day, a week or when spread for few
hours, several weeks. These activities involve generating data about oneself, ----------------------
analysing the data both individually, in groups and formulating clear goals and
action plan for achieving them. ----------------------
These activities tend to be very meaningful for organisational members ----------------------

who volunteer for the experience. The activities are particularly helpful for
----------------------
those who feel they are on dead centre, who are contemplating a career change
or who have seldom been introspective about their own lifestyle and career ----------------------
pattern.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Interventions 109
Notes
----------------------

1. The phases in life and career planning activities include
----------------------
i. Coaching and counseling activities
----------------------
ii. Goal setting
---------------------- iii. Assessment of goals and performance against goals
---------------------- iv. Arranging for suitable training
---------------------- 2. According to Social learning theory, people must

i. Perceive a link between the behaviour and certain outcomes
----------------------
ii. Desire those outcomes (called positive valence)
----------------------
iii. Believe that they can do it (called self-efficacy)
---------------------- iv. Have locus of control
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 4
----------------------
Write down five goals, which you have decided for yourself. Make
---------------------- your own estimation about its achievement. Write down problems you are
likely to face in their achievement.
----------------------
----------------------
Case Study
----------------------
---------------------- GROWING PAINS OF AN AUTOMOBILE COMPANY

---------------------- The Automobile Company was incorporated as a partnership firm about
20 years ago. Mr. Ganesh was the managing partner of the firm. He had worked
---------------------- earlier for a foreign company for nearly 15 years. He decided to venture into his
own business. According to him there was no company that had its major aim
---------------------- in the production of certain automobile components at minimum cost and their
---------------------- sale to the customers at an affordable price. Middle class vehicle owners spent
a lot on tyres, petrol and repairs. Thus, anybody who owned a car spent at least
---------------------- 35 to 40 per cent of his salary on its maintenance.
---------------------- Mr. Ganesh started the company with two other close friends of his who
also had extensive experience in this business.
----------------------
Mr Ganesh was a very hard working person and used to put more than
---------------------- twelve hours a day in his work. The other partners did not have much time to
devote to this business. Hence, the entire responsibility had to be shouldered by
---------------------- Mr Ganesh.

Though this was a small partnership unit, within a short span of time it Notes
earned itself a reputation because of the ways and methods of working and the
complete dedication of Mr. Ganesh. Thus, the unit initially did extremely well. ----------------------
As business began to expand, more customers’ services were added and the
company attained an excellent reputation for its expertise. ----------------------
Just two years after incorporation, the unit decided to expand its premises, ----------------------
operations and increase the number of personnel. With the expansion came the
----------------------
growing pains and Mr. Ganesh and two other partners faced many challenges.
Even when they were trying to solve one problem, several others seemed ----------------------
to crop up. Mr. Ganesh highlighted some of the more serious ones and expressed
----------------------
his opinion that it would have been better if he had not expanded his business.
At first, it was exciting to expand business and services to other customers. With ----------------------
the initial small setup they were comfortable in handling operations. During this
period, the workmen and the partners were all happy. Customers always moved ----------------------
out with satisfaction.
----------------------
But because of increase in staff sise, they had started losing control.
Customers were not served as effectively as they should have been. The ----------------------
personal touch that they had established with their customers seems to be slowly
----------------------
slipping away. Mr. Ganesh used to advise employees that they should be more
customer oriented but instead they seemed to be more concerned with their ----------------------
inter departmental problems and fights. Once when a customer was waiting
patiently for the automobile servicing, the mechanic who was attending on him ----------------------
was arguing for more than half an hour with another employee over a trivial
----------------------
matter. Mr.Ganesh got upset over this issue, but somehow controlled himself.
The fact that customers were not being serviced without delays bothered him ----------------------
a lot.
----------------------
Another problem in the company was after appointing a new young
Supervisor it was found that his services were highly productive but he always ----------------------
had a serious look on his face. His relationships with his colleagues were not
satisfactory. Some of his assistants were scared of him. The work force in the ----------------------
company is now a mixed one. Some of the workmen were very capable. But ----------------------
a few others had a casual approach and would keep laughing and were never
serious. ----------------------
Mr. Ganesh planned to see each service department as an individual profit ----------------------
centre. This can be done by treating employees as our stakeholders. All of them
should learn to work together. ----------------------
Questions ----------------------
●● Clearly identify problems in the case.
----------------------
●● Recommend appropriate OD intervention strategies to resolve each of the
issues. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Interventions 111
Notes Summary
---------------------- ●● Interventions are planned actions. These are necessary to create
awareness, manage confrontations, get feedback and provide education
----------------------
to the employees and for overall organisational development.
---------------------- ●● The major factors in planning Interventions are structure and strategies.
They are about familiarities of interventions like Grid Development, Team
----------------------
building, Process Consultation, Third party peacemaking, Coaching and
---------------------- Counselling, Survey feedback, Parallel learning structures, Structural
interventions etc
----------------------
●● The examples of individual interventions are life Goal exercise, career
---------------------- planning, behaviour modelling etc. They mainly concentrate first
on individual development and after linking the same with business
---------------------- objectives, they lead to Organisational Development.
---------------------- ●● T Group is a powerful learning laboratory where individuals gain insight
into the meaning and consequences of their own behaviour and learning
---------------------- the meaning and consequences of others’ behaviour. This trains an
individual to acquire basic skills for more competent action taking in the
---------------------- organisation.
---------------------- ●● The results of Intervention are increased communication, Team building,
increased productivity and overall organisational growth.
----------------------
---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Dilemma: A state of ambiguity, where two or more options are open
---------------------- ●● Discrepancy: Some fault, lack of something, errors
●● Perception: Your mental map, how you look at things
----------------------
●● Career Anchors: Basic characteristics on which one’s career depends
----------------------
---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions
---------------------- 1. Explain why OD Interventions are necessary.

2. What are the factors to be considered in planning and implementation of
----------------------
OD interventions?
---------------------- 3. Explain different types of OD Interventions.
---------------------- 4. What results can an organisation expect from OD interventions?
---------------------- 5. Explain the advantages of T-group training.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

6. Explain the significance of Career planning. Notes
8. Individual Interventions contribute to the Organisational Growth. Discuss.
----------------------
9. What do you understand by behavior modeling?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
3. True ----------------------
4. True ----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The intervention which examines the tradition, precedents and practices
which form the fabric of the organisation’s culture in a direct, focused ----------------------
approach is known as Cultural Intervention. ----------------------
2. Fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of the system or the
status of a problem are termed as Diagnostic activities. ----------------------
3. Activities that focus on the use of questionnaires to generate information, ----------------------

which is then used to identify problems and opportunities are termed as
Survey Feedback activities. ----------------------
4. nterventions by skilled third party aiming to help organisational members ----------------------

manage their interpersonal conflict is known as Third Party Peacemaking
----------------------
activities.
1. The activities, which are designed to improve skills, abilities and ----------------------
knowledge of employees, are
i. Education and training activities ----------------------
2. Grid Organisation Development activities are based on six-phase ----------------------

organisation Developmental designed by
----------------------
iv. Blake and Mouton
----------------------
3. Organisation transformation activities focus on
i. Large scale system changes ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Interventions 113
Notes Check your Progress 4
----------------------
1. The phases in life and career planning activities include
----------------------
ii. Goal setting
---------------------- iii. Assessment of goals and performance against goals
---------------------- iv. Arranging for suitable training
---------------------- 2. According to Social learning theory, people must

i. Perceive a link between the behaviour and certain outcomes
----------------------
ii. Desire those outcomes (called positive valence)
----------------------
iii. Believe that they can do it (called self-efficacy)
----------------------
---------------------- Suggested Reading
---------------------- 1. Bhatia, S.K. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. Management
of Change and Organisation Development.
----------------------
2. Ramnarayan, S, T V Rao. Organisation Development: Accelerating
3. Virmani, B.R. The Challenges of Indian Management. Sage Publications.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Team Interventions
UNIT
7
Structure:
7.1 Teams and Work Groups: Strategic Units of the Organisation

7.2 Cross-functional Teams
7.3 Importance of Teams as Building Blocks of the Organisation
7.4 Effective Teams
7.5 Broad Team Building Interventions
7.6 Formal Group Diagnostic Meetings
7.7 Formal Group Team-Building Meeting
7.8 Process Consultation Interventions (PC)
7.9 Techniques and Exercises used in Team-Building
7.10 Interdependency Exercise
7.11 Role Negotiation Technique (RNT)
7.12 The Appreciation and Concerns Exercise
7.13 Responsibility Charting
7.14 Force Field Analysis
7.15 Visioning
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Team Interventions 115

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Explain the importance of teams in the context of OD
----------------------
• Point out various issues faced by teams
----------------------
• Debate on the factors contributing to team effectiveness
---------------------- • Formulate Team Interventions to build stronger and more effective teams
----------------------
7.1 TEAMS AND WORK GROUPS: STRATEGIC UNITS OF
----------------------
THE ORGANISATION
----------------------
We have studied that Interventions are techniques and methods designed
---------------------- to change the culture of an organisation, and move it from its current position
to a desired position. Different types of Interventions are used for the process.
---------------------- In this unit, we will examine the importance of team work and different
---------------------- Interventions related to teams. To work with teams and work groups is one
of the critical aspects of the OD process because OD believes that teams are
---------------------- one of the most important factors which help in building organisations. The
appreciation for importance of work teams comes from cultural Anthropology,
---------------------- Sociology, Organisation theory, and Social Psychology.
---------------------- Therefore, if change has to be bought in, teams play a vital role in the
change effort. It is a well known fact that much of the work that gets done in
---------------------- organisations is not because of an individual but because of groups of individuals
---------------------- working together.
Hence, an appreciation of the importance of team work as a determinant of
----------------------
individual work behaviour is the central theme in OD. Although the terms group
---------------------- and team are used synonymously, it is important to understand the difference
between these terms.
----------------------
A work group is a number of persons, usually reporting to a common
---------------------- superior and having some face to face interaction, who have some degree of
interdependence in carrying out tasks for the purpose of achieving organisational
---------------------- goals.
---------------------- A team is a form of group, but has some characteristics in greater degree
than ordinary groups, including a higher commitment to common goals and a
---------------------- higher degree of interdependence and interaction. It is this commitment that
---------------------- distinguishes a team from a mere group.
John Katzenbach and Douglas Smith define team as follows:
----------------------
“A team is also defined as a small number of people with complementary
---------------------- skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and
approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.”
----------------------

Two or more people who are interdependent, who share responsibility for Notes
outcomes, who see themselves as (and who are seen by others as) an intact
social entity in a larger social system. ----------------------
This distinction is particularly important when talking of self-managed teams ----------------------
and in the development of high performance work teams. Prominent writers
like Rensis Likert and Douglas McGregor, suggested that organisations are best ----------------------
conceptualised by systems of interlocking groups connected by linking pins.
----------------------
They cite examples of individuals who occupy membership in two groups such
as by being a boss in one group and a subordinate in another. It is through these ----------------------
interlocking groups that the work of an organisation gets done.
----------------------
Individuals in an organisation function not so much as individuals but as
members of groups or teams. ----------------------
Characteristics of effective teams are as under:
----------------------
i) The atmosphere tends to be relaxed, comfortable, and informal.
----------------------
ii) The group task is well understood and accepted by members.
iii) The members listen well to each other; there is a lot of task relevant ----------------------
discussion in which most members participate. ----------------------
iv) People express both their feeling and ideas.
----------------------
v) Conflict and disagreement are present but are centered around ideas and
methods, not personalities and people. ----------------------
vi) The group is self conscious about its own operation. ----------------------
vii) Decisions are usually based on consensus not majority vote. ----------------------
viii) When actions are decided upon clear assignments are made and accepted
by the members. ----------------------
Teamwork is a process that must constantly be assessed and restructured ----------------------

to help teams achieve their goals efficiently and effectively. Teams struggle
----------------------
with the transition from a focus on individual achievement to a focus on shared
goals and teamwork. Workgroup success depends on cultivating an entirely ----------------------
new mindset.
----------------------
7.2 CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS ----------------------
These are important forms of teams in the OD context. OD approaches ----------------------
have great utility in formation and functioning of these teams. Cross Functional
teams comprise individuals from varied functional background such as ----------------------
Marketing, HR, Finance, Operations, Systems, etc. who meet regularly to solve
problems or work on projects which require diverse expertise. Large companies ----------------------
in India (like Tata Motors, Reliance, Wipro) as well as other countries (Motorola, ----------------------
Ford, 3M, GE) use Cross Functional teams to deliver high quality product and
services to their customers. Teams can be very effective. It is almost impossible ----------------------
to open a business magazine today without some guru exhorting the benefits of
working in teams. In many situations, teams can achieve more than individuals ----------------------

Notes working on their own. This is because teams can bring to bear a wider range
of skills and experience to solve a problem. Teams also produce better quality
---------------------- decisions.
---------------------- Teams can have their negative aspects. They are not always effective and
can be highly dysfunctional. They can develop a ‘group think’ mentality that
---------------------- can produce bad decisions. They can be disruptive, leading to arguments and
discord in the organisation. They can be enormously wasteful of people’s time
----------------------
and energy.
---------------------- In short, teams can be good, but they can also be bad. In a new
organisation teams have a critical role to play. Work teams are used as the basic
----------------------
unit of organisation. Problem solving teams are used to improve the way the
---------------------- organisation performs, and management teams are used to develop strategy and
to drive the changes. If the role of teams is to be positive people must learn how
---------------------- to make them work effectively.
---------------------- What is meant by team effectiveness? A team can be considered to be
effective if their output is judged to meet or exceed the expectations of the
---------------------- people who receive the output.
---------------------- This is a question of the customer being right. If the team has been given
some task to perform, the people who have given them the task are the people
---------------------- who will judge whether the result is satisfactory. Producing a quality output is
---------------------- not enough to judge the effectiveness of the team. The second criterion is that
the team should still be able to function effectively after they have completed
---------------------- their task. It should not be torn apart by dissension.
---------------------- This is not just a question of the members of the team still being on
speaking terms. It means that after the team has been disbanded, the people
---------------------- should have an enhanced working relationship that benefits the organisation.
---------------------- Finally, effectiveness is judged by whether the team feels satisfied with its
efforts. If the team members are pleased with their efforts, if the experience has
---------------------- been a good one, if time spent away from their normal work has been worth the
effort, the team has been effective.
----------------------
---------------------- 7.3 IMPORTANCE OFTEAMSAS BUILDING BLOCKS OF

THE ORGANISATION
----------------------
---------------------- What are the factors that contribute towards the formation of an
effective team?
---------------------- There has been a great deal of research into the subject of team effectiveness
---------------------- over the last decade or so and there is a consensus on what factors must be
controlled in order to set up and run effective teams.
---------------------- There are three areas of group behaviour that must be addressed for teams
---------------------- to be effective. The team must work hard. The effort that the team puts in to
get the job done is dependent on whether the nature of the task motivates the
---------------------- members of the team and whether the goals are challenging.

The team must have the right mix of skills to bring to the table. These Notes
skills include technical, problem solving and interpersonal skills. The team must
be able to develop appropriate approaches to problem solving. This depends on ----------------------
developing a plan of attack and using appropriate techniques for analysis.
----------------------
The following factors contribute to hard work, skill development and
effective problem solving strategies: ----------------------
●● he task itself should be motivating: One of the factors affecting the effort
T ----------------------
the team is likely to put into the job is the job itself. The characteristics
of the job should provide motivation. The job should require a variety of ----------------------
high level skills to make it interesting.
----------------------
●● he task itself should be seen as being worthwhile: It needs to be a whole
T
piece of work with a clear and visible outcome so that people can feel a ----------------------
sense of ownership. The outcome of the task should be perceived as being
----------------------
important to other people’s lives. It should affect others in the organisation
or impact on the external customer. The job should provide the team with ----------------------
an opportunity for self-regulation. They should decide how the work is to
be done. Meaningful feedback should be provided on how well the team ----------------------
is performing.
----------------------
●● he goals should be meaningful: The job characteristics are particularly
T
important for work teams who are part of the day to day running of the ----------------------
organisation. The team needs challenging goals, which are clearly defined.
----------------------
For problem solving teams the most important factor that fosters the hard
work and effort necessary for success is having meaningful goals. ----------------------
During the eighties quality circles were the fad. They generally failed to
achieve any worthwhile results because they were not focused on results. They ----------------------
were aimless. If goals are foggy or too easy to achieve, the team will not be ----------------------
motivated to make the extra effort that separates a high performance team from
an ineffective group. Goals are needed to spur on a team. When challenging ----------------------
goals are set the team will mobilise its efforts to find innovative ways to achieve
feats that may have been considered impossible. Providing a challenging job is ----------------------
the most important motivator to sustain group effort. ----------------------
Goals provide a sense of direction to the team so that when conflict occurs
----------------------
it is possible to channel the conflict more constructively by returning to the
goals for direction. ----------------------
The team needs to buy in to the goals. In most cases a team has been set
----------------------
up to achieve a set of prescribed goals. They should spend some time discussing
the goals and if necessary they should have the opportunity to negotiate them ----------------------
with their management. They must have the opportunity to buy in and commit
to achieving the goals. Goals need to be challenging, but not impossible to ----------------------
achieve. They also need to be measurable so that progress towards achieving
----------------------
them can be monitored and results are confirmed.
●● ewards are important. Rewards reinforce the motivational aspects of
R ----------------------
having a well-designed task and challenging goals. People tend to engage
----------------------

Notes in those behaviours that are rewarded, so the rewards need to suit the
personal characteristics of the people on the team. These rewards do
---------------------- not need to be financial rewards although they may be. Simply providing
recognition for a job well done can be all that is required.
----------------------
Whatever form the reward takes, it is important that the group effort
---------------------- be recognised. One should avoid the destructive effect of trying to single out
individuals from the group, when there has been a group effort.
----------------------
The impact of rewards will be heightened if the team understands that
---------------------- the provision of the reward is contingent on meeting the agreed goals. On the
whole, hard work and effort are best sustained by having a worthwhile task to
---------------------- perform and having clear challenging goals to meet. Rewards merely reinforce
---------------------- these conditions for fostering group effort.
●● he right mix of skills should be brought to the task at hand. The team
T
----------------------
should have the right mix of skills. This is partly a matter of assigning
---------------------- talented individuals and avoiding the temptation to assign people to a
team for political reasons.
----------------------
It is also a question of carefully reviewing the job to determine what
---------------------- relevant skills are required and selecting staffs so that the team has the right
balance. Providing relevant training then makes up any shortfall in skills.
----------------------
Technical skills are required. For teams who are trying to improve
---------------------- a process that cuts across department boundaries, each function should be
represented. One should achieve a balance of skills. This means avoiding
---------------------- having a preponderance of skills and experience in one specialised area. Sheer
numbers may weigh the solution towards the dominant group. In the case of
----------------------
permanent work teams it is likely that team members will not have all the task
---------------------- relevant skills at the onset. When the group is new, it is likely that members will
bring narrow skills learned in their old roles. They will need to develop broader
---------------------- skills for the new job. To ensure that this is done, training and coaching should
be provided.
----------------------
The members of the team need to have problem solving and decision-
---------------------- making skills as well as technical skills. When a business is making its first
venture into team based work, it is likely that people will not have a good grasp
----------------------
of the techniques related to problem analysis and solution. These relevant skills
---------------------- must be acquired, so it will be necessary to provide training. Over a period
of time staff will become experienced in problem solving techniques and the
---------------------- organisation will develop a repertoire of skills among the staff so this training
will not always be necessary.
----------------------
●● I nterpersonal skills are also important: This is not as obvious as it may
---------------------- sound. Most people do not listen well. Listening is much more than being
---------------------- quiet when someone else is talking. Active listening is required. Many
people do not speak to the point but ramble on or go off at a tangent. Most
---------------------- people do not take criticism well and tend to be defensive about their own
opinions.
----------------------

●● gree on a code of conduct: At the beginning of the team project it is
A Notes
important to develop a code of conduct for meetings. The team needs to
agree on a set of rules to ensure that their efforts are purposeful and that ----------------------
all members contribute to the work. The most critical rules pertain to
attendance, open discussion, using an analytical approach not pulling rank ----------------------
over other members, planning the work and sharing work assignments. ----------------------
This will ensure that the work is done well and on time.
In summary, to ensure that the best possible sets of skills and experience ----------------------
is brought to the task, able people should be selected on the basis of their ----------------------
relevant skills, and training or coaching should be provided to make up any
skill deficiencies. Team activities are in fact a powerful vehicle for building ----------------------
skills. People learn skills from each other. They learn how other parts of the
organisation function. Teams serve to build up a repertoire of skills in the ----------------------
organisation and this enhances the organisation in the long term. ----------------------
●● he team must develop effective problem solving strategies. Behaviour in
T
some groups can be chaotic. Early on, the team must develop a consensus ----------------------
about the general strategy for approaching problems. Failure to do so will
----------------------
seriously inhibit the ability of the team to tackle its tasks. For the team to
be able to develop an appropriate strategy, it must have a clear definition ----------------------
of the problem, know what resources it has available and the limits, and
understand the expectations. It must then develop a problem solving ----------------------
plan, based on the approach suggested in the section on continuous
----------------------
improvement.
An effective team must develop good synergy. When a group finally ----------------------
clicks and becomes a team, it will find creative ways to solve problems and
----------------------
come up with innovative solutions. Synergy comes about when gains from the
team setting exceed the losses. ----------------------
When this does not happen, people are passive. Their skills and knowledge
are not utilised and they waste their time. ----------------------
Synergy is affected by group interaction. It is also dependent upon the ----------------------
group size. A large group has the potential to be able to provide a greater
variety of skills. However, when the group is too large individual contribution ----------------------
decreases. ----------------------
Some people feel intimidated by large groups and don’t contribute. Also
when the group is large some members become inactive. A small size is better, ----------------------
it generates team spirit. The team should have just enough hands to do the work
----------------------
and no more.
Special teams have special issues. From the perspective of organisational ----------------------
improvement we are interested in three types of teams. One is the problem
----------------------
solving team, another is the work team and then there is the senior management
team. ----------------------
Problem solving teams are set up with a clearly defined task to investigate
----------------------
a problem and recommend a solution. Sometimes the same team will go on to
implement the solution. ----------------------

Notes When their task is completed the team is disbanded and members go back
to their normal organisational duties.
----------------------
There are two important issues facing these teams. One is getting started
---------------------- and the other is handing over the recommendations for implementation. The
key to getting started is to ensure that the team is committed to achieving an
---------------------- agreed set of goals. Goals serve to focus the team’s effort.
---------------------- Implementation is important. It will not just happen; it must be planned.
The implementers must be brought into the solution stage so that they develop a
---------------------- sense of ownership towards the solution and buy into it. The best way to do this
is to have the problem solving team do the implementation. Another approach is
----------------------
to phase in or out the implementers of the team so that the membership changes
---------------------- prior to the implementation. Whatever approach is used one should remember
that the idea is to implement a solution and not to produce a report. Work
---------------------- teams are different in that they are a fixed part of the organisation. They have an
ongoing function, which is to control a set of activities that make up a discrete
----------------------
operation in the overall business process. They need to focus on the critical
---------------------- factors in their process and to control these factors to ensure a quality product/
service.
----------------------
Their work is a process. There are no completion dates. They must think in
---------------------- terms of how they can constantly improve their work to cut cost, cycle time,
or improve quality. One of the management issues is how to keep track of the
---------------------- performance of a large number of work teams to ensure that effort is focused
on improving the performance of the key processes. Management teams are
----------------------
another concept altogether. At the senior level in an organisation there should
---------------------- be a team approach taken towards the effective implementation of business
strategy.
----------------------
This implementation should include the achievement of a range of performance
---------------------- improvement goals. It is important to identify specific measurable business
objectives and monitor the progress towards meeting them. For the management
---------------------- team to behave as a real team they should be prepared to put aside their inhibitions
---------------------- and help with the change effort. They should perform higher level activities
that support people at the lower level. These include communications, resolving
---------------------- road blocks and providing support and encouragement to those affected by the
changes.
----------------------

----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1.
A group which has a greater degree of commitment to common goals
----------------------
and a higher degree of interdependency and interaction is called a
i. Work group ----------------------
ii. Department
----------------------
iii. Section
iv. Team ----------------------
2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of effective team? ----------------------
i. There is always a phenomenon of ‘groupthink’
----------------------
ii. Decisions are usually based on consensus not majority vote
iii. When actions are decided upon clear assignments are made and ----------------------
accepted by the members
----------------------
iv. Conflict and disagreement are present but are centered around
ideas and methods, not personalities and people. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Recall a marriage function in your family. List down how the various tasks ----------------------
that were involved to make the event a successful. Analyse how various
----------------------
activities were conducted by utilization of different teams. How were
multiple views considered in the process? ----------------------
----------------------
7.4 EFFECTIVE TEAMS
----------------------
For an individual to function effectively, frequently, a prerequisite is that
the team must be effective. ----------------------
Characteristics of Effective Teams ----------------------

●● here is a clear unity of purpose. There is free discussion of the objectives
T ----------------------
until members commit themselves to them; the objectives are meaningful
to each group member. ----------------------
●● he group is self-conscious about its own operations. The group has
T ----------------------
taken time to explicitly discuss group process such as how the group
will function to achieve its objectives. The group has a clear, explicit, ----------------------
and mutually agreed upon approach regarding mechanics, norms,
----------------------
expectations, rules, etc. Frequently, it will stop to examine how well it
is doing or what may be interfering with its operation. Whatever the ----------------------
problem may be, it gets discussed openly and a solution found.
----------------------

Notes ●● he group has set clear and demanding performance goals for itself and has
T
translated these performance goals into well-defined concrete milestones
---------------------- against which it measures itself. The group defines and achieves a
continuous series of “small wins” along the way to larger goals.
----------------------
●● he atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable and relaxed. There
T
---------------------- are no obvious tensions. It is a working atmosphere in which people are
involved and interested.
----------------------
●● here is a lot of discussion in which virtually everyone participates, but
T
---------------------- it remains pertinent to the purpose of the group. If the discussion gets off
track, someone will bring it back in short order. The members listen to
---------------------- each other. Every idea is given a hearing. People are not afraid of being
---------------------- foolish by putting forth a creative thought even if it seems extreme.
●● People are free in expressing their feelings as well as their ideas. This
---------------------- is critical if the team members have to work in a congenial and fearless
---------------------- environment.
●● There is disagreement and this is viewed as good. Disagreements are
---------------------- not suppressed or overridden by premature group action. The reasons
are carefully examined, and the group seeks to resolve them rather than
----------------------
dominate the dissenter. Dissenters are not trying to dominate the group;
---------------------- they have a genuine difference of opinion. If there are basic disagreements
that cannot be resolved, the group figures out a way to live with them
---------------------- without letting them block its efforts.
---------------------- ●● Most decisions are made at a point where there is general agreement.
However, those who disagree with the general agreement of the group do
---------------------- not keep their opposition private and let an apparent consensus mask their
disagreement. The group does not accept a simple majority as a proper
----------------------
basis for action.
---------------------- ●● Each individual carries his or her own weight, meeting or exceeding the
expectations of other group members. Each individual is respectful of the
----------------------
mechanics of the group: arriving on time, coming to meetings prepared,
---------------------- completing agreed upon tasks on time, etc. When action is taken, clear
assignments are made (who-what-when) and willingly accepted and
---------------------- completed by each group member.
---------------------- ●● Criticism is frequent, frank and relatively comfortable. The criticism
has a constructive flavour-oriented toward removing an obstacle that the
---------------------- group is faced with.
---------------------- ●● The leadership of the group shifts from time to time. The issue is not who
controls, but how to get the job done.
----------------------
7.5 BROAD TEAM BUILDING INTERVENTIONS
----------------------
Team Interventions are directed towards improvement and effectiveness
----------------------
of various teams within the organisation. These are structured activities for
---------------------- eliminating the hurdles in effective team working. Some interventions are

focused on the intact work teams composed of a boss and subordinate. We will Notes
call these as formal groups. Other interventions focus on special teams, newly
constituted teams due to mergers, organisation structure changes, or plant start ----------------------
ups, task forces, cross functional project teams and committees.
----------------------
Team Building Interventions are directed towards four main areas:
----------------------
●● Diagnosis
●● Task Accomplishment ----------------------
●● Team Relationships ----------------------
●● Team & Organisational processes
----------------------
Let us now examine various team-building interventions in detail.
----------------------
7.6 FORMAL GROUP DIAGNOSTIC MEETINGS
----------------------
The purpose of the formal group diagnostic meeting is to conduct a ----------------------
general critique of the performance of the group that is to take stock of “where
we are going” and “how we are doing”. In this process, certain problems may ----------------------
be identified so that they can be worked upon. In this process the leader and
the consultant discuss the idea first and if it appears that a need for diagnostic ----------------------
meetings is required, the idea is put forth to the group for their reactions. ----------------------
The typical questions asked are as follows:
----------------------
What are our strengths?
----------------------
What problems do we have to work upon?
How are we faring with regard to our existing tasks? ----------------------
How are our relationships with each other? ----------------------
After these have been addressed it is decided to conduct the formal ----------------------
diagnostic meeting .After some thinking about their own performance, the group
assembles for a half day or a day meeting. There are several ways of acquiring ----------------------
diagnostic data. In case intensive discussion is required big groups are divided
into smaller subgroups. Findings of these subgroup are then reported to the total ----------------------
group. There is a high degree of safety in the anonymity of the subgroup. ----------------------
The process can involve pairing of two individuals who interview each
other or to simply discuss their ideas with each other, each pair then reports to ----------------------
the total group. The diagnostic data so collected is shared with the group. The ----------------------
issues are discussed in terms of themes such as:
----------------------
i) Planning Problems
ii) Goal ambiguity problems etc. ----------------------
iii) Preliminary action plan is decided. Team building meeting is arranged. ----------------------
iv) Task Groups are formed. ----------------------
v) Strategies are decided
----------------------

Notes vi) Corrective actions are planned
In this process, the group serves as its own critic and identifies strengths
----------------------
and problem areas and allows everybody to participate in generating the
---------------------- necessary data. The meetings are basically for identifying problems and not
for solving problems. The frequency of the meetings depend up on overall
---------------------- progress made in each meeting and the nature of problems put forward.
----------------------
7.7 FORMAL GROUP TEAM-BUILDING MEETING
----------------------
It has the goal of improving team effectiveness. This is achieved through:
----------------------
●● Task Accomplishment, including problem solving, decision making role
---------------------- clarification, goal setting etc.
●● Building and maintaining effective interpersonal relationships
----------------------
●● Understanding and managing group processes and culture
---------------------- ●● Role Analysis technique for role definition and clarification
---------------------- ●● Role negotiation technique
The team building session is usually initiated by the manager in
----------------------
consultation with the third party. The idea is then tested for reactions with the
---------------------- group. Alternatively the group may initiate certain ideas and then be examined
by the boss and by the group. The usual practice for these sessions is to have
---------------------- a consultant who interviews each of the group members and the leader. He
interrogates them about problems they face, their opinion on the functioning
----------------------
of the group and the obstacles being faced by groups so that they perform
---------------------- better. The interview data are categorised into themes by the consultant, who
presents them to the group at the beginning of the meeting. The group examines
---------------------- and discusses the issues, ranks them in order of importance, examines the
underlying dynamics of the problems and begins to work with solutions. Action
----------------------
to bring about change is also initiated. Often it is desirable that the consultant
---------------------- interviews the entire group, using an open ended approach. In this way the
commitment of the group members is ascertained. The group is informed well
---------------------- in advance regarding issues such as whether information will be public or
confidential. Even if the contents are made public no individual’s name would
----------------------
be made known. There are advantages as well as disadvantages of both the
---------------------- systems. Public data brings transparency and openness while privacy leads to
bringing out deep rooted facts which often people are averse to speaking about.
---------------------- A lot also depends upon the psychology of people Once everyone understands
these themes they are ranked in terms of their importance and taken up as points
----------------------
in the meeting. When important problems are discussed, alternative actions are
---------------------- developed, targets are set and individual or group responsibilities are fixed.
---------------------- The following are the four major reasons for which the teams meet other
than for sharing information:
---------------------- a) To set goals and/or priorities
---------------------- b) To analyse and allocate the way work is performed

c) To examine the way in which the group is working: its processes, norms, Notes
decision making, communication etc.
----------------------
d) To examine relationships among people.
These could be covered in a single session if primary goals are clear. ----------------------
The following are the underlying successes of Team Building interventions: ----------------------
Get the right people together for ----------------------
A large block of uninterrupted time
----------------------
To work on high priority problems or opportunities that
----------------------
They have identified and that are worked on
In ways that are structured to enhance the likelihood of ----------------------
Realistic solutions and action plans that are ----------------------
Implemented enthusiastically and ----------------------
Followed up to assess actual versus expected results
----------------------
When the group engages in problem solving activities directed towards
task achievements, the team members build something together. It brings ----------------------
cohesion. One underlying assumption regarding teams in the organisation is
----------------------
that resources are available in the individuals in the work unit. They have the
capability to address and deal with questions and the problems underlying ----------------------
questions, if given time and encouragement and freedom to work honestly
towards solutions. Team development in its best sense is to create opportunities ----------------------
for people to come together to share their concerns, their ideas and their
----------------------
experiences and to begin work together to solve their mutual problems and
achieve common goals. ----------------------
7.8 PROCESS CONSULTATION INTERVENTIONS (PC) ----------------------
The Process Consultation model places greater emphasis on diagnosing ----------------------

and understanding process events. Furthermore, the consultant’s role is rather ----------------------
non directive. Instead he is engaged for questioning members and being pro-
active in getting the groups to solve their own problems. Process Consultation ----------------------
(PC) represents an approach or a method for intervening in an ongoing system.
The basis of this approach is that a skilled third party (consultant) works with ----------------------
individuals and groups to help them learn about human and social processes ----------------------
and learns to solve problems arising there from.
----------------------
Basic Assumptions of PC
PC starts with the assumption that an OD consultant cannot learn enough ----------------------
in a short time about an organisation’s culture to prescribe effective courses of
----------------------
action. It also assumes that most managers can sense that something is wrong
but often have difficulty identifying its nature and scope. Thus, team managers ----------------------
often find themselves in a bind; they are not sure what they need to change or
----------------------

Notes how to change it. Another important assumption of PC is that clients must
learn to identify and solve problems themselves. By playing an active role in all
---------------------- phases: diagnosing and problem solving, the client will be more committed to
implementing the action plans.
----------------------
In PC, the consultant helps the organisation solve its own problems:
----------------------
(i) by making it aware of organisational processes,
---------------------- (ii) consequences of these processes, and
---------------------- (iii) the mechanisms by which they can be changed.
---------------------- Some particularly important organisational processes are communications,

the roles and functions of group members, group problem solving and decision-
---------------------- making, group norms and group growth, leadership and authority, and intergroup
co-operation and competition.
----------------------
The PC Consultant works with the organisation, typically in work teams,
---------------------- and helps them to develop the skills necessary to diagnose and solve the process
problems that arise.
----------------------
Schein describes the kinds of interventions he believes the Process
---------------------- Consultant should make:
---------------------- 1. Agenda Setting Interventions consisting of:
---------------------- ●● Questions which direct attention to interpersonal issues

●● Process Analysis periods
----------------------
●● Agenda review and testing procedures
---------------------- ●● Meetings devoted to interpersonal processes
---------------------- ●● Conceptual inputs on interpersonal process topics
2. Feedback of observations or other data, consisting of:
----------------------
●● Feedback to groups during process analysis or regular work time
----------------------
●● Feedback to individuals after meetings or after data gathering
---------------------- 3. Coaching and counseling of individuals.
---------------------- 4. Structural suggestions pertaining to
●● Group memberships
----------------------
●● Communication or interaction patterns
----------------------
●● Allocation of work, assignment of responsibility and lines of authority
---------------------- In this intervention the consultant is not to be treated as a resource. There
are no specific recommendations. A consultant basically creates awareness and
---------------------- acts as an expert. This counselling is normally related to the groups. It aims
---------------------- at improving the ability of observation the group members. It also helps them
accept and learn from feedback.
----------------------
----------------------

7.9TECHNIQUESAND EXERCISES USED IN TEAM BUILDING Notes
A number of techniques and exercises are used in team building to facilitate ----------------------
team performance and to address specific problem areas. They are useful and
powerful ways to structure the team’s activities and energies in order to achieve ----------------------
understanding of the issues and to take corrective actions. Before using these
----------------------
techniques, proper diagnosis has to be made to ensure that the technique is
appropriate. Team building sessions often include many of these techniques and ----------------------
exercises.
----------------------
Role Analysis Technique (RAT)
The RAT intervention is designed to clarify role expectations and ----------------------
obligations of team members to improve team effectiveness. Individuals
----------------------
play multiple roles in an organisation. Very often performance gets adversely
affected because of lack of clarity of the roles and what it demands from the ----------------------
role incumbents. Also, the role holder is not aware of how he/she can help in
the fulfillment of his/her role. Ishwar Dayal and John M. Thomas developed a ----------------------
technique for clarifying the roles of the top management of a new organisation
----------------------
in India. This technique is particularly applicable for new teams, but it may also
be useful in established teams where role ambiguity or confusion exists. It is ----------------------
based on the belief that role clarity leads to mutually satisfactory and productive
behaviour. In a structured series of steps, role incumbents, in conjunction with ----------------------
team members define and delineate role requirements. The role being defined is
----------------------
called the Focal Role. In a new organisation, it may be desirable to conduct a
role analysis for each of the major roles. ----------------------
Step 1: Focal Role is identified. The role, its place in the organisation, the
purpose of its existence, its place in achieving overall organisational objectives ----------------------
are examined along with its specific duties and responsibilities. These are listed ----------------------
on a board and discussed by the entire team. Behaviours are added and deleted
until the group and the role incumbent are satisfied; and they have defined the ----------------------
role completely.
----------------------
Step 2: It involves examining the focal role incumbent’s expectations
of others. The incumbent lists his or her own expectations of the other roles ----------------------
in the group that most affect the incumbent’s own role performance, and these
expectations are discussed, modified, and agreed upon by the entire group. ----------------------
Step 3: This consists of understanding what others are expecting from the ----------------------
focal role. Members of the group define what they want from the incumbent in
the focal role. This is an essential step towards creating a shared understanding ----------------------
of the role. ----------------------
Step 4: This is essentially about making a written summary of the focal
role as has been defined by the team together. This summary is called the Role ----------------------
Profile.
----------------------
Role Profile is a comprehensive understanding of each individual’s
role space. This can be reviewed in the next meeting and another focal role is ----------------------
identified.
----------------------

Notes Advantages of RAT
This intervention can be non-threatening with high pay offs. Often the
---------------------- mutual demands, expectations and obligations of interdependent team members
---------------------- have been publicly examined. Collaborative role analysis and definition by the
entire work group not only clarifies who is to do what but ensures commitment
---------------------- to the role once it has been clarified.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Which of the following represent the characteristics of a work group?
----------------------
i. Number of individual reports to a common superior
---------------------- ii. It is created by employees themselves
---------------------- iii. There is some degree of interdependence in carrying out the
tasks
---------------------- iv. There is a highest degree of commitment amongst all the group
members.
----------------------
2. The negative sides of the team are
---------------------- i. Team is created by organizational authorities
---------------------- ii. Team can develop a ‘groupthink’ mentality
iii. Team can be disruptive , leading to argument and discord in the
----------------------
organization
---------------------- iv. Teams are not always effective and can be highly dysfunctional
3. For the teams to be more effective, which three points are valid?
----------------------
i. The team must work hard
----------------------
ii. The team must have right mix of skills
---------------------- iii. Team must be able to develop appropriate approaches to
---------------------- problem solving
iv. Team must undertake only those tasks, which are convenient to
---------------------- them
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
Team Building activities are very common in day today activities as well
---------------------- though they may not be scientifically conducted. Recollect important
---------------------- problematic situations in the family. For instance: how your parents called
relatives to sort out an issue. Check team building activities involved therein.
---------------------- In case of organisational problems also, try to recollect such situations.
Write down the steps taken and analyse them.
----------------------

7.10 INTERDEPENDENCY EXERCISE Notes
Purpose and Rationale ----------------------
An interdependency exercise is a useful intervention if the team members ----------------------
feel the need to improve co-operation among themselves and other units. This
exercise is also useful for assisting people in getting better acquainted with each ----------------------
other. It helps bringing various latent problems to surface. These problems
might not have been examined earlier. It helps in providing useful information ----------------------
about current challenges being faced in other’s area of responsibility. There are ----------------------
various ways of conducting this intervention. The description in the following
paragraphs is just one of them. ----------------------
This is highly effective for a team of up to ten people. Let us assume that ----------------------
there are ten persons involved in this intervention. This is also considered as an
optimum size. ----------------------
1. Two straight lines of five persons each are formed with the lines facing ----------------------
each other. Each person is seated facing the other in the opposite line.
Person 1 faces person 6, person 2 faces person 7 and so on. ----------------------
2. Using the assignment sheets as shown below, persons facing each other are ----------------------
instructed to interview each other about the important interdependencies
between their jobs / units. They also try and understand what seems to ----------------------
be going on particularly well in the interdependencies and what present
----------------------
or potential snags are perceived. An action plan is made at the end of the
interview or an agreement to meet further is made. ----------------------
3. At the end of about ten minutes, people in one row are asked to shift
----------------------
positions one chair within their row. That way, person 1 moves to where
person 2 was sitting, 2 moves where 3 had been sitting and so on. Persons ----------------------
6 to 10 keep their positions. Only people in one row move.
----------------------
4. Once the first round of five interviews is completed, the group takes a
break. After the break persons in each row pair up and interview each ----------------------
other. This requires a series of five more interview periods with one person
sitting out each period. Since there are 10 persons, each person must ----------------------
interview 9 others, for a total of approximately 90 minutes. Participants ----------------------
report that this exercise is tiring but in many ways exhilarating and
extremely productive. They also report considerable follow up after the ----------------------
session. Obviously, this exercise requires the participant’s co-operation
and assumes no serious conflict situations. In case of intense conflicts a ----------------------
different structure is to be used. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Interdependency Interview Sheet
Person being interviewed: _______________________________ Unit:
----------------------
______________
---------------------- Please ask these questions:
---------------------- 1. What /Where are the most important interdependencies between our two units
(or jobs)?
----------------------
2. What is going particularly well?
---------------------- 3. Present or potential snags?
---------------------- 4. Any action plans or agreements to meet further?
---------------------- Tailor the dialogue to fit the circumstances. For example, if there is very
little interdependence, learn a few things about the other person’s job etc.
----------------------
The data thus gathered is shared among all and is used for diagnostic
---------------------- purposes.
---------------------- 7.11 ROLE NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUE (RNT)

----------------------
Many times we come across situations where teams are ineffective
---------------------- because people are unwilling to change their behaviours. They do so because
they are afraid of losing power and influence. In such a situation a technique
---------------------- called as Role Negotiation Technique (RAT) developed by Roger Harrison can
be used to great advantage.
----------------------
Role Negotiation directly intervenes in relationships of power, authority
---------------------- and influence within the group. The change effort is directed towards work
relationships amongst members. It purely concentrates on behaviours. It avoids
---------------------- probing into the likes and dislikes of members for one another and also avoids
---------------------- for the time being their personal feelings about one another.
The intervention is a controlled negotiation between the members of the
---------------------- group in which each member agrees in writing to change certain behaviours
---------------------- in return for changes in behaviour by other members. Hence, it is called as a
negotiation.
---------------------- “I ask you to change some of your behaviours so that I can do my job
---------------------- more effectively and you ask me to change some of my behaviours so that you
can do your job effectively” This is the theme of the technique.
---------------------- Harrison states that this technique is based on one single assumption:
---------------------- Most people prefer a fairly negotiated settlement to a state of unresolved conflict
and they are willing to invest some time and make some concession in order to
---------------------- achieve some solution. The RNT takes at least one day to conduct. A two day
session with a follow up meeting in a month is the best. The technique is spread
---------------------- across a series of structured steps as follows:
---------------------- 1. Contract Setting: Here the consultant sets the climate and establishes the
ground rules. Some ground rules can be as follows:
----------------------

a. We are looking at work behaviours and not feelings about people. Notes
b. Be specific about what you want others to do more of or better, to
do less of or stop doing, or maintain unchanged. ----------------------
c. All expectations and demands must be written. ----------------------
d. No one is to agree to change any behaviour unless there is a quid ----------------------
pro quo in which the other must agree to a change also.
The session consists of individuals negotiating with each other to arrive ----------------------
at a written contract of what behaviours each will change.
----------------------
2. Issue Diagnosis: This is the next step. Individuals think about how their
own effectiveness can be improved if others change their work behaviours. ----------------------
Each person fills out an Issue
----------------------
Fill a Diagnosis form for every other person in the group. On this form,
the individual states what he or she would like the other to do more of, do ----------------------
less of, or maintain unchanged.
----------------------
These messages are then exchanged among all members, and the messages
received by each person are written on a chalkboard or newsprint for all ----------------------
to see.
----------------------
3. Influence Trade or a negotiation period: This is where two individuals
discuss the most important behaviour changes they want from the other ----------------------
and the changes they are willing to make themselves. A quid pro quo is
required in this step. The group breaks into negotiating pairs and involves ----------------------
the members making contingent offers – “If you do this, I will do that.” ----------------------
The negotiation ends when all the parties are satisfied that they will receive
a reasonable return for whatever they are agreeing to give. All agreements are ----------------------
written, with each party having a copy. The agreement may or may not be ----------------------
published for the group to see. The influence trade step is concluded when all
the negotiated agreements have been made and written down. It is best to have ----------------------
a follow up meeting to determine whether the contracts have been honoured and
to assess the effects of the contracts on team performance effectiveness. ----------------------
----------------------
7.12 THE APPRECIATION AND CONCERNS EXERCISE
----------------------
This intervention may be appropriate if interview data suggests that one of
the deficiencies in the interactions of members of a group is lack of expression ----------------------
of appreciation, and that another deficiency is the avoidance of confronting ----------------------
concerns and irritations. This intervention can be carried out in many different
ways. On a broad scale, the following are the important aspects: ----------------------
1. The facilitator asks each member of the group to write down one to three ----------------------
appreciations for each member of the group.
2. Each member is also asked to write down one or two minor irritations ----------------------
or concerns related to each person that may be interfering with
----------------------
communications, getting the work done effectively, and so on.
3. Along with the assignment, the facilitator may make some suggestions, ----------------------

Notes such as;
a. Be the judge of which concerns to raise.
----------------------
b. Will it be helpful to the relationship?
---------------------- c. Will it be helpful to the group?
---------------------- d. Can the person do anything about it?
e. Would it be better to talk privately with the person?
----------------------
On the positive side, sometimes, raising concerns in a team setting can
---------------------- provide an opportunity for others to validate what is being perceived or to
provide another perspective.
---------------------- There will be plenty of time to work things through if there are any
---------------------- misunderstandings.
4. Someone is asked to volunteer to be the first person to listen to members
----------------------
of the group. Each group member mentions both, the appreciation
---------------------- and concerns about the volunteer who listens to all the group members
before responding, with the exception that questions of clarifications are
---------------------- encouraged after each person mentions his / her items.
---------------------- 5 Each group member listens in turn, either through volunteering to be next
or through a simple procedure of rotating clock wise or counter clock
---------------------- wise from the first person. Sometimes these observations can be put on a
flipchart paper and displayed with two column headings (1) Appreciations
---------------------- and (2) Concerns (what to differently). Sheets are taped on walls and each
---------------------- member writes appreciations and concerns on each sheet. In instances
in which lack of appreciation is a much more serious deficiency than
---------------------- concerns, focusing solely on appreciation can be a powerful and positive
intervention in the life of the group. When the concerns segment is used,
---------------------- a mini lecture from the facilitator on the nature of constructive feedback
---------------------- is desirable.
Whenever a substantial conflict exists with the group, a more structured
---------------------- exercise, such as the RNT, is likely to be more appropriate.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
Match the following. ----------------------
i. Work teams a.
Are those where the output is judged
----------------------
to meet or exceed the expectations
of the people who receive the output ----------------------
ii. Problem solving teams b. Are used as the basic unit of the
organization ----------------------
iii. Management teams c. Are those where people manage one
----------------------
another
iv. Effective teams d. Aroused to develop strategy and to ----------------------
drive changes
e. Are used to improve the way the ----------------------
organization performs ----------------------
f. Constitutes of consultants from
different disciplines ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
Talk to the HR / IR manager of any organization to know more about a ----------------------

situation where one of the deficiencies in the interactions of members of a
group is lack of expression of appreciation, and the avoidance of confronting ----------------------
concerns and irritations. Try to know more about the tactics adopted by ----------------------
these managers in such a situation and contrast with the exercises discussed
in the above section. ----------------------
----------------------
7.13 RESPONSIBILITY CHARTING
----------------------
In work teams, decisions are made, tasks are assigned, and individuals
and small groups accomplish the tasks. This process is easily described on ----------------------
paper, but in reality, a decision to have someone do something is somewhat ----------------------
more complex than it appears because multiple factors are in fact involved in
even the simplest task assignment. ----------------------
The person who does the work, one or more people who may approve or ----------------------
veto the work, and persons who may ‘contribute’ in some way to the work while
not being responsible for it all play a part in a given task. The issue is: who is to ----------------------
do what, with what kind of involvement by others is required?
----------------------
A technique called Responsibility Charting helps to clarify who is
responsible for what on various decisions and actions. It is a simple, relevant, ----------------------
and effective technique for improving team functioning.
----------------------
----------------------

Notes The technique is defined as follows:
First is to construct a grid; the type of decisions and classes of actions
----------------------
that need to be taken in the total areas of work under discussion are listed along
---------------------- the left-hand side of the grid. The actors who might play some part in decision
making on those issues are also identified and listed across the top of the grid.
---------------------- The process, then, is one of assigning a behaviour to each of the actors opposite
each of the issues. There are four classes of behaviours:
----------------------
●● Responsibility (R): the responsibility to initiate action to ensure that the
---------------------- decision is carried out.
---------------------- ●● Approval Required or the right to veto (A-V): the particular item must be
reviewed by the particular role incumbent, and this person has the option
---------------------- of either vetoing or approving it.
---------------------- ●● Support (S): providing logistical support and resources for the particular
item.
---------------------- ●● Inform (I): must be informed and, by inference, cannot influence.
---------------------- A fifth behaviour (or non-behaviour) is non involvement of a person
with the decision; this is indicated on the chart with a ‘-’(dash). One type of
---------------------- responsibility chart is in the following figure.
---------------------- Responsibility Charting is usually done in a work team context. Each
decision or action is discussed and responsibility is assigned. Next, approval-
---------------------- veto, support and inform functions are assigned.
---------------------- Some guidelines to conduct this intervention more effectively are as
follows:
----------------------
●● Assign responsibility to only one person. That person initiates and then is
---------------------- responsible and accountable for the action.
---------------------- ●● Avoid having too many people with an approval-veto function on an item.
This will slow down task accomplishment or will negate it altogether.
----------------------
●● If one person has approval-veto involvement on most decisions, that
---------------------- person could become a bottleneck for getting things done.
●● The support function is critical. A person with a support role has to
---------------------- expend resources or produce something that is then used by the person
---------------------- responsible for the action. This support role and its specific demands must
be clarified and clearly assigned.
---------------------- The assignment of functions to persons at times becomes difficult. For
---------------------- example, a person may want A-V on an item, but not really need it; a person
may not want S responsibility on an item but should have it; or two persons
---------------------- each want R on a particular item but only one can have it.
---------------------- Responsibility charting is an effective tool to clear up responsibility
diffusion - the actual lack of responsibility or supervision when too many people
---------------------- are given responsibility for the same thing. For example, at one organisation,
many decisions had to be approved by every manager up to the CEO. Each
----------------------

assumed that errors would be caught at the next or previous level, and the CEO Notes
himself admitted that he didn’t read the forms, he just signed them.
----------------------
Thus, the organisation wasted a great deal of time, sent an inappropriate
message to its employees, and ended up with less accountability than if people ----------------------
were given responsibility for their own approvals.
----------------------
A Responsibility Charting session can quickly identify who is to do
what on new decisions as well as help top officials pinpoint reasons why old ----------------------
decisions are not being accomplished as desired. Responsibility Charting is a
good intervention to use to improve the task performance of a work team. ----------------------
----------------------
7.14 FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS
----------------------
Force field analysis is a device for understanding a problematic situation
and planning corrective actions. This technique rests on several assumptions: ----------------------
a. The present state of things (the current condition) is a quasi-stationary ----------------------
equilibrium representing a resultant in a field of opposing forces.
----------------------
b. A desired future state of affairs (the desired condition) can only be
achieved by making an effort to move the current point of equilibrium to ----------------------
a desired point and stabilising the equilibrium to that point.
----------------------
c. There are two types of forces, which act on this point at any time: the
Enabling or Driving forces and the Disabling or Restraining forces. ----------------------
Therefore, effort needs to be made to identify and then minimize the
impact of restraining forces and maximize the impact of driving forces. ----------------------
The Force Field Analysis involves the following steps: ----------------------

Step 1: Decide upon a problematic situation you are interested in ----------------------
improving then carefully and completely describe the current condition. What
is the status? What is the current condition? Why do you want it to be changed? ----------------------
Step 2: Carefully and completely describe the desired condition. Where ----------------------
do you want to be? What is the desired state of things?
----------------------
Step 3: Identify the forces and factors operating in the current force
field. Identify the driving forces, which are pushing towards the desired state. ----------------------
Similarly, identify and define the restraining forces, which are pushing away
from the desired condition. This identification of forces should be thorough and ----------------------
exhaustive so that the picture of why things are the way they are becomes clear
----------------------
for future action.
Step 4: Examine the forces in detail in terms of their strengths and ----------------------
weaknesses. Also identify which ones are within control and which are beyond ----------------------
control and influence.
Step 5: Strategies for strengthening the driving forces and weakening the ----------------------
restraining forces could include any or more of the following: ----------------------
a. Add more driving forces; remove the restraining forces or do both.
----------------------

Notes b. Select several important adaptable restraining forces and develop action
plans to remove them instead of just adding driving forces.
----------------------
c. Work towards gaining participation and co-operation from all the
---------------------- concerned. Remember that resistance is greatest from people who fear
change for some reason or the other.
----------------------
Step 6: Implement the action plans that should cause the desired condition
---------------------- to be achieved.
Step 7: Describe what action plans must be taken to stabilise the desired
----------------------
condition and implement them. This is to reinforce the desired condition so that
---------------------- things do not go back to the previous state.
---------------------- An example is shown below:

Assume that the management team of Plant X is concerned about
---------------------- excessive people turnover and want to correct that situation. They generate the
---------------------- Force Field Analysis as shown.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 7.1: Force Field Analysis of a Turnover Problem at Plant X
----------------------
For interventions to be successful, the dynamics must be addressed with
---------------------- skill and empathy. For example, the basic team building process can generate
both positive and negative feedback. The appreciation and concern exercise
----------------------
have major personal feedback components. Negative feedback can create
---------------------- considerable defensiveness, including denial, arguing or verbal retaliation. Even
positive feedback can be awkward for some. Team members need to behave in a
---------------------- way that creates a situation in which it is OK for someone to become embarrassed
when expressing or receiving positive sentiments. On the negative side, it needs
----------------------
to be clear that any name-calling or punitive or threatening behaviour is off
---------------------- limits.
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
Stete True or False. ----------------------
1. In Responsibility charting only one person should be assigned
responsibility who initiates action and is accountable for that action ----------------------
2. Decisions are not based on consensus but majority vote in an effective ----------------------
team
3. Force field analysis as an intervention requires skill and empathy in it ----------------------
implementation when people turnover is the issue to be addressed ----------------------
4. In process consultation, the consultant facilitates the organization to
solve its own problems ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
Use the technique of Force Field analysis in a current problem that you ----------------------
have come across. Write down a list of restraining forces and driving forces. ----------------------
----------------------
7.15 VISIONING
----------------------
In modern management techniques much stress is laid on objective driven
organisations. This can be done when the leader of the organisation has a very ----------------------
clear vision. Vision is the ideal dream of the leader. A dream that is realistic ----------------------
and achievable. If vision of organisation is not very clear, it can be developed.
The technique used is as follows: Visioning is a term used for an intervention ----------------------
in which group members in one or more organisational groups develop and
describe their vision of what they want their organisation to be like in future. ----------------------
Ronald Lippit evolved the concept. Various Visioning techniques are used in ----------------------
team building. Here is one such version:
----------------------
Step 1: The team members write down the characteristics their organisation
would like to have one or two years from date. Using categories like products, ----------------------
customer and supplier relationships, human resource practices, leadership style,
organisation structure etc. this description is completed in about 90 minutes. ----------------------
This is displayed on a chart paper and put on the wall.
----------------------
Step 2: The members report to the group and are prepared to answer
questions and provide clarifications on their descriptions. However, no debate ----------------------
is permitted at this time.
----------------------
Step 3: Themes are extracted from the above presentations by a group of
people and presented to the total group for further discussion. ----------------------
Example: Each member can take sketch pens. S/He can use cuttings/ ----------------------
pictures from magazines etc. Each member can prepare a collage of what they
wish to see their organisation to be like in two years from now. Each member ----------------------

Notes then displays his or her collage and the group discusses and extracts common
themes.
----------------------
The objective of visioning exercise is to provide the teams with an opportunity
---------------------- to participate in organisation building and provide suggestions for its growth
and development. This also gives them a sense of involvement and participation
---------------------- in OD. Various forms of visioning or use of mental imagery are extensively
used.
----------------------
----------------------
Case Study
----------------------
THE SUCCESS TECHNOLOGY GROUP
----------------------
The Success Technology Group at Mumbai was a subunit of the computer
---------------------- systems’ design department which consisted of 15 PhDs who were studying
the appropriateness of certain microcomputer chips of different kinds of
---------------------- computers designed and assembled in the department. The computer systems’
---------------------- design department was itself the part of a huge Computer company in Chennai.
The computer systems’ design department was set up to design personal
---------------------- and micro computers for home and office use and mainframe computers for
organisational installations. This department worked in co-ordination with the
---------------------- assembling, marketing, sales and finance departments of the company. The
---------------------- Success technology group primarily researched the actual chips and their cost
effectiveness for various programme designs. The company was named by the
---------------------- managing Director Mr. Prakash. The computer systems’ design department
employed about 250 technical people. It had a defined and well organised
---------------------- structure with formal channels of information and communication flow. The
---------------------- managers and supervisors in the department usually held doctoral degrees
in their areas of specialty. They also maintained fairly tight control over the
---------------------- departmental activities. The department was highly respected in the company
and all employees working in the research unit were somewhat status conscious.
---------------------- Rules and regulations as to what employees could or could not do were defined
---------------------- by the top management. Starting and quitting time, and lunch breaks were
clearly specified and closely followed.
----------------------
Dr Ramnath was newly appointed as director of the company. He was an
---------------------- energetic individual under 35 years of age. Dr. Ramnath had previously worked
at a computer research facility, where he was considered as Theory Y manager
---------------------- who believed in the abilities of people and gave them freedom to achieve result
in their own way without interference. Soon after joining Dr. Ramnath divided
----------------------
his group into three informal sub-sections. The demand analysis department
---------------------- worked closely with other departments of the company responding to their
concern about special materials, production difficulties and techniques for
---------------------- handling new designs. The experimental section, interacted extensively with the
demand analysis section and conducted experiments to evaluate new designs as
----------------------
to how they addressed the needs of the production and other departments. The
---------------------- data section worked with both the demand analysis and experimental section

and dealt with complex programming, data reduction and so on. Due to the Notes
expanded laboratory facilities Success Technological Group was housed in a
building separate from computers systems’ design department. ----------------------
The average age of employees in STG was around 33 and most had ----------------------
advanced degree. Many had good knowledge about of the whole organisation
since they had worked in other units from which they were drawn to STG. ----------------------
Mr. Ramnath felt that the place was too quiet. He wanted the people in the
----------------------
other departments to interact with each other and exchange ideas as regards
individual responsibility. He wanted the unit to function autonomously. ----------------------
Question
----------------------
1. Suggest a suitable OD Intervention to Dr. Ramnath.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● In this unit, we have understood the various advantages of teams such as ----------------------
Motivation, Synergy, Unity co-operation etc.
●● We have also understood various Team Building Interventions. They are ----------------------
many in number. Interventions like Cross Functional teams make use of ----------------------
Collective Wisdom without disturbing existing structure. It utilizes the
experience of different people in problem solving. ----------------------
●● In Role Negotiation technique focal roles are identified. This role clarity
----------------------
is a major source of reduction of organisational conflicts.
●● Process Consultation focuses on various organizational processes. ----------------------
●● Appreciations and Concern exercise brings people together. They ----------------------
understand the need to change by the conflicting parties. This develops
sensitivity amongst organizational members. ----------------------
●● Responsibilities charting clarifies individual responsibility and improves
----------------------
accountability. Thus there are many advantages of Team Interventions.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Cross Functional Teams: People from different areas of specialisations
----------------------
forming a team.
●● Synergy: Combined energies of the group ----------------------
●● Diagnostic Meetings: Meeting discussing and analysing a situation or a ----------------------
problem
----------------------
1. Discuss the importance of Process Consultation as an OD intervention. ----------------------
2. In case duties and responsibilities of the employees are not clear, which
----------------------
ODTechnique would you use?
3. Explain the technique to reduce conflict between two groups ----------------------

Notes 4. Explain Visioning.
5. Write a detailed note on Force field analysis.
----------------------
5. Explain the technique Responsibility Charting.
---------------------- 6. If two groups do not like each other and their behaviour affects the
organisation, what steps would you take as a CEO?
----------------------

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. A group which has a greater degree of commitment to common goals and
---------------------- a higher degree of interdependency and interaction is called a
---------------------- iv. Team
---------------------- 2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of effective team?
i. There is always a phenomenon of ‘groupthink’
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 1. Which of the following represent the characteristics of a work group?
---------------------- i. Number of individual reports to a common superior
---------------------- iii. There is some degree of interdependence in carrying out the tasks
2. The negative sides of the team are:
----------------------
ii. Team can develop a ‘groupthink’ mentality
----------------------
iii. Team can be disruptive, leading to argument and discord in the
---------------------- organization
---------------------- iv. Teams are not always effective and can be highly dysfunctional
3. For the teams to be more effective, which three points are valid?
----------------------
i. The team must work hard
----------------------
ii. The team must have right mix of skills
---------------------- iii. Team must be able to develop appropriate approaches to problem
---------------------- solving
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Match the following.
----------------------
i. - b
----------------------
ii. –e
iii. –d ----------------------
iv. –a ----------------------
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
3. True ----------------------
4. True ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Cummings and Worley. 1997. Organization Development and Change.
Southwestern Publishing. ----------------------
2. Rothwell (Editor), Roland Sullivan (Editor), Gary N. McLean. 1995. ----------------------
Practicing Organization Development: A Guide for Consultants. Pfeiffer
& Co. ----------------------
3. Van Eynde (Editor), Judith C. Hoy (Editor), Dixie cod Van Eynde, Dixie ----------------------
Cody Van Eynde (Editor). 1997. Organization Development Classics:
The Practice and Theory of Change - The Best of the OD Practitioner. ----------------------
Jossey-Bass. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
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----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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Intergroup and Third Party Peacemaking Interventions
and Structural Interventions UNIT
Structure: 8
8.1 Introduction to Group Interventions
8.2 Intergroup Team Building Interventions
8.3 Principled Negotiations
8.4 Third Party Peacemaking Interventions
8.5 Organisation Mirror Intervention
8.6 Introduction to Comprehensive Interventions
8.7 Socio-Technical Systems (STS)
8.8 Work Re-design
8.9 Quality of Work Life Projects
8.10 Quality Circles
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Intergroup and Third Party Peacemaking Interventions and Structural Interventions 145
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Evaluate the impact of inter group conflicts on organisational development
----------------------
• Appraise the effectiveness of third party peacemaking intervention
----------------------
• Explain the concept of Structural Interventions
---------------------- • Explain the concept of Socio-Technical Systems Interventions
---------------------- • Demonstrate the application of Work Redesign Interventions
---------------------- • Assess Quality of Work- Life Interventions and their relevance
---------------------- 8.1 INTRODUCTION TO GROUP INTERVENTIONS

---------------------- In former units we have learned the techniques of team and individual
---------------------- interventions. However, there are cases when normal methods of interventions
do not work and stronger forms of interventions are necessary.
---------------------- There are many occasions when tensions, conflicts or competition exists
---------------------- among groups. In such cases, some predictable things happen. Each group sees
the other as their enemy rather than as neutral objects. Sentiments are extremely
---------------------- negative in nature. Due to these aspects, communication between the two
groups decreases or deteriorates, feedback gets distorted and the interactions
---------------------- are unfriendly and unpleasant.
---------------------- Several strategies for reducing intergroup conflict have been identified.
They include:
----------------------
a. A Common Enemy (an outside object or group that both groups dislike,
---------------------- which bring the groups together.)
---------------------- b. Increasing the interaction and communication among the groups. In this
process favourable conditions start generating positive feelings among
---------------------- group members.
---------------------- c. Finding a subordinate goal (a goal that both groups desire to achieve but
that neither can achieve without the help of the other. This makes them
---------------------- come together.
---------------------- d. Rotating the members of the groups
---------------------- e. Instituting some forms of training
The success of these mechanisms cannot be foreseen. However, no
----------------------
organisation can continue to ignore the conflicts and cannot function with these
---------------------- conflicts. Hence, they have to implement conflict resolution mechanisms.
There are various Interventions that help to reduce conflicts between
----------------------
individuals and groups.
---------------------- Interventions are critical because of the serious impact intergroup and

inter personal conflicts have on team and organisational functioning and on the Notes
satisfaction levels of the members of the organisation.
----------------------
8.2 INTERGROUP TEAM BUILDING INTERVENTIONS ----------------------
The goal of these activities is: ----------------------
1. To increase communication and interaction between groups
----------------------
2. To reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition
----------------------
3. To replace a parochial independent point of view with an awareness of a
necessity for interdependence of action, calling on the best efforts of both ----------------------
groups
----------------------
Generally, a significant amount of time and energy is spent in competition,
misunderstanding, miscommunication and misperception between groups. This ----------------------
makes the work groups become dysfunctional and counterproductive in an
organisation. OD methods provide ways to increase intergroup co-operation ----------------------
and communication as described in the following interventions. Blake, Shepard
----------------------
and Mouton designed the following intervention for situations where relations
between groups are strained or overtly hostile. ----------------------
Step 1: The leaders of the two groups meet the consultant. Consultant ----------------------
then consults the groups and discusses with them need for resolution of conflict.
If they are willing to do so and agree to resolve the differences they agree to ----------------------
commit their time and energy towards the same.
----------------------
Step 2: The intergroup interventions per se begin now. The two groups
meet in separate rooms and build two lists. In one list, they give their thoughts, ----------------------
attitudes, feelings and perceptions of the other group, such as what the other
group is like, what it does that gets in their way and so on. In the second list, the ----------------------
group tries to predict what the other group is saying about them in its list; that ----------------------
is, they try to anticipate what the other group dislikes about them, how the other
group sees them and so on. Both groups build these two lists. ----------------------
Step 3: Both groups come together and share the information in these lists ----------------------
with one another. Group A reads its list about its feelings about Group B and
vice versa in the presence of the consultant. The consultant imposes a condition ----------------------
that there would be no discussion on the contents at this stage.
----------------------
Step 4: The two groups return to their meeting places and a discussion on
what they have learnt about themselves takes place. Very often, they discover ----------------------
that many points are based on misperceptions and miscommunications. “The
----------------------
differences are not as huge as we had imagined” is the reaction that comes out
for each group. After this discussion the group is given the next task which is to ----------------------
prioritise issues that still remain unresolved.
----------------------
Step 5: Each group then shares their list with the other. Then they make
one list of unresolved issues and set priorities of items that need immediate ----------------------
attention and which are important. Together they generate an Action Plan and
decide their responsibilities. ----------------------
Notes Step 6: As a follow up, a meeting is held between the leaders of these two
groups to ensure that the action on items are being completed. This ensures that
---------------------- the intervention is taken seriously and made useful. It is also possible to apply
this technique to three groups as well. Each group makes lists about two other
----------------------
groups and follows a similar procedure.
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- List ten causes that lead to problems between different groups. Check
whether they can be solved by applying the above-mentioned techniques.
----------------------
----------------------
8.3 PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATIONS
----------------------
Fisher, Ury and Patton described this intervention in their book: Getting
---------------------- to Yes. The following are the stages in this intervention.
---------------------- ●● People: Separate the people from the problem. People have different
perceptions, feelings and data. These differences need to be clarified.
---------------------- ●● Interests: Focus on interests, not positions. Positions lock the parties into
---------------------- an adversarial stance and obscure what their underlying interests really
are.
---------------------- ●● Options: Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do. A
---------------------- number of options can provide flexibility in reaching an agreement, and
options can be invented so that both parties gain.
---------------------- ●● Criteria: Insist that the result be based on some objective standard.
---------------------- Discussions based on objective criteria tend to reduce the pressure and
manipulating for dominance, and increase the likelihood that a resulting
---------------------- agreement will be perceived as fair.
They also recommend four basic steps a facilitator can use in helping a
----------------------
group invent options:
---------------------- (i) A description of the problem in terms of what’s wrong and what the
---------------------- current symptoms appear to be.
(ii) Analysis of the problem including sorting symptoms into categories and
---------------------- identifying barriers to resolving the problem.
---------------------- (iii) Approaches to solving the problem in terms of possible strategies and
theoretical models.
----------------------
(iv) Action ideas: what might be done and what specific steps might be taken
---------------------- to deal with the problem.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

8.4 THIRD PARTY PEACEMAKING INTERVENTIONS Notes
Third–Party Interventions into conflict situations have the potential to ----------------------
control / contain the conflict or resolve it. This intervention is somewhat related
to intergroup relations described earlier but there are many unique aspects to ----------------------
conflict situations involving only two people. The basic feature of third party
----------------------
intervention is confrontation. The two principals must be willing to confront the
fact / conflicts and as a consequence effectiveness of both parties get adversely ----------------------
affected. The third party must be able to diagnose the problem correctly. Inter
personal conflict is based on four basic elements ----------------------
●● The conflict issues ----------------------
●● The precipitating circumstances
----------------------
●● the conflict relevant acts of the parties
●● Consequences of the conflict. ----------------------
Conflict is a cyclical process. Hence for accurate diagnosis the main ----------------------
source of conflict has to be found out.
----------------------
Substantive and Emotional conflict
There is major distinction between substantive and emotional conflict. ----------------------
Substantive issues involve disagreement over policies and practices, competitive
----------------------
bids for the same resources and different concepts of roles and relationships.
Emotional issues involve negative feeling between parties such as anger, ----------------------
distrust, scorn, resentment, fear, rejection etc. ----------------------
Now let us examine one such method of conflict resolution.
----------------------
A Two Person Conflict Management Design
----------------------
The following figure shows the steps that can be used in Two Person
Conflict Management sessions. These steps evolved out of the experience with ----------------------
Blake, Shepard and Mouton’s intergroup team building activities.
----------------------
In generating data about the relationship, using the guide shown below,
the two parties are asked to develop lists on paper. Typically the facilitators ask ----------------------
the participants to read their lists, and the items are recorded on a flip chart.
----------------------
Professionals who understand the dynamics of conflicts must facilitate
third party interventions. It is important that such facilitators are trained in ----------------------
managing conflicts and are able to get the groups / parties involved to bring out
the conflicts into the open and resolving them. ----------------------
Two Person Conflict Management Design ----------------------
I. The Positives ----------------------
A. Jot down in general terms what you would like the working relationships
to be like (no negatives) ----------------------
B. Positive attitude of other persons ----------------------
C. Share – Questions of clarifications only – No Debate – Focus on
understanding ----------------------
Notes II. Sharing of pain, resentments
A. Behaviours of the other person over last two to three months that have
----------------------
caused pain, hurt, anger, embarrassment, resentment (salient incidents)
---------------------- B. Share – no debate – check on meaning; you should be able to say it back
to other person
----------------------
C. Discuss
----------------------
III. Contracting
---------------------- A. It would contribute to my effectiveness if you did the following things
---------------------- more or better.
It would contribute to my effectiveness if you did the following things
---------------------- less or stop doing them.
---------------------- It would contribute to my effectiveness if you continued doing the
following things.
----------------------
B. Share – check on meaning
----------------------
C. Discussion
---------------------- D. Each person writes:
---------------------- I am willing to: What I need from you if I am do this effectively:
---------------------- a. ___________ a. _____________________________________
b. ___________ b. _____________________________________
----------------------
c. ___________ c. _____________________________________
----------------------
E. Share
---------------------- IV. Next action steps (e.g. meet further, at a specified time, meet regularly,
---------------------- once per ____)
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1. During conflict and competition:
----------------------
i. Each group sees each other as their enemies rather than neutral
object ----------------------
ii. Conflicting parties believe that there is no solution to conflicts ----------------------
iii. Sentiments amongst them are extremely negative in nature
----------------------
iv. Communication between the two groups decreases or
deteriorates ----------------------
2. The goal of intergroup teambuilding intervention is:
----------------------
i. To reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition
ii. To replace a parochial independent point of view with necessity ----------------------
for interdependent action ----------------------
iii. To make each individual to join strong group
----------------------
iv. To increase interaction between the groups
3. Strategies for reducing intergroup conflict include ----------------------
i. Introduction of the common enemy ----------------------
ii. Increased interaction and communication amongst the group
----------------------
iii. Rotating / exchanging the members of the group
iv. Increase in the competition between the groups ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
----------------------
Check representations made by Lord Krishna in Mahabharat to Kouravas
to return their land to Pandavas. Discuss its similarity with third Party ----------------------
Peacemaking Intervention.
----------------------
----------------------
8.5 ORGANISATION MIRROR INTERVENTION
----------------------
Organisation mirror is a set of activities in which a particular organisational
group, the host group, gets feedback from representatives of several other ----------------------
organisational groups about how it is perceived and regarded. This intervention
is designed to improve relationships between groups and increase inter-group ----------------------
work effectiveness. In this only representatives of other groups participate
----------------------
rather than the full group. Before the session starts, the Consultant interviews
people attending the meeting to get a sense of the problems and its magnitude ----------------------
to prepare the participants and to answer any questions that the participants may
have. ----------------------
Notes Opening remarks are made by the Manager of the host group indicating
their genuine desire to hear how the unit is perceived. This is followed by
---------------------- feedback by the consultant. The outsiders (fishbowl) discuss the data presented
by the consultant. A fish bowl is a group seating and talking configuration in
---------------------- which there is an inner circle of chairs for people who talk and outside circle of
---------------------- observers and non interactors. Information is then exchanged. Action plans are
subsequently made and executed.
----------------------
----------------------
8.6 INTRODUCTION TO COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS
---------------------- Structural Interventions: The type of interventions which we had seen

so far did not touch the structure of the organisation. There may be situations
---------------------- where structural limitations may inhibit OD efforts. In such cases, different
types of OD interventions are designed. Structural Interventions also called
---------------------- techno structural interventions are the broad class of interventions or change
---------------------- efforts aimed at improving organisational effectiveness through changes in
task, structural, technological, and goal processes in the organisation.
---------------------- This class of interventions includes the following changes:
---------------------- ●● how the overall work of the organisation is divided into units,
---------------------- ●● who reports to whom, control methods
●● the spatial arrangement of equipment and people
----------------------
●● work flow arrangements and
---------------------- ●● changes in communication and influence practices
---------------------- In particular, structural interventions deal with socio-technical systems
(STS), Self Managed Teams, Work Redesign, Management by Objectives
---------------------- (MBO), Quality Circles, Quality of Work Life Projects (QWL), Parallel
Learning Structures (or collateral organisations), Physical Settings and Total
----------------------
Quality Management.
----------------------
8.7 SOCIO-TECHNICAL SYSTEMS (STS)
----------------------
The term STS is largely associated with experiments that emerged under
----------------------
the auspices of the Tavistock Institute in Great Britain or have stemmed from
---------------------- the Tavistock approach. STS is aimed at creating a better ‘fit’ among the
technology, structure, and social interaction of an organisation.
----------------------
STS theory has two basic premises. They are:
---------------------- (i). Effective work systems must jointly optimise the relationship between
their social and technical parts.
----------------------
(ii) Such systems must effectively manage the boundary separating and
---------------------- relating them to the environment and there is effective exchange with the
environment along with protection from external disruptions.
----------------------
Thus, the aspect covers social relationships and also interaction with the
---------------------- environment.

Furthermore, the implementation of STS is seen as ‘highly participative’ Notes
involving all of the relevant stakeholders, including employees at all levels.
----------------------
STS basically consists of formation of autonomous work groups also
called self managing or self managed groups. ----------------------
STS has the following features:
----------------------
●● Formation of autonomous work groups
----------------------
●● Grouping of core tasks so that a team has a major unit of the total work
to be accomplished ----------------------
●● The training of group members in multiple skills
----------------------
●● Delegation to the work group of many aspects of how the work gets done
●● The availability of a great deal of information and feedback to work ----------------------
groups for self regulation of productivity and quality. ----------------------
This is based on the assumption that effectiveness, efficiency, and morale
will be enhanced. This has been generally confirmed by numerous studies ----------------------
carried out over the years. ----------------------
One of the earliest studies was in British Coal Mining where the
----------------------
consultant-researchers found that by re-introducing a team approach to mining
coal, broadening job scope, and providing team pay incentives, a number of ----------------------
benefits resulted, including improved productivity, safety, and morale. An
experiment in India in a textile-weaving mill also utilised increased job scope ----------------------
and autonomous work groups with beneficial consequences. Other experiments
----------------------
and research have appeared with increasing frequency around the world,
particularly in Norway, Sweden and the US. ----------------------
Currently, formation of such work groups has become a common feature.
----------------------
Many Indian industries are making use of this technique.
There are several problems associated with Self managed Teams. ----------------------
The first problem is what to do with existing supervisors. Some of them ----------------------
can be given new responsibilities as coordinators or as coaches.
----------------------
The second problem is that the managers, who are one level above the
teams, will likely oversee the activities of several teams and their roles will ----------------------
change. Their new role involves planning, expediting and coordinating. They
will require proper training for the same. ----------------------
Thirdly, team members will also require to acquire new skills while ----------------------
participation in team meetings, planning, quality, budgeting etc.
----------------------
Actually, many Indian industries are now making use of these techniques
under different names. The basic advantage lies in the fact that it encourages ----------------------
employee involvement. This creates at least a sense of responsibility among
----------------------
employees.
----------------------
----------------------
Notes
Activity 3
----------------------
---------------------- Identify an important problem in your organisation. Can it be solved by

forming a small group? What would be the basis of your decision? Write on
---------------------- a piece of paper and analyse in terms of OD methods.
----------------------
---------------------- 8.8 WORK RE-DESIGN
---------------------- Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham have provided an OD approach to

work re-design. This model is based on the assumption that there are certain
---------------------- job characteristics which will lead to ‘high internal work motivation’. Their
approach involves OD characteristics like use of diagnosis, participation, and
----------------------
feedback. It also involves application to the re-design of group work where
---------------------- extensive use of the facilitator’s role in team development is recommended.
The model is described below:
----------------------
Hackman and Oldham recommended that organisations analyse jobs using
---------------------- the five core job characteristics and then redesign jobs to maximise employee
motivation. The five core job characteristics are:
----------------------
●● Skills Variety
----------------------
●● Task Identity
---------------------- ●● Task Significance
---------------------- ●● Autonomy and
●● Feedback from the job
----------------------
The first three are related to ‘experienced meaningfulness of the work’.
---------------------- Job Autonomy is related to ‘experienced responsibility’ for the outcome of the
work. Feedback from the job is related to the psychological state of ‘knowledge
----------------------
of the results’ of the work activities.
---------------------- The expected outcomes in turn are high work motivation, high satisfaction
with the job and one’s growth on the job and high work effectiveness. Some
----------------------
factors can minimise or moderate these outcomes. One factor is knowledge and
---------------------- skill. Deficiencies in either can lead to less than desirable performance and a
sense of failure. Another moderating factor is the strength of a person’s need to
---------------------- learn and develop. If this need is low, the presence of the core job characteristics
is less likely to lead to high motivation and job satisfaction. A third factor is
----------------------
satisfaction with the content of the job. Dissatisfaction with such matters as
---------------------- pay, job security, co-workers, or supervision is likely to minimise the otherwise
favourable consequences of designing more complex and challenging jobs.
----------------------
The same concept can be extended to the redesign of the work of teams,
---------------------- self-managed teams, in particular. In this context an approach is taken in which
an outside agent as a consultant helps group members to develop and monitor
---------------------- their own performance norms. When a work group is being formed, the person

responsible for designing the group might meet with group members to discuss Notes
explicitly how they want to develop their performance strategies. Merely
talking through this issue may foster a climate in which strategic questions can ----------------------
be openly discussed both when initial norms about strategy are developed and
in future when circumstances change. ----------------------
In effect, the consultant would be helping members develop a general ----------------------

norm that encourages open and self conscious discussion of specific norms
----------------------
about how group members work together on the tasks. Self-Managing work
teams are a powerful social invention. In a moderately supportive organisational ----------------------
context, they can prompt significant alterations in how work gets done and how
the organisation itself is managed. But if the people or the managerial climate ----------------------
and style of the organisation are clearly unsympathetic to a group design for
----------------------
work, the potential benefits of such group are unlikely to be realised.
----------------------
----------------------
1. Threat is a powerful unifier for conflicting groups. ----------------------
2. Intergroup teambuilding intervention was designed by Fisher, Ury
and Patton. ----------------------
3. Principled negations were propagated by Blake, Shepard and Mouton. ----------------------

4. Structural interventions are also called Techno Structural Interventions. ----------------------
5. The implementation of Socio-Technical system is seen as ‘highly
----------------------
participative’ involving all the stakeholders and all employees across
levels. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
Write any two jobs in the organisation that you know well. If they are ----------------------
monotonous, suggest five ways of making them interesting.
----------------------
----------------------
8.9 QUALITY OF WORK LIFE PROJECTS
----------------------
The term “quality of work life” (QWL) was first introduced in 1972
during an international labour relations conference (Hian and Einstein, 1990). ----------------------
QWL received more attention after United Auto Workers and General Motors
----------------------
initiated a QWL programme for work reforms.
Definition ----------------------
Robbins (1989) defined QWL as “a process by which an organisation ----------------------
responds to employee needs by developing mechanisms to allow them to share
fully in making the decisions that design their lives at work.” ----------------------
Notes A simple definition is “QWL can be defined as the extent to which members
of an organisation are able to satisfy personal needs through organisational
---------------------- processes.” Thus, QWL programmes concentrate on creating a working
environment that is conducive to satisfaction of workers’ needs. For the purpose
---------------------- of this study, QWL is defined as the favourable conditions and environments of
---------------------- a workplace that support and promote employee satisfaction by providing them
with rewards, job security, and growth opportunities. The term QWL has been
---------------------- applied to a wide variety of organisational improvement methods.
---------------------- The common elements are “Attempt to restructure multiple dimensions of
the organisation” and “to institute a mechanism which introduces and sustains
---------------------- changes over time”.
---------------------- Elements of QWL are as follows:
The key concepts captured and discussed in the existing literature include
----------------------
●● Job security
----------------------
●● Better reward systems
---------------------- ●● Higher pay
---------------------- ●● Opportunity for growth
●● Participative groups
----------------------
●● Increased organisational productivity
---------------------- Richard Watson has organised them in eight categories
---------------------- ●● Adequate and Fair compensation
---------------------- ●● Safe and healthy working Environment
●● Growth and Security
----------------------
●● Constitutionalism
---------------------- ●● Social relevance
---------------------- ●● Total life Space
●● Social Integration
----------------------
●● Development of human capabilities
----------------------
These programmes should be integrated and coordinated. If properly
---------------------- integrated and coordinated QWL has the capacity to improve productivity,
organisational effectiveness and employee satisfaction.
----------------------
Features in QWL
---------------------- ●● Voluntary involvement on part of the employees
---------------------- ●● Union agreement with the process and participation in it
●● Assurance that no loss of jobs as a result of programme
----------------------
●● Training of employees in team problem solving
----------------------
●● Use of Quality Circles
----------------------

●● Work team participation in forecasting work planning, team leader and Notes
team member selection
●● Regular Plant meetings ----------------------
●● Skill Training and encouragement for skill development ----------------------
These are general techniques/practices in QWL. Actual contents of ----------------------
programme may vary from organisation to organisation.
Positive Effects of QWL: The basic objectives of an effective QWL ----------------------
programme are improved working conditions (mainly from an employee’s ----------------------
perspective) and greater organisational effectiveness (mainly from an employer’s
perspective). A win-win situation may result if QWL is positively linked to ----------------------
business performance. Positive results of QWL have been supported by a
number of previous studies, including reduced absenteeism, lower turnover and ----------------------
improved job satisfaction (Havlovic, 1991; Cohen, Chang and Ledford, 1997; ----------------------
King and Ehrhard, 1997). Not only does QWL contribute to a company’s ability
to recruit quality people, but it also enhances a company’s competitiveness. ----------------------
Common beliefs support the contention that QWL will positively nurture a ----------------------
more flexible, loyal, and motivated work force which are essential in determining
the company’s competitiveness (Allan and Loseby, 1993; Lau, 1993). Other ----------------------
studies also found positive associations between progressive Human Resource
management practices, such as training and staffing selectivity, and perceptual ----------------------
firm performance measures (Huselid, 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996). ----------------------
Job Security and QWL: Out of many essential elements of QWL,
----------------------
job security has become the most discussed issue in recent years. Firing
workers, characterised as downsizing, reengineering, restructuring, and other ----------------------
euphemisms, can counter the positive results of QWL by creating fears of job
insecurity. In fact, firing workers has become a trend in the 1990s for U.S. ----------------------
companies in an effort to become more competitive by reducing their work
----------------------
costs (Sloan, 1996). Restructuring and downsizing are still in high gear with
many, but not all the restructured and downsized companies have emerged as ----------------------
more competitive (Koretz, 1997).
----------------------
Although the rate of job losses has slowed in recent years, many senior
managers still hold the belief that downsizing is necessary in today’s competitive ----------------------
market. Downsizing has spread from the private to the public sector within the
United States and is predicted to get worse in other parts of the world such as ----------------------
Japan and continental Europe. (“Making companies efficient,” 1996) .
----------------------
Employee job satisfaction is at its lowest level in years, with only one in four
employees being ‘extremely satisfied’ with their job (Vinocur, 1995). Job ----------------------
security and its subsequent social impact was thoroughly discussed in a cover
----------------------
story in Business Week (‘Economic anxiety,’ 1996). Job security is touted as
being dead (Hammonds, Zellner, and Melcherp, 1996). ----------------------
A survey of 1,004 adults conducted by Business Week and Louis Harris ----------------------
& Associates found that 95% of the respondents agree that U.S. corporations
should serve more than one purpose (i.e. profit maximisation) and they owe ----------------------
Notes something to their workers and communities for which they should sometimes
sacrifice some profit (Vamos, 1996).
----------------------
Fear of Job Insecurity: What may worry people the most is not the fact
---------------------- of joblessness so much as the threat of it. For example, an analysis of worker
surveys in the 1980s and 1990s, found only a slight decline in the proportion of
---------------------- those holding jobs for at least four years (Koretz, 1996). Further, organisational
tenure has been fairly stable. In 1983, 38 percent of men over the age of 25
----------------------
had been with their current employer for 10 years or more while in 1991, it
---------------------- was 36 percent (Samuleson, 1996). However, permanent terminations have
shown an upward trend since the 1970s (Koretz, 1996). The publicly announced
---------------------- widespread cutbacks in ‘Permanent’ jobs have created substantial feelings of
insecurity (Koretz, 1996). Also, terminations are hitting the white-collar middle
----------------------
managers harder than in the past and “well-educated, white collar job losers
---------------------- tend to squeal more loudly” (“Why more,” 1996). A recent study found that
17% of U.S. employees who had lost their jobs because of downsizing since
---------------------- 1990 were middle managers even though middle managers make up no more
than 8% of the workforce (“Fire and forget,” 1996). As a result, a “middle
----------------------
party is slowly emerging, one that reflects a new paradigm for business and
---------------------- society in a global market” (Hammonds, Zellner, and Melcher, 1996, p. 60).
The new paradigm attempts to align the interests of the investor, manager,
---------------------- and employee stakeholders into a win-win situation. The paradigm raises
questions as to its feasibility and as to whether a company can be profitable
----------------------
and satisfy the needs of the employee stakeholders. The idea that corporate
---------------------- management could reconcile the social demands for increased job security
with capitalism demands for profits and efficiencies has been around for many
---------------------- years. (Samuleson, 1996). However, suspicion and hostility have generally
characterised the employee-company relationship. Nonetheless, current trends
----------------------
between unions and management exemplify this new paradigm. Unions are
---------------------- now advocating partnerships with management with the goal of protecting jobs
and pay by making their employers more profitable and competitive (Bernstein,
---------------------- 1997).
---------------------- While the specifics vary from one QWL project to the other, both within
a given organisation and between organisations, several features tend to be
---------------------- common. These features include union involvement; a focus on work teams;
problem solving sessions by work teams in which the agenda may include
----------------------
productivity, quality, and safety problems, autonomy in planning work; the
---------------------- availability of skill training; and increased responsiveness to employees by
supervisors.
----------------------
Although many of these QWL projects have had at least modest success,
---------------------- frequently difficulties arise in sustaining or expanding the process beyond a
few years. Some of the reasons according to Goodman include changes in
---------------------- union leadership, expectations that were too high, effort aimed at production
and clerical levels with insufficient attention to changes at the managerial and
----------------------
professional levels, and too little attention to long term financial rewards for
---------------------- the participants. Major resistance from the supervisors has frequently occurred

when top management has paid insufficient attention to issues of job security Notes
and role definition for people at this level.
----------------------
Activity 5 ----------------------
Write your own experiences about job insecurity, if any. List down five ----------------------
reasons of Job insecurity. ----------------------
----------------------
8.10 QUALITY CIRCLES
----------------------
Quality Circles are largely a Japanese synthesis of American ideas
pertaining to statistical quality control and group dynamics. Americans like W. ----------------------
Edwards, Deming and Joseph Juran brought quality control expertise to Japan
----------------------
in 1950. By the 1960, Kaoru Ishikawa of Tokyo University, inspired by the
works of American behavioural scientist added the notion of small groups of ----------------------
workers formed to address problem in their work areas. The outcome quality
circle is currently popular nationally and internationally. Many of these circles ----------------------
have failed because of negligence and lack of efforts. To be successful, the
----------------------
quality circle requires management support and involvement.
What is Quality Circle? ----------------------
Definition: Quality Circle is a voluntary association of a group of persons ----------------------

working in the same or similar type of job at the same work area who meet
regularly one hour a week during their normal working time to discuss about ----------------------
their work related problems and arrive at a solution which can be implemented ----------------------
by them without additional cost or at a marginal cost. This group will not
discuss any personal problems or grievances regarding pay, promotion etc. ----------------------
which will come under the preview of normal trade union collective bargaining
practices. The purpose of quality circles is absolutely clear: the group is engaged ----------------------
in solving quality related problems. It does not involve collective bargaining ----------------------
process.
----------------------
This group will ideally consists of 8 to 10 members but it should never
be less than 5 or more than 15 in number because with less number, sufficient ----------------------
ideas may not come up and with more number, in depth discussion will not be
possible. However, just because it is a voluntary group and 8 to 10 persons ----------------------
cannot get together and declare themselves as a Quality Circle. There is strict
----------------------
discipline in both formation and working of the group.
Let us study the process of formation of the Quality Circle and the method ----------------------
of their working.
----------------------
Process of Group Formation: The total quality circle system has 4
stages of formation starting from the top. ----------------------
1. Steering Committee: This is an apex multidisciplinary group consisting ----------------------
of senior executives of Production, Maintenance, and Personnel, Finance,
HRD, Quality Control etc. areas along with one or two senior level Trade ----------------------
Notes Union Leaders. The total number of members should not exceed 15. The
Chief Executive would normally be the Chairman of the Committee. This
---------------------- committee will decide the areas where Quality Circle programmes should
be started. They will give broad guidelines to the circles and monitor the
---------------------- activities regularly. This is essential for two reasons:
---------------------- (a) Once the workers know that the top management is really serious
about the circles they will tend to take more interest, otherwise they
----------------------
may feel that it is yet another fad of the management.
---------------------- (b) Since the Company’s time will be spent for the Quality Circle, which
in other words means some cost to the organisation, the committee
----------------------
would like to ensure adequate return on investment. If the return
---------------------- will be favourable it will be a great motivator to go for more quality
circles.
----------------------
Facilitators: A facilitator, is a person who is selected by the Steering
---------------------- Committee to co-ordinate and direct the activities of different quality
circles in his area of responsibility. He has to be specially trained in QC
---------------------- methodology. An external Consultant may be engaged to start the process.
It would be desirable to have one in-house person as facilitator.
----------------------
Leader: Initially, to start the QC programme the leader of the group will
---------------------- be selected by the facilitator with the approval of the steering committee.
---------------------- But once the QC get going there is no bar on the members to select their
own leader based on his expertise or leadership quality. Ideally the normal
---------------------- leader of the group in their day to day working should be the leader of the
QC group also, so that implementation part of the job will be easier.
----------------------
Members: Voluntary membership of the circle would be called for after
---------------------- the facilitator has explained the philosophy of QC and the need to start
such circles in that area of work. As mentioned earlier the members
---------------------- should be working in the same or similar type of job in the same area. If
---------------------- the numbers of the volunteers become too many, then more than one QCs
can be formed keeping in view the ideal number as 10. These members
---------------------- will be specially trained in problem analysis and problem solving. Thus
the QC members will be carefully trained persons and not just a group of
---------------------- voluntary workers. The facilitator and the leaders will naturally see to it
---------------------- that the right type of volunteer is associated in the right type of QC.
Guidelines for the Operation of Quality Circles
----------------------
1 Selection of a Problem
----------------------
Normally, a quality circle starts functioning after the members are trained.
---------------------- At the first few meetings the circle selects the leader and deputy leader
by consensus and prepares a list of all problems (using brainstorming
---------------------- technique) that the members wish to tackle . Once the list is prepared it is
necessary to quantify the severity of these problems by means of collecting
----------------------
data. One way is to collect data by frequency of occurrences, by scrap or
---------------------- rework, by rejections or in any other way that the circle can use to assess

the depth of a problem. The next step would be to make assignments Notes
to various members for the collection of data. After collection of data a
diagram is prepared to distinguish the vital few problems from the useful ----------------------
many. Accordingly, members fix the priority for analysis of problems.
However, it is necessary to take precautions so that the circle may not ----------------------
waste its time for minor problems or projects where solutions are already ----------------------
in process. They may develop self-confidence about their capability to
find solutions to the problems. ----------------------
2. Analysis of a Problem ----------------------
Once the problem has been selected the circle starts analysing it with the
----------------------
help of two important statistical tools called Brainstorming and Cause
and Effect Diagram. The brainstorming technique helps in generating ----------------------
a number of ideas and also all members in the problem solving process.
After the idea generation process is over, the circle again sits and picks ----------------------
up relevant ideas based on facts and figures. The ideas are then generally
----------------------
stratified and put into following categories:
3. Man-Machine-Money-Material Method ----------------------
Based on these categories a cause and effect Diagram is prepared which ----------------------
helps in identifying the major cause of problems.
----------------------
Development of a Solution
Once the major causes are identified circle members have to get together ----------------------
and put their brainpower to work and start proposing solutions. One member ----------------------
might think of a change in fixture, another might suggest a change in material,
similarly other circle members may make different suggestions to eliminate ----------------------
the cause. Since most of the members face these problems everyday their
suggested solutions are generally reliable. Not only that, one of the solutions ----------------------
is also a permanent remedy of the problem. The suggested solutions are ----------------------
normally implemented by members themselves. In case the solutions are to be
implemented by some other department the circle members interact with their ----------------------
colleagues or circle members of the department where suggestions have to be
implemented for solutions. In case of interfaces the facilitators’ help is taken by ----------------------
the members. ----------------------
Departmental Presentation
----------------------
Quality circles should make a departmental presentation before
implementing the solution. The Objectives of such presentations are the ----------------------
following:
----------------------
a) to take suggestions from others in order to improve solutions
----------------------
b) to seek help of other departmental people in implementing the solution.
c) to avoid any resistance to change ----------------------
4. Implementation of the Solution ----------------------

If the recommendations arrived at by the quality circles fall within the purview ----------------------
Notes of the members themselves, they with the approval of the immediate
authorities implement the solution. However if the solution requires large
---------------------- investments then it is referred to the competent level of the management
which would either promptly give effect to the recommendation or
---------------------- give feedback without loss of time to the Quality Circle stating why its
---------------------- recommendations are not implementable. At this time a recommendation
is taken up for consideration by the Quality Councils/Sub Councils at
---------------------- which clarifications if required are obtained from the circle members
before the decision is given.
----------------------
5. Management Presentation
----------------------
Management presentation is the culmination of a Circle’s project study.
---------------------- The recommendation of the solution to the problem selected would be
more effective and purposeful if the presentation is made in a systematic
---------------------- way. These case studies would also serve as effective educational tools
in future. Every Quality Circle must be given opportunity to make
----------------------
management presentations as it is the most powerful way of rewarding a
---------------------- Quality Circle.
The following scheme may be adopted for management presentation.
----------------------
Depending on the time allotted for total presentation each item can be
---------------------- adjusted accordingly.
---------------------- 1. Details regarding Quality Circle Time 2 minutes

●● Date of formation
----------------------
●● Date of registration
---------------------- ●● No. of members
---------------------- ●● No of meetings held in a year
●● Average attendance per meeting
----------------------
2. Selection and analysis of a problem Time 10 minutes
----------------------
●● Number of problems identified through brainstorming
---------------------- ●● Why this particular problem was selected
---------------------- ●● Presentation of the problem worth data
●● Analysis of the problem through QC tools
----------------------
3. Development of a solution Time 10 minutes
----------------------
4. Process of implementation Time 3 minutes
---------------------- 5. Results of implementation Time 3 minutes
---------------------- ●● Tangible benefits
●● Intangible benefits
----------------------
6. Thanks giving and question and answers Time 5 minutes
----------------------
It would thus be observed that Quality Circle is one of the effective tool s
----------------------

of Organisational Development. Its success depends on commitment of the top Notes
management and prompt approval of the proposals found suitable.
----------------------
Motivational Aspects of Quality Circles
In the traditional approach of management to motivation, the focus was ----------------------
on work and results. Gradually, this focus shifted to the people who are behind
----------------------
every activity. No matter how mechanised or activity oriented an organisation
is, persons working in that organisation need to be treated as individuals. As ----------------------
people are different and everyone has a distinct personality, there can be no
generalised approach in dealing with them. There are some basic aspirations, ----------------------
which people want to fulfill in all work situations and participation is one such
----------------------
basic need. Quality Circles provide ample opportunities to fulfill this need and
thereby create and sustain motivation in a work situation. ----------------------
However, one cannot ignore the fact that the best out of people could be
----------------------
obtained in a situation where they act as a team and use their collective strength.
Quality Circles provide a method of securing a sense of involvement, spirit of ----------------------
teamwork, and respect for each other’s views, sense of adjustment and pride
in group activities. Quality Circles recognise and strengthen characteristics of ----------------------
human behaviour which create and heighten a motivational climate for higher
----------------------
productivity. The major among these are:
●● Human beings are the most valuable and creative force of an organisation. ----------------------
●● People can use their capabilities and creativity and develop their potential ----------------------
in the work they are engaged in, provided adequate opportunities and
climate are provided. ----------------------
●● People are not isolated from each other. When the goals of people organised ----------------------
in a work group become identical with individual and organisational
goals, harmony is created and motivation for productivity is heightened. ----------------------
●● People can educate themselves by sharing an experience. ----------------------
●● People are given opportunity to be recognised by their colleagues,
----------------------
supervisors, and subordinates.
●● Even routine, repetitive and monotonous work can become creative and ----------------------
motivating, if it provides a challenge to the group.
----------------------
Major motivational aspects of Quality Circles emerge as follows:
----------------------
●● Quality Circles contribute to the improvement and development of the
enterprises. ----------------------
●● They provide opportunity for challenge and recognition.
----------------------
●● They enhance human relations bondage, teamwork and effectiveness.
●● They provide for greater communication and understanding. ----------------------
●● They establish the identity of employees in more meaningful ways beyond ----------------------
routine work.
----------------------
When perceived and experienced by individual members, these aspects
tend to raise their work motivation. Quality Circles provide an effective forum ----------------------
Notes for promoting the process of self-development. The study team observed several
measures, which were adopted towards this end. Some of these are as follows :
----------------------
●● Discussions and sharing of experiences.
---------------------- ●● Exchange meetings among Quality Circles members & their leaders
---------------------- ●● Materials for study
●● Experiences of solving problems
----------------------
●● Introduction of case histories of other organisation
---------------------- ●● Focus on satisfaction and sense of achievement of the group rather than
external incentives.
----------------------
The various other methods adopted by the organisations in Thailand,
---------------------- Japan and Korea for raising the level of motivation of Quality Circle members,
as observed by the study team are:
----------------------
●● Some prizes at departmental level presentations.
----------------------
●● Some monetary rewards at factory level.
---------------------- ●● Sending top ranking circles to the National Conventions and in a few
cases even to International conventions.
----------------------
●● Publishing the achievements of the Quality Circles in journals,
---------------------- presentations of trophies, medals etc. at different level of the Quality
Circle conventions.
----------------------

----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The issues such as who reports to whom, control methods, arrangement
---------------------- of equipment and people, workflow arrangements and communication
protocol are the examples of _________ interventions.
----------------------
2. OD approach to work redesign was provided by Richard Hackman
---------------------- and _________.
---------------------- 3. Extent to which members of an organisation are able to satisfy personal
needs through organisational process is known as ______________.
----------------------
4. Voluntary association of a group of persons working in same or similar
---------------------- type of job at the same work area, who meet regularly to solve work-
related problems with no or marginal cost is known as _________.
----------------------
5. Disagreement over policies and practices, competitive bids for the
---------------------- same sources and different concept of roles and relationships are the
elements of _________ conflict or issues.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 6
----------------------
Plan a visit to any organisation where Quality circles exist. Write a few ----------------------
lines on their working. Alternatively take any problem in your day to day
life. Discuss it with two or three of your friends and relatives on the lines ----------------------
of Quality Circle.
----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● e have studied Team Building interventions and Structural interventions.
W
Interventions in team building are applicable to situations when two ----------------------
or more groups are conflicting with each other. It is the intervention of
----------------------
the third party which first brings parties together and tries to resolve the
conflict. Depending upon the severity of the conflict, consultants select ----------------------
appropriate interventions.
●● Structural interventions like Socio Technical Systems are useful in solving ----------------------
problems through collective wisdom. It generates a sense of co-operation ----------------------
and does it through employee involvement. In this system the decision
making process changes from instructional method to collaborative ----------------------
method.
----------------------
●● Quality Circle is a voluntary association of a group of persons working in
the same or similar type of job at the same work area who meet regularly ----------------------
one hour a week during their normal working time to discuss about their
work related problems and arrive at a solution which can be implemented ----------------------
by them without additional cost or at a marginal cost. ----------------------
●● The major emphasis of QWL is on allowing workers to take decisions
regarding their work related problems. This is so because the people at ----------------------
source know things better than others. It is only that they will have to be ----------------------
trained in Decision Making.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
●● Quality of Work life: An intervention in which employees are encouraged ----------------------
to be involved in the decision making process for the problems related to
their work. ----------------------
●● Quality Circle: A group of people in related work areas who meet ----------------------
frequently to search out solutions
●● Structural Interventions: Those involving structural change ----------------------
●● Work Redesign: Process by which work is made more meaningful; ----------------------
involving more responsibility.
----------------------
●● Socio Technical Systems: Self managed teams solving technical
problems. ----------------------
Notes
----------------------
1. What do you understand by Structural interventions? Why they are termed
---------------------- so? What are their specific advantages?
2. Explain the advantages of Self Managed teams.
----------------------
3. Define Quality of Work life. What are the contents of QWL?
----------------------
4. Explain the concept of Quality Circle. Explain the basic requirements
---------------------- before a Quality Circle is actually formed.
---------------------- 5. Explain the concept of work design. What are the important parameters to
be taken care of in designing any particular task.
----------------------
6. Explain how Quality circles are formed? Comment on their motivational
---------------------- aspects.
7. Explain the need for Third Peacemaking interventions.
----------------------
8. Discuss importance of two person conflict. How can it be resolved?
----------------------


1. During conflict and competition:
----------------------
i. Each group sees each other as their enemies rather than neutral
---------------------- object
---------------------- iii. Sentiments amongst them are extremely negative in nature
iv. Communication between the two groups decreases or deteriorates
----------------------
2. The goal of intergroup teambuilding intervention is:
----------------------
i. To reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition
---------------------- ii. To replace a parochial independent point of view with necessity for
---------------------- interdependent action.
iv. To increase interaction between the groups
----------------------
3. Strategies for reducing intergroup conflict include
----------------------
i. Introduction of the common enemy
---------------------- ii. Increased interaction and communication amongst the group
---------------------- iii. Rotating / exchanging the members of the group
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
3. False ----------------------
4. True ----------------------
5. True ----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The issues such as who reports to whom, control methods, arrangement
of equipment and people, workflow arrangements and communication ----------------------
protocol are the examples of structural interventions.
----------------------
2. OD approach to work redesign was provided by Richard Hackman and
Greg Oldham. ----------------------
3. Extent to which members of an organisation are able to satisfy personal ----------------------
needs through organisational process is known as Quality of Work Life.
----------------------
4. Voluntary association of a group of persons working in same or similar
type of job at the same work area, who meet regularly to solve work- ----------------------
related problems with no or marginal cost is known as Quality Circle.
----------------------
5. Disagreement over policies and practices, competitive bids for the same
sources and different concept of roles and relationships are the elements ----------------------
of substantial conflict or issues.
----------------------
1. Cummings and Worley. 1997. Organization Development and Change. ----------------------

South-Western Publishing.
----------------------
2. Rothwell (Editor), Roland Sullivan (Editor), Gary N. McLean. 1995.
Practicing Organization Development: A Guide for Consultants. Pfeiffer ----------------------
& Co.
----------------------
3. Van Eynde (Editor), Judith C. Hoy (Editor), Dixie cod Van Eynde, Dixie
Cody Van Eynde (Editor). 1997. Organization Development Classics: ----------------------
The Practice and Theory of Change -- The Best of the OD Practitioner.
----------------------
Jossey-Bass.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Organisation-Wide Interventions
UNIT
9
Structure:
9.1 Nature of Organisation wide Interventions

9.2 System and Culture Change
9.3 Survey Feedback
9.4 Grid Organisation Development
9.5 Goal setting and Management by Objectives
9.6 Total Quality Management
9.7 Business Process Reengineering
9.8 Trans-Organisational Development
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Organisation-Wide Interventions 169

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
• Discuss the role of system and cultural change in organization wide
----------------------
interventions.
---------------------- • Assess important organisation wide interventions such as Survey
Feedback, Grid OD etc.
----------------------
• Justify the importance of Goal setting
----------------------
• Express the concept and application of TQM approach to OD.
---------------------- • Justify how Business Process Re-engineering is congruent with OD
---------------------- processes
---------------------- 9.1 NATURE OFORGANISATION WIDE INTERVENTIONS

----------------------
When an organisation faces broad challenges in its internal or external
---------------------- environment, individual, interpersonal and group interventions may not
be sufficient to meet the new environmental demands. Organisation wide
---------------------- interventions are large-scale change efforts that increase the effectiveness of
the entire organisation or a major organisational unit.
----------------------
The focus of organisation wide interventions is relatively broader and
---------------------- addresses critical organisation wide issues such as communication, leadership
and job satisfaction. Obviously, these interventions cut across functions and
----------------------
impact the overall organisation way of functioning.
---------------------- Although all OD interventions are designed to change organisational
systems and bring about organisational effectiveness, organisation wide
----------------------
interventions often require managers and organisational members to reconsider
---------------------- how they accomplish basic objectives and conduct basic functions and
procedures.
----------------------
---------------------- 9.2 SYSTEM AND CULTURE CHANGE

---------------------- Organisation wide interventions are comprehensive also in the sense
that they address cultural change issues through bringing about change in the
---------------------- basic systems and the processes in the organisation. When the business climate
changes; an organisation develops new strategies for using its resources; in
----------------------
particular its HR resources efficiently. This involves training its employees to
---------------------- cope with changed strategies, developing new competencies, better hiring and
performance evaluation practices etc. This in turn brings about changes in the
---------------------- culture of the organisation.
---------------------- Employees begin perceiving organisation as future looking, growth
oriented, fair and friendly. Through the use of employee development
---------------------- efforts, state-of-art equipment, team decision making approach and effective

communication channels, employees develop new ways of approaching and Notes
accomplishing their tasks. This ultimately enables the organisation to adapt
successfully to a changing and challenging environment. ----------------------
There are many different approaches to changing an entire system. In this ----------------------
unit, we will deal with:
----------------------
a. Survey Feedback
b. System and Management ----------------------
c. Grid OD ----------------------
d. MBO ----------------------
e. TQM
----------------------
9.3 SURVEY FEEDBACK ----------------------
The study of Survey Feedback played an important role in the formation ----------------------
and history of OD. It was developed as an organisation wide intervention by
Mann and his associates (Year 1957- 1965). In this method the OD programme ----------------------
is based on systematically collecting data about the system and feeding back the ----------------------
data for individuals or groups at all levels of organisation. These activities have
two major components: ----------------------
●● the use of Climate or attitude survey and ----------------------
●● the use of Feedback workshops
----------------------
This is a process in which organisational members complete questionnaires
on various organisational issues, receive feedback on the results, take appropriate ----------------------
actions to address critical needs and concerns. It generally follows a four phase
cyclical process called the Survey Feedback Process, which is illustrated below. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 9.1: Survey Feedback

Notes Phase 1: Developing a survey instrument
Phase 2: Administering the survey, data collection
----------------------
Phase 3: Summarising and analysis of results
----------------------
Phase 4: Feedback on the results, developing and implementing action
---------------------- plans for improvement. Attitudinal survey is one of the very powerful tools
used in Organisational Development. This is due to its altogether different
---------------------- approach. It is not like the traditional approach. In this process, data collection
---------------------- is itself different. It involves everybody in the system. Data are also reported
to everyone who has participated instead of restricting it to a few individuals.
---------------------- Implications of the data are worked upon by everyone in the teams. Use of third
party intervention is made as and when necessary. Action planning is done by
---------------------- teams at all levels.
---------------------- Hence the probable extent of change and improvement is very high. If the
survey has to be optimally useful the following steps must occur.
----------------------
Step 1: Organisation members at the top of hierarchy are involved in the
---------------------- preliminary planning.
---------------------- Step 2: Data are collected from all the organisational members.
Step 3: Data are fed back to the top executive team and then down
----------------------
through the hierarchy in functional teams. This is known as interlocking chain
---------------------- of references.
---------------------- Step 4: Each superior presides at a meeting with his or her subordinates in
which data are discussed and in which subordinates are asked to help interpret.
---------------------- The data plans are made for making constructive changes. Plans are made for
the introduction of the data at the next lower level.
----------------------
Step 5: Most feedback meetings include a consultant who has to prepare
---------------------- the superior for the meeting and who serves as a resource person.
---------------------- Results: In one organisation such type of programme was undertaken.
After two years another survey was conducted the findings of which are as
---------------------- under:
---------------------- Important changes occurred relative to how employees felt about
The kind of work they do Job interest, importance, and level of
----------------------
responsibility.
---------------------- ●● Their superior, ability to handle people, give recognition, direct their
work, and
----------------------
●● Represent them in handling complaints
----------------------
●● Their progress in the company.
---------------------- ●● Their group’s ability to get the job done.
---------------------- The subjects covered in the Survey feedback are many. Any important
issue can be taken up for survey. Some of the examples are:
----------------------

(a) Organisational Climate Notes
(b) Pay and Benefits
----------------------
(c) Relationship with other Units
----------------------
(d) Communication Styles or Levels
(e) Employer-Employee Relationships ----------------------
(f) Leadership Style in the Organisation ----------------------

(g) Work Related Stress ----------------------
(h) Opportunity for Advancement and Personal Growth
----------------------
(i) Effectiveness of Training
----------------------
The results of survey feedback are amazing. However a deep analysis of
the results is an equally important matter. ----------------------
A typical five-point scale can be used to make it user friendly. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 9.2: Five-Point Scale
These are just guidelines. Exact format could be designed to suit ----------------------
individual requirements. The survey feedback deals with human relationships ----------------------
as a whole. Hence, the results are very encouraging. Another basic assumption
in the survey-guided developments is that human behaviour is goal-seeking and ----------------------
goal-oriented.
----------------------
Using Survey Feedback to Change Organisations
----------------------
In the initial phase of survey feedback, the OD consultant works with
the management very closely to develop a questionnaire to collect information ----------------------
about the key issues in the organisation. The key success factor at this stage is the
active participation of the organisation members. This ensures the relevance of ----------------------
the issues to that particular organisation and prevents the survey from becoming
----------------------
abstract.
Active participation by all departments also brings in a sense of ownership ----------------------
during data collection and higher involvement during action planning activities
----------------------
later. The OD consultant can build trust and commitment and also bring about
openness and candour by announcing confidentiality of the responses. Once ----------------------
the survey data is collected, they must be summarised in the form that is
meaningful to the organisation’s members. Brief summary reports are prepared ----------------------
by the consultants and presented in a series of focused, facilitated meetings,
----------------------
starting with top management and going downwards. These meetings are used
both, to identify problem areas and also develop action plans to resolve them. ----------------------

Notes To ensure effective feedback meetings, the OD consultant needs to
train managers to create and promote a participative atmosphere and to avoid
---------------------- defensive behaviour that might block any constructive discussion.
---------------------- Ultimately, the survey feedback tool is designed to bring about organisation
wide change by providing organisation members with key information necessary
---------------------- to diagnose problems and to develop more effective ways of functioning.
Although each organisation has its own unique set of challenges, this tool should
----------------------
promote positive changes that in turn increase job satisfaction and performance
---------------------- and improve relationships among and within the groups.
This technique is more successful than other Organisation Development
----------------------
Interventions. The results are generally not misleading as compared to an
---------------------- experimental group. The programmes are more comprehensive. The results are
positive and the programmes are very cost effective as well.
----------------------
In a study examining the effectiveness of an ongoing survey feedback
---------------------- programmes at the branch offices of a Midwestern Bank, researchers found that
branches where the managers used the survey results had higher performance
---------------------- and job satisfaction as well as better customer service.
----------------------

----------------------
---------------------- 1. Organization wide interventions:
i. Are large scale change efforts
---------------------- ii. Increase the effectiveness of the entire organization
---------------------- iii. Deal with issues such as individual grievance, perception and
group dynamics
---------------------- iv. Do not impact the organization way of functioning
2. Different approaches to organization wide intervention include:
---------------------- i. Mirror intervention
---------------------- ii. Grid OB
iii. Survey feedback
---------------------- iv. Management by Objective
3. Phases of survey feedback process:
---------------------- i. Developing a survey instrument
---------------------- ii. Administering the survey and data collection
iii. Summarizing and analyzing of result
---------------------- iv. Action Research
4. Survey feedback to change organizations require
---------------------- i. Participation of Regulatory bodies
---------------------- ii. Active participation of the organization members
iii. Participation by all departments
----------------------
iv. Participation by client group
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
To practice conducting survey feedback, design ten questions which relate ----------------------
to organisational matters. Some examples are given below:
----------------------
●● Do you think management takes due care of the organisation?
●● Are the chances for growth in the organisation good? ----------------------
All answers should have five options in the category most negative to most ----------------------
positive.
----------------------
----------------------
9.4 GRID ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT
----------------------
One of the most structured and popular organisation wise interventions
programs in OD is Grid OD. It was developed by psychologists Robert Blake ----------------------
and Jane Mouton. (1964-1969) In a six phased programme lasting about three
to five hours the organisation systematically moves from the stage of examining ----------------------
existing managerial behaviour and style to the development and implementation ----------------------
of an “ideal strategic model”. This approach to OD emphasises the importance
of both helping managers become more effective and systematically creating ----------------------
an ideal strategic model to guiding organisational planning and actions. This
OD intervention uses a variety of specially designed diagnostic instruments that ----------------------
enable individuals and groups to assess their own strengths and weaknesses; it ----------------------
focuses on their skills and knowledge and processes necessary for effectiveness
analyse their own behaviour and identify areas that need improvement. ----------------------
Grid OD and Mangement Styles ----------------------
Grid OD proposes those two fundamental dimensions of leader behaviour
----------------------
which are essential for understanding managerial effectiveness. They are:
a. Concern for people ----------------------
b. Concern for results ----------------------
Concern for people refers to the consideration of social and interpersonal ----------------------
concern of others. This should be a genuine concern. It is not mere desire.
Concern for results means for a production organisation the volume and quality ----------------------
of production and incase of services the quicknesss and quality of services to ----------------------
the satisfaction of customers. Concern for results involves issues of quality,
quantity and overall effectiveness of work outputs. ----------------------
The graphical presentation of the model illustrates the concept further. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 9.3: The Leadership Grid
---------------------- The Leadership Grid above identifies five basic managerial styles:
---------------------- 1,1 Impoverished Management: Managers falling under this category are
just going through their jobs without any real contributions. They are
---------------------- primarily concerned with keeping their jobs and are of little or no value
---------------------- in OD.
9,1 Authority Compliance Task Management: Emphasis is on results and
---------------------- hence creativity and initiative of the subordinates is likely to be stifled.
---------------------- Low concern for interpersonal relationships is also likely to result in low
cohesion amongst the group members.
----------------------
1,9 Country Club Management: The focus of the 1, 9 managers is on
---------------------- creating work environments with pleasant social environment and
positive interpersonal relationships. They are primarily concerned with
---------------------- people and their feelings, attitudes and needs rather than results. Though
the relationships are good there is no or very low contribution to the
----------------------
organisational objectives.
---------------------- 5,5 Middle of the Road Management: These managers have a moderate
concern for people and results. They use this managerial style to balance
----------------------
employee morale with acceptable levels of work outputs. They try to
---------------------- resolve conflicts through accommodation and compromise.
9,9 Team Management: The 9, 9 manager demonstrates high concern for
----------------------
people and also for results and views these two dimensions of leadership as
---------------------- complementary to each other, rather than conflicting. There is an attempt
to integrate personal goals of the employees with the organisational goals
---------------------- through participative decision making. By developing work teams that
utilise team members’ contributions in an interdependent way. Thus
----------------------

these types of managers simultaneously promote high morale and high Notes
productivity.
----------------------
One of the most important assumptions of Grid OD is that 9,9 management
style is the most effective approach for all managers in all organisations. From ----------------------
an OD perspective, helping managers move to a 9,9 managerial style represents
a critical component of organisational change process. However, for this to ----------------------
happen, it must be preceded by a change in the organisation’s culture.
----------------------
Implementing Grid OD
----------------------
Implementing Grid OD is a six step process and complete implementation
takes a long time, estimated between 5-10 years depending on the magnitude ----------------------
and complexity involved in the change process.
----------------------
Phase 1: The Grid Seminar: During this initial phase, groups of managers
attend a seminar that introduces them to basic grid concepts and objectives. ----------------------
Managers learn about their own managerial styles using questionnaires and
they explore other styles through case studies, lectures and team projects. In ----------------------
addition, managers learn about communication, problem solving and team work ----------------------
skills as well as techniques for analysing the work cultures of their organisation.
In this phase they learn how to become (9,9) managers. ----------------------
Phase 2: Teamwork development: In this phase, managers begin to apply the ----------------------
grid concepts from phase 1 to their own work teams. Typically, team meets
offsite for a week and analyses its team culture or group dynamics. Team ----------------------
members complete grid instruments and receive feedback on how others
perceive their managerial style. While developing planning and problem solving ----------------------
skills, participants also work on studying and resolving team problems. Since ----------------------
having challenging objectives is viewed as a critical part of generating and
sustaining motivation within the team, the team sets both group and individual ----------------------
goals before the session ends.
----------------------
Phase 3: Intergroup Development: The focus of this phase is to expand the
principles of team building and interdependence between groups from different ----------------------
departments and divisions. It aims at improving intergroup relations movement
to be effective to come out of the win-lose situation. Each group separately ----------------------
analyses what an ideal situation would be like. ----------------------
Although organisations are divided into different units and departments to
----------------------
enhance effectiveness, competitions and conflicts amongst them might lead to
counterproductive power struggles. ----------------------
To address this problem:
----------------------
a. Intergroup development meetings are held
----------------------
b. In these meetings, the dynamics of intergroup co-operation and
competition are explored. ----------------------
Phase 4: Designing an ideal strategic model: In this phase, organisational ----------------------
members work towards defining alternative ways of accomplishing the
organisational goals. The design of an ideal strategic model is focused on ----------------------

Notes achieving organisational excellence and is directed by the leaders of the
organisation. Top management group engages in strategic planning. Fact
---------------------- finding, technical inputs and so on may be contributed from all persons in the
organisation.
----------------------
Using comparisons, top management are able to recognise what
---------------------- aspects of culture need to be changed to achieve excellence. In the process a
corporate model is developed. A problem that sometimes arises during this
----------------------
phase is that individuals who have spent much of their working lives within a
---------------------- particular organisation have trouble seeing alternative ways of accomplishing
organisational goals. That is, they are so entrenched in the culture that they
---------------------- cannot envision a new model for their company. In these cases, the consultant
must help the group expand its vision of what their organisation can become.
----------------------
Phase 5: Implementing the Ideal Strategic Model: Implementation of this
---------------------- model of Corporate excellence requires careful planning. The organisation is
divided into segments in terms of geographical locations, products lines or
----------------------
other characteristics and a separate planning team takes responsibility for each
---------------------- unit. This group sees how the business may be moved on the lines of the ideal
model. At the same time, a Phase 5 coordinator is appointed to be the liaison
---------------------- between the planning teams and the top management.
---------------------- Phase 6: Systematic Critique: During the last phase of Grid OD, participants
undertake an evaluation of their organisation that compares results from phases
---------------------- 1 to 5 with the state of their organisation before the intervention began. At
this point, managers can see and take pride in how much progress has been
----------------------
achieved through Grid OD. At the same time, they identify areas that still need
---------------------- improvement.
---------------------- Grid OD is one of the most comprehensive models in use. It is highly systematic,
complete model by itself but very difficult. As is obvious from the detailed
---------------------- description of this model, each phase actually is an intervention in itself.
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
If you are working in an organisation, decide in which category your
----------------------
organisation’s leadership falls. To avoid an opinion base, draft 10 suitable
---------------------- questions and then examine. Example: In my organisation due care is given
to employee needs.
----------------------
---------------------- 9.5 GOAL SETTING AND MANAGEMENT BY

---------------------- OBJECTIVES
---------------------- Management by Objectives (MBO) is an organisation wide intervention
designed to integrate individual goals with organisational goals. The application
---------------------- of MBO as an organisational change technique is closely linked to management
---------------------- theories developed by Peter Drucker and Douglas McGregor. They focused on

the importance of managers setting their own goals and ensuring that these Notes
goals are consistent with key organisational objectives. Through the coordinated
use of goal setting principles, MBO focuses on increasing motivation, job ----------------------
satisfaction and productivity as well as improving communication between
managers and subordinates. Although MBO programmes were initially focused ----------------------
on Performance Appraisals, more comprehensive MBO systems are now being ----------------------
used to develop organisational goals and strategic plans, encourage participative
problem solving and decision making and refine training and development ----------------------
activities.
----------------------
The MBO approach to OD
----------------------
For an MBO programme to be effective organisation wide OD intervention,
senior management must support and actively participate in its implementation. ----------------------
It begins with the top management providing clear statement of organisational
purpose or mission so that individual members can align their goals with ----------------------
critical organisational objectives. This mission statement can then serve as a
----------------------
guide for developing long range goals and strategic planning. Departmental
and individual goals can then be derived from organisational goals. Based on ----------------------
extensive reviews of MBO programmes, two researchers have identified the
following factors for the success of MBO programmes: ----------------------
a. Organisational commitment ----------------------
b. Mutual goal setting ----------------------
c. Frequent performance reviews
----------------------
d. Some degree of freedom in terms of achieving individual goals
----------------------
Implementing the MBO programs generally involves the following stages:
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 9.4: Management by Objective Process ----------------------

Notes Step 1: Formulating Long Range Goals: Guided by the organisation’s mission
statement senior management define critical long-term objectives and determine
---------------------- how available resources will be used to accomplish these goals. This process
then leads to strategic planning activities, which describe how the organisation
---------------------- will cope with its changing environment.
---------------------- Step 2: Developing Specific Objectives: In this step, broad organisational
objectives are translated into specific measurable outcomes with clearly stated
----------------------
time frames. Although organisational objectives may include areas such as
---------------------- profitability, market share, and quality, all objectives must be stated in clear
terms.
----------------------
Step 3 Developing departmental objectives: Once organisational objectives
---------------------- are clearly specified, each division or department must develop a set of specific
goals that will enable the organisation to achieve its objectives. Again, these
---------------------- departmental goals must be clearly stated in terms of measurable outcomes.
---------------------- Step 4: Setting Group and Individual Goals: This step is focussed on
developing and implementing group and individual level goals in a coordinated
---------------------- manner. This process encourages vertical and horizontal communication in the
organisation since individuals must clarify their roles and take responsibility for
----------------------
specific results. Individual goal setting is done in a collaborative manner and
---------------------- will include both, personal and professional development objectives. Research
indicates that individual goals produce the most positive results when they are
---------------------- challenging and specific.
---------------------- Step 5: Formulating and Implementing Action Plans: Although clearly
stated goals provide a precise description of a desired outcome, action plans are
---------------------- needed to provide a way of attaining goals. Action plans systematically identify
---------------------- the methods, activities, and resources required to accomplish objectives.
Step 6: Reviewing Goal Progress: Finally, managers must review progress
---------------------- towards achieving the goal by meeting with subordinates in a group or
---------------------- individually. During these meetings, managers and subordinates discuss
problems and difficulties involved in completing the goals and evaluate
---------------------- individual performance based on the degree to which targeted goals were
actually achieved. These meetings may also provide an opportunity to review and
---------------------- modify goals that have become outdated or unattainable. Once this assessment
---------------------- is complete, the focus shifts from past performance to planning future goals
and action plans. Together, managers and subordinates develop mutually agreed
---------------------- upon goals and formulate a strategy to achieve them.
---------------------- Although MBO is a widely used approach for enhancing organisational

effectiveness, the ways in which organisations use this intervention vary
---------------------- considerably. Companies such as IBM and Hewlett-Packard, for example,
have made MBO an integral part of their cultures. In general, research on the
---------------------- effectiveness of MBO has produced mixed results. To some degree, the success
---------------------- of an MBO intervention depends on the culture of the organisation. In keeping
with the principles of OD, implementing an MBO programme can be seen as
---------------------- an opportunity for employee development. Managers can assist employees in

setting professional work, designing their work and participating in decision Notes
making. MBO seems to work better in organisations having a consultative
environment. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Grid OD proposes two fundamental dimensions of leader behavior
for understanding managerial effectiveness. They are concern for ----------------------
people and concern for ________. ----------------------
2. Grid OD was developed by the psychologists Robert Blake and
___________. ----------------------
3. As per the leadership grid, the managers who are primarily concerned ----------------------
with people and their feelings rather than results are known as
___________ managers. ----------------------
4. Organization wide interventions designed to integrate individual ----------------------

goals with organizational goals is _______________________.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
Take any two positions in an organisation. Formulate five objectives for ----------------------
them. For example, a Marketing Manager’s objectives could be as under:
----------------------
Increase in dealership network by adding at least three dealers per month
----------------------
Increase in sales by 5%
Reduction in customer complaints ----------------------
Similar objectives could be set for various positions. ----------------------
----------------------
9.6 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
----------------------
Total Quality Management or simply TQM is a widely discussed and ----------------------
an adopted approach that focuses on trying to meet or exceed customers’
expectations. TQM is akin to a total war. As in war where every person within ----------------------
the nation and from its sphere of activities is involved, directly or indirectly, in
an organisation wedded to TQM every division and every employee is involved ----------------------
in TQM. ----------------------
There are many definitions and connotations associated with TQM. In
traditional organisations, whenever we talk about quality the first thing which ----------------------
comes to our mind, is product quality. The concept of total quality is different ----------------------
from that of product quality. It includes product quality but it is much more. Its
approach towards quality is in all its forms, in people and process, in products ----------------------
and costs, in planning and management.
Notes TQM is an overall organisational strategy that is formulated at the top
management level and is then diffused throughout the organisation. Everyone
---------------------- in the organisation, from GM/ CEO to the lowest paid hourly worker and clerk
is involved in TQM process. The total part of TQM not only emphasises the
---------------------- external end user and purchaser of the product or service, but also internal
---------------------- customer and outside suppliers and support personnel. TQM engulfs everybody
at all levels and at all stages of the process as a user, as a process or as a supplier
---------------------- for quality performance. The basic concepts of total quality process are the
involvement of the people at the grassroots working together towards a common
---------------------- overall objective. For this it is imperative to create an environment conducive to
---------------------- participation and creativity.
In TQM, approach people are viewed as unique and creative resources,
----------------------
capable of change, motivated by a sense of pride in a job well done. TQM
---------------------- is a feeling to be conceived from within, to develop a culture that is shared
throughout the organisation. TQM is a process, not a programme. It is an
---------------------- ongoing continuous commitment towards excellence. It is a quest for perfection.
Perfection is a road to travel on and not a destination.
----------------------
Definition TQM: TQM is defined as a cost effective approach for
---------------------- integrating the continuously quality improvement efforts of the people at all
levels in the organisation to deliver products and services which ensure customer
----------------------
satisfaction.
---------------------- Some guiding principles of TQM are as follows:
---------------------- ●● Make it right for customers at any cost
●● Internal customers are as important as external customers
----------------------
●● Respond to every customer enquiry or complaint by the end of the day
----------------------
●● Answer the phone within two rings
---------------------- ●● The customer is always right
---------------------- ●● Not only meet customer’s expectation but also delight the customer in the
process
---------------------- ●● Teamwork and co-operation is more important than individual action
---------------------- ●● Everyone is involved in the quality effort; no exceptions or bench sitting
is allowed
----------------------
●● Respond to every employee suggestion for quality improvement within
---------------------- a week
---------------------- ●● Never be satisfied with the level of quality; always strive for continuous
improvement
---------------------- There is great potential for synergy between TQM and OD. Dan Ciampa
states that ‘major aspects of TQM are derived from OD. “The people side
----------------------
of total quality is a direct descendant of organisation development. To truly
---------------------- understand TQ and to be able to make it a reality, one must be an expert in
creating change on the people side of the organisational excellence equation.
---------------------- The values on which OD is based, its dedication to human learning, its elements

of adult education and management training are all necessary parts of a true, Notes
successful TQ effort”.
----------------------
Total Quality Management and OD
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a comprehensive approach to ----------------------
organisational change that involves participative management, continuous
----------------------
process improvement, and the use of teams to continually improve quality and
productivity. ----------------------
The Quality Movement Approach to Organisational Change
----------------------
The principles are primarily associated with the work of W. Edwards
Deming and are focussed on the use of statistical methods to control quality. ----------------------
Deming’s 14 Points: ----------------------

The following points summarise Deming’s principles of effective ----------------------
management:
----------------------
●● Create consistency of purpose
●● Adopt the new philosophy ----------------------
●● Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality ----------------------
●● End the practice of awarding business to price tag alone. Instead, minimize
total cost, often accomplished by working with a single supplier ----------------------
●● Improve constantly the system of production and service ----------------------
●● Institute training on the job ----------------------
●● Institute leadership
----------------------
●● Drive out fear
●● Break down barriers between departments ----------------------
●● Eliminate slogan, exhortations and numerical targets ----------------------
●● Eliminate work standards (quotas) and management by objectives
----------------------
●● Remove barriers that rob workers, engineers and managers of their right
to pride of ----------------------
●● workmanship ----------------------
●● Institute a vigorous programme of education and self-improvement
----------------------
●● Put everyone in the company to work to accomplish the transformation
Key elements of TQM are as follows: ----------------------
●● Management Commitment to Quality ----------------------
●● Universal Responsibility of Quality ----------------------
●● Customer Orientation
----------------------
●● Root Cause Corrective Action
●● Employee involvement and Empowerment ----------------------
●● Quality Measurement
----------------------

Notes ●● Continuous improvement
●● Prevention of Defects
----------------------
●● Bench Marking
---------------------- ●● Cost Reduction
●● Inventory Control
----------------------
●● Use of Statistical Techniques
---------------------- ●● Training and Development of employees
---------------------- OD Intervention based on Quality Improvement
Although organisation development and quality movement emerged from
----------------------
different theoretical perspectives, these two approaches share several important
---------------------- values and assumptions.
---------------------- ●● Both approaches view organisations as open systems made up of

subsystems.
---------------------- ●● Both focus on processes as the root of organisational problems.
---------------------- ●● Both endorse the idea that employee empowerment and involvement is
an effective way of improving planning, problem solving and decision
---------------------- making.
---------------------- ●● Finally,both approaches stress the importance of systematic data collection
in diagnosing organisational problems.
----------------------
Based on these shared assumptions, several OD practitioners have
---------------------- attempted to develop OD interventions using quality improvement principles.
For example, Persico and Tomasek (1994) proposed an OD approach called
---------------------- Total Quality Improvement Model (TQI) which incorporates both traditional
OD techniques as well as TQM strategies. The TQI model provides a four-
----------------------
phase approach to organisational change involving:
---------------------- a. Planning
---------------------- b. Education
---------------------- c. Implementation and

d. Continuous Improvement
----------------------
a. Planning Phase: During this stage, a consultant meets with the managers
---------------------- and key organisational members in a series of meetings designed to
determine mutual expectations and identify the client’s major issues
----------------------
and concerns. Unlike traditional OD interventions, this approach avoids
---------------------- the use of surveys and structured interviews to assess the organisation’s
current stage. Once the organisation has accepted the consultant as the
---------------------- change agent for the transformation effort, plans are developed for the
educational phase of change process.
----------------------
b. Educational Phase: This phase focuses on initiating organisational
---------------------- change by teaching managers and workers about the principles of quality
improvement. The goal of this phase is to transform managers into
----------------------

leaders, and workers into responsible employees. In addition, managers Notes
study Deming’s 14 points and meet in groups to discuss ways of applying
these principles to their organisation. ----------------------
c. Implementation phase: This involves the consultant team assisting the ----------------------
client organisation in deciding on the pace and type of implementation
process that best fits the organisation’s unique needs and circumstances. ----------------------
Since the support of the senior management is essential, the amount of
----------------------
time from them is a major consideration.
During this phase, a quality mission statement is written that clarifies ----------------------
the purpose of the organisation’s change efforts. Management teams are
----------------------
established to develop strategies to promote culture change. Although
specific implementation activities vary across organisations, it must begin ----------------------
to involve organisational members in improving their work processes.
----------------------
d. Continuous Improvement: This phase deals with the integration of
quality improvement principles and techniques into the culture of the ----------------------
organisation. This kind of culture change can only occur if the barriers that
prevent the organizational members from using the quality improvement ----------------------
concepts on an ongoing basis are eliminated. This is a long-term effort
----------------------
and involves changes in operating principles of the organisation as well
as the development of strategies that link rewards with process-based ----------------------
quality improvement.
----------------------
Although many OD practitioners view TQM as exciting new direction
for the field of OD others have voiced concerns that the involvement of OD ----------------------
professionals in TQM poses a significant danger to the identity of OD.
----------------------
This controversy centers on compatibility of TQM approach with several
fundamental principles of OD. Since the use of behavioural knowledge to ----------------------
guide organisational change efforts is one of the defining features of OD,
TQMs heavy emphasis on theories and techniques from disciplines outside ----------------------
behavioural science raises some serious questions about what constitutes an ----------------------
OD intervention.
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
To understand the principles of TQM properly, take any two parameters of ----------------------
TQM. Write your practical experiences about them. Examples: Customer
----------------------
satisfaction, Root Cause, Preventive Action.
----------------------
9.7 BUSINESS PROCESS REENGINEERING ----------------------
‘Necessity is the mother of invention’ is a proverb and the same continues ----------------------
to rule even in the current time. Business has to flourish not only for survival but
----------------------
also for its overall contribution to the society. Many efforts in this direction have
been taken by researchers and Michael Hammer and James Champy in the mid ----------------------

Notes eighties introduced a new technique called Business Process Re-engineering.
Definition: Business Process Re-engineering has been defined as “the
----------------------
fundamental rethinking and redesign of the business processes to achieve
---------------------- dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance,
such as cost, quality, service and speed. It is an ability of an organisation to
---------------------- step down and rethink the way it does business.”
---------------------- Key drivers of Business Process Re-engineering are
●● Customer
----------------------
●● Competition
----------------------
●● Change
---------------------- The importance of the above has been seen by us in previous units and
in various cases involving OD exercises. Basically BPR focuses on Strategy,
----------------------
Business Processes, People and Technology.
---------------------- Strategy: The first parameter of BPR is strategy. It involves normal
processes of Strategy formulation and Strategy implementation. Its basic focus
----------------------
areas are:
---------------------- a) Focus on customer needs
---------------------- b) Competitive Benchmarking
---------------------- c) Forecasting Trends

Business Process Business involves
----------------------
a) Transformation of Function Oriented Company into Process oriented
---------------------- structure.
---------------------- b) Promptness in Service and Delivery
---------------------- c) Ensure Customer satisfaction

d) Product Development
----------------------
These constitute the key components.
----------------------
Change in the process- changes job profile of the employees. Therefore,
---------------------- Right-sizing, empowerment, performance based job security are the essential
elements of successful reengineering.
----------------------
People: Create an atmosphere which promotes
---------------------- ●● Open Communication
---------------------- ●● Mutual support
●● Recognition of the performers
----------------------
●● Training and Development
---------------------- Technology: Change in technology is needed as per business needs
----------------------
----------------------

Action steps involved in BPR are as follows: Notes
1. Identifying key signals or factors
----------------------
2. Carry out needs assessment
----------------------
3. Setting Performance and re-engineering
4. Involving Top management ----------------------
5. Collecting data and redesign on clean slate. ----------------------

6. Forming Steering Team and implementation team. ----------------------
7. Pilot testing re-engineering Systems
----------------------
8. Empowerment, accountability
----------------------
9. Create a sense of urgency
10. Manage fears associated with change ----------------------
Re-engineering is clearly a top-down programme that assumes neither ----------------------

an upward flow of involvement nor that consensus decision making will work
to accomplish dramatic changes. People lower down do not have sufficient ----------------------
perspective to visualise the changes that are needed. They do point out that it is ----------------------
important to pay attention to the company’s human resources and organisational
infrastructure. They can throw light on values and beliefs and focus on rewarding ----------------------
behaviour that exhibits appropriate values pertaining to customers, teamwork
and ownership of problems. They see the role of a manager changing from boss ----------------------
to a coach. This way BPR is highly congruent with OD processes. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. TQM engulfs everybody at all levels and at all stages of the process
as a user, as a person or as a supplier for quality performance. ----------------------
2. TQM is a program and not a process. ----------------------
3. Total quality improvement model incorporates both traditional OD
techniques as well as TQM strategies. ----------------------
4. Major aspects of OD are derived from TQM. ----------------------

5. The four-phased Total Quality Improvement model approach to ----------------------
organizational change involves planning, education, implementation
and continuous improvement. ----------------------
6. Key drivers of business process re-engineering are customer ----------------------
competition and change
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 5
----------------------
---------------------- Write down any five activities, which, in your opinion, do not add value to
the main activity. For example, in some companies, the Security Guard first
---------------------- asks you to write your name in the register and provide other information
before handing you a Gate Pass. There are many such non-value adding
----------------------
activities.
----------------------
---------------------- 9.8 TRANS-ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

---------------------- During the process of Organisational Development a need arises to
include some categories of people who may not be working in the Organisation
---------------------- but are deeply connected with its development. These include customers,
---------------------- suppliers and union leaders coming together with the organisational members.
It is not an extension of OD but a distinct level of practice commensurate with
---------------------- the dynamics emerging at this higher level of social system.
---------------------- It is an important form of organisational change process for trans-

organisational systems (TS). TSs comprise business alliances, consortiums
---------------------- network alliances formed for such purposes as coordinating services to the
public conducting joint research and development, exchanging technology, or
---------------------- gaining access to worldwide markets. Linkages among members are loosely
---------------------- coupled or indirect. Power and leadership are dispersed rather than hierarchical
and there may be wide fluctuations in commitment to the collaboration over
---------------------- time.
---------------------- There are three phases in typical TD Practice. They are as follows:
Phase I: Potential Member Organisations are identified.
----------------------
TD practitioners assist early members in forming a steering committee
---------------------- establishing criteria for membership. They can also help members in selecting
partners for each other.
----------------------
Phase II: Member Organisations are convened
----------------------
Representatives from member organisations are brought together
---------------------- sometimes in a search conference. In this meeting the possibility of forming TS
is explored. Members share their perceptions and ideas. They find out areas of
---------------------- mutual benefit. Subsequently an Action plan is decided up on.
---------------------- Phase III: The TS is Organised.
---------------------- Once common purposes and sufficient motivation is generated, TD
practitioners help members create roles, structures, and mechanisms needed
---------------------- to coordinate the efforts of TS members. Practitioners need to play the role of
activist rather than what is traditionally seen in OD. Furthermore practitioners
----------------------
need to maintain a neutral role and not be seen as aligned with particular member
---------------------- organisations or people.

Summary Notes
●● In this unit we have studied organisation wide interventions. Survey ----------------------

Feedback uses feedback received after conducting surveys on different
----------------------
organisational matters and making effective use of it.
●● Management by Objectives is a technique which basically begins with ----------------------
setting objectives for the organisation first; then for an individual,
----------------------
continuous review, counselling him frequently and redesigning objectives
if required. ----------------------
●● In Business Process major concentration is on removing non value adding
----------------------
activities and radical redesigning of a Business process.
●● Grid OD analyses current leadership style. The ideal grid is (9,9), i.e., ----------------------
the leadership which has equal concern for results as well as for people
working in it. ----------------------
●● TQM is total quality management involving customer satisfaction, ----------------------

continuous improvements, going to the root of the problem, training,
universal standard of quality etc. ----------------------
●● Trans Organisational Development involves OD experiments involving ----------------------
parties outside the organisation.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
●● Survey Feedback: Survey of employees’ opinion and use of this feedback ----------------------
●● Grid OD: Examine current leadership grid level in an organisation ----------------------
●● MBO: Manage by setting objective first
----------------------
●● BPR: Radical changes in the Business Processes
----------------------
1. Define Management by Objectives. Explain the process. ----------------------
2. Discuss in detail the advantages of MBO.
----------------------
3. Define TQM. Explain the key elements of TQM.
----------------------
4. Explain how TQM and OD efforts are complementary.
5. Explain the Grid system of OD. What are its specific advantages? ----------------------
6. Comment on leadership styles and OD efforts. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Answers to Check your Progress

1. Organization wide interventions:
----------------------
i. Are large scale change efforts
----------------------
ii. Increase the effectiveness of the entire organization
---------------------- 2. Different approaches to organization wide intervention include:
---------------------- ii. Grid OB
---------------------- iii. Survey feedback

iv. Management by Objective
----------------------
3. Phases of survey feedback process:
----------------------
i. Developing a survey instrument
---------------------- ii. Administering the survey and data collection
---------------------- iii. Summarizing and analyzing of result
---------------------- 4. Survey feedback to change organizations require

ii. Active participation of the organization members
----------------------
iii. Participation by all departments
----------------------
---------------------- 1. Grid OD proposes two fundamental dimensions of leader behavior for
understanding managerial effectiveness. They are concern for people and
---------------------- concern for results.
---------------------- 2. Grid OD was developed by the psychologists Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton.
----------------------
3. As per the leadership grid, the managers who are primarily concerned
---------------------- with people and their feelings rather than results are known as Country
Club managers.
----------------------
4. Organization wide interventions designed to integrate individual goals
---------------------- with organizational goals is Management by Objectives.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
3. True ----------------------
4. False ----------------------
5. True ----------------------
6. True
----------------------

South-Western Publishing. ----------------------
2. Ramnarayan, S, T V Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating
Learning and Transformation. SAGE Publications ----------------------

----------------------
& Co.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Change Agents and Emerging Issues in OD
UNIT
10
Structure:
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Comparing Internal and External Change Agents
10.3 Building Trust in Working Relationships
10.4 Competencies of an OD Consultant
10.5 The international Organisation Development Code of Ethics
10.6 Ethical Issues and Guidelines for OD Professionals
10.7 Issues in Consultant - Client Relationship
10.8 The Dependency Issue and terminating the Relationship
10.9 Implications of OD for the Client
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Change Agents and Emerging Issues in OD 193

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
●● State the concept of Change Agents and their role in change efforts
---------------------- ●● Appraise the role of Internal and External change agents
---------------------- ●● Write the competencies of an OD Consultant
---------------------- ●● Compile Ethical Guidelines to be followed by the OD Consultants
----------------------
10.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Organisation Development is the theory and practice of bringing change
----------------------
in organisations. Change agents are therefore principal actors in any change
---------------------- effort. They play many roles, including those of leaders, facilitators, negotiators
and advisors. They could be consultants hired by the organisations to lead and
---------------------- facilitate change or be internal members of the organisation itself. They are
the people with the responsibility for implementing change in an organisation.
----------------------
They can be classified into two categories as under:
---------------------- Internal Change Agents
---------------------- They are people within the organisation. They could be from any functional
area .They could be also chosen from various levels. Their basic ability should
---------------------- be to bring about the change.
---------------------- Many organisations choose to delegate the responsibility for OD and
implementation of change to organisation members who function as internal
---------------------- change agents. Some organisations such as IBM, GE, GM, Honeywell have
---------------------- internal consulting groups that are responsible for OD efforts. Formal, full
time OD professionals typically work in OD, HR or Training departments.
---------------------- Sometimes, this could be a part time responsibility for a Manager.
---------------------- External Change Agents

Organisations engage external change agents when they hire consulting
----------------------
firms to assist in the change efforts. An external consultant’s credentials usually
---------------------- include a formal education in Psychology, OB, HRM or Business Administration.
This is coupled with organisational experience.
----------------------
They are people hired from outside the organisation to lead and facilitate
---------------------- change. This means that they could be Consultants, Advisors, Researchers or
by whatsoever name they are called. They are not regular employees of the
---------------------- organisation.
---------------------- An important factor in selecting either an internal or external change
agent is to find people with the skills needed to address the human aspects
---------------------- of introducing and implementing change. Many researchers of organisational
change have specified the qualities of successful change agents. On a broad
----------------------
level they are:
1. Interpersonal communication skills, including listening, empathy and the Notes
ability to support, nurture and influence others.
----------------------
2. Theory based problem-solving capabilities, including knowledge of
theory and methods of change and the ability to link this knowledge with ----------------------
organisational realities.
----------------------
3. Educational skills, including the ability to create learning experiences and
to model appropriate behaviour. ----------------------
4. Self-awareness, including ability to recognise one’s own feelings and
----------------------
have a clear understanding of one’s own needs and motivations.
Effective change agents acquire these skills from several sources. Academic ----------------------
training, such as the formal study of OD provides a basic understanding of ----------------------
organisational structure and change. Outside the classroom, having an OD
practitioner as a role model, as a mentor also establishes a foundation for skill ----------------------
acquisition and development. Other skills like ability to link knowledge of
OD theory with organisational realities require the experience of working in ----------------------
organisations. ----------------------
Most OD professionals hold humanistic values that include promoting
open communication, employee participation in decision making, and promoting ----------------------
growth and development of individuals and groups in the organisation. They ----------------------
are experts in social and group processes such as group dynamics, group
decision-making techniques and organisational communication. Although they ----------------------
often advocate quality of work-life for individuals, OD consultants are also
concerned with organisational effectiveness and strategic planning. ----------------------
----------------------
10.2 COMPARING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHANGE
----------------------
AGENTS
----------------------
Credibility
Success as a change agent requires, first of all, that organisational ----------------------
members perceive the change agent as an expert on OD and change. External ----------------------
consultants achieve credibility through their academic credentials and
experience in implementing change in other organisations. The ability of ----------------------
external change consultants to relate how they helped similar organisations in
similar circumstances successfully implement change greatly strengthens the ----------------------
perceptions of their expertise. The internal consultant must draw credibility ----------------------
from his or her experience and achievements within the organisation.
----------------------
Organisational History
Whenever a person is a part of a group, he or she is likely to develop ----------------------
friendships as well as rivalries. External consultants usually have no history
----------------------
with the organisation and therefore can be more objective in their work. Internal
consultants, on the other hand, have established relationships: both positive ----------------------
and negative which may become barriers. Though, they may also act as an
advantage in certain situations. ----------------------

Notes Objectivity
All good change agents strive to maintain objectivity in their examination
----------------------
of organisational problems. Previous history of the internal consultants with
---------------------- the organisation could result in biased judgements. In this aspect, external
consultants have a distinct advantage. They also have the ability to probe deeper
---------------------- and question the status quo.
---------------------- Organisational Culture and Technology
The internal consultants, on the other hand, have a distinct advantage in
----------------------
terms of knowing the organisation’s culture, norms and technology. He or she
---------------------- understands the organisation’s philosophy, jargon and customers. Most of these
will be new for an external consultant and understanding the same could take a
---------------------- lot of time.
---------------------- Availability
---------------------- External consultants rarely spend all their time and energy with one
organisation. Consulting firms handle a variety of issues and clients, making
---------------------- external consultants unavailable on a daily basis to organisational members.
Internal consultants, on the other hand, work at an organisation site and spend
---------------------- most of their time with the organisation’s members. Internal consultants
---------------------- therefore, have an advantage when immediate access to the consultant is
important to the organisation.
---------------------- Organisational Investment
---------------------- Hiring external consultants for a short-term effort may be economical.
For sustaining the development and change effort for a long period of time will
----------------------
need an internal consultant to work on the same.
---------------------- External and Internal Change Agents in Partnership
---------------------- Ideally, a partnership between an external and internal consultant
provides a relationship that uses the strengths of both roles to great advantage.
---------------------- Often, an external consultant can help provide the internal consultant with OD
skills, serving as a mentor. In addition, this partnership provides a model of
----------------------
collaboration for the rest of the organisation. Working as a team, the change
---------------------- agents enhance each other’s credibility and expertise. Problems can be addressed
and solved using a wider base of information and skill. Weaknesses in each of
---------------------- the roles can be improved upon or overcome by the complementary skills and
resources of the other consultant.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 10.1: Internal Vs. External Consultant: A Strategic Decision
----------------------
10.3 BUILDING TRUST IN WORKING RELATIONSHIPS ----------------------
A satisfactory relationship between the change agent and organisational ----------------------
members is critical to the success of any OD effort. A trusting relationship helps
the consultant deal with the challenges posed by those who are uncomfortable ----------------------
or in disagreement with the change effort, and the consultants’ style and values
are the key factors in establishing trust and making relationships successful. ----------------------
1. Communication is the central element in building a trusting relationship ----------------------
between the OD consultant and organisational members. The goal of both,
the consultant and client should be to develop a positive climate for trust ----------------------
and verbal communication provides a major influence on that development.
----------------------
2. Defensiveness is another barrier to a climate of trust. This attitude results
from a person’s perception that he or she is being unfairly evaluated ----------------------
or criticised. As a result, the person defends his or her behaviour
or position. Defensive behaviours diminish the likelihood for open ----------------------
and frank communication, and they impair the development of trust.
----------------------
Supportive behaviours, on the other hand, communicate positive intent,
and encourage the development of trust. OD consultants who focus on ----------------------
supportive behaviours are likely to experience less defensiveness from
organisational members. ----------------------
The Ideal OD Consultant (Source: Bader & Stich, 1993) ----------------------
From the perspective of a professional internal consultant, the ideal external
consultant has the following qualities: ----------------------
• Listens, but does not sell ----------------------
• Fits into the organisation and embraces its mission and culture
----------------------
• Teaches the internal professional staff and helps them achieve
independence ----------------------

Notes • Provides good customer service
• Protects confidentiality
----------------------
• Challenges assumptions
----------------------
• Is a recognised expert
---------------------- • Provides perspectives and objectivity
---------------------- • Celebrates with internal staff
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 1. The multiple roles played by the change agent include
---------------------- i. Leader and facilitator
ii. Negotiator and advisor
----------------------
iii. Friend and philosopher
---------------------- iv. Arbitrator and adjudicator
---------------------- 2. External change agents
i. Include consultants, advisors and researchers
----------------------
ii. Are not regular employees of the organisation
---------------------- iii. Are experts of psychology, OB, HRM and Business
---------------------- Administration
iv. Are responsible to change external business environment
----------------------
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of internal
---------------------- change agents?
i. They are readily available whenever required by the organisation
---------------------- with no additional cost
---------------------- ii. They have established relationships with organisational
members
----------------------
iii. They always enjoy more credibility as compared to the external
---------------------- change agents and have vast OD experience
iv. They understand the organisational philosophy, jargons and
---------------------- customs
---------------------- 4. The ideal OD consultant:
i. Propagates defensive behavior
----------------------
ii. Provides perspectives and objectivity
---------------------- iii. Protects confidentiality
---------------------- iv. Always tries to be an integral part of day-to-day functioning of
the organisation
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
Visit the websites of big multinational organisations such as IBM, GE, GM
----------------------
to understand their people management practices and their efforts towards
OD through in-house staff and activities. Analyse the requirements of ----------------------
external consultant, if any.
----------------------
----------------------
10.4 COMPETENCIES OF AN OD CONSULTANT
----------------------
Many organisations have discovered that hiring an OD Consultant to lead
a change effort is more complex than hiring a lawyer for legal consultation or an ----------------------
economist for financial forecasting. Unlike other consultants, professionals who ----------------------
will serve as OD Consultants need to have a broad range of competencies that,
unfortunately, do not come with prestigious academic or business credentials ----------------------
alone. Hiring an unsuccessful OD consultant is usually the result of faulty
selection and evaluation procedures. Organisations are much more likely to hire ----------------------
the wrong kind of OD consultant if they fail to develop selection criteria unique ----------------------
to their organisation’s needs.
When the wrong consultant is hired, OD programmes often fail to get ----------------------
started or stall midway through the process. The following is a comprehensive ----------------------
list of competencies for a successful OD Consultant. To guide an OD intervention
all the way to successful completion requires a special set of knowledge, skills ----------------------
and abilities.
----------------------
The categorisation of these competencies actually depicts the stages in
the Client-Consultant relationship throughout the OD effort. ----------------------
1. Marketing ----------------------
An effective organisation development (OD) practitioner can:
----------------------
• Be aware of systems wanting to change
----------------------
• Be known to those needing you
----------------------
• Match skills with potential client profile
• Convey qualifications in a credible manner ----------------------
• Quickly grasp the nature of the system ----------------------
• Determine appropriate decision makers ----------------------
• Determine appropriate processes
----------------------
2. Enrolling
----------------------
An effective Organisation Development (OD) practitioner can:
• Build trusting relationships ----------------------
• Present the theoretical foundations of change ----------------------

Notes • Deal effectively with resistance
• Help the client trust the process
----------------------
• Help the client manage emotionally charged feelings
----------------------
• Collaboratively design the change process
---------------------- 3. Contracting
---------------------- An effective organisation development (OD) practitioner can:
---------------------- • Contract psychologically for collaboration
• Help the client reflect on motivation
----------------------
• Clarify outcomes
----------------------
• Build realistic expectations
---------------------- • Conduct a mini-assessment
---------------------- • Identify the boundary of systems to be changed
---------------------- • Articulate an initial change process to use
• Explicate ethical boundaries
----------------------
• Confirm commitment of resources
----------------------
• Identify critical success factors for the intervention
---------------------- • Clarify the role of consultant
---------------------- • Clarify the role of client
---------------------- • Begin to lay out an evaluation model
4. Mini Assessment
----------------------
----------------------
• Further clarify real issues
---------------------- • Be aware of how one’s biases influence interaction
---------------------- • Link change effort into ongoing organisational processes
---------------------- • Identify formal power
• Identify informal power
----------------------
5. Data Gathering
----------------------
---------------------- • Determine an appropriate data collection process
---------------------- • Determine the type of data needed
---------------------- • Determine the amount of data needed
• Utilise appropriate mix of methods to ensure efficiency
----------------------
• Utilise appropriate mix of methods to ensure objectivity
----------------------

• Utilise appropriate mix of methods to ensure validity Notes
• Utilise appropriate mix of data collection technology
----------------------
• Clarify boundaries for confidentiality
----------------------
• Select a process that will facilitate openness
• Gather data to identify future states ----------------------
6. Diagnosis ----------------------
An effective organisation development (OD) practitioner can: ----------------------
• Gather data to identify initial first steps of transition
----------------------
• watch for deeper issues as data is gathered
----------------------
• Suspend judgment while gathering data
• Know when enough data has been gathered ----------------------
• Suppress judgment while gathering data ----------------------

• Use statistical methods when appropriate ----------------------
• Recognise what is relevant
----------------------
• Know how data from different parts of the system impact each other
----------------------
• Communicate implications of systems theory
• Continuously assess the issues as they surface ----------------------
• Stay focused on the purpose of the consultancy ----------------------

• Utilise a solid conceptual framework based on research ----------------------
7. Feedback
----------------------
----------------------
• Prepare leadership for the truth
• Involve participants so they begin to own the process ----------------------
• Synthesise the data gathered into themes ----------------------

• Create a non-threatening atmosphere ----------------------
• Facilitate complex emotional patterns
----------------------
8. Planning
----------------------
• Distill recommendations from the data ----------------------
• Focus action that generates high impact at lowest cost ----------------------

• Consider creative alternatives ----------------------
• Mentally rehearse adverse consequences
----------------------
• Mentally rehearse potential gains
----------------------

Notes 9. Participation
----------------------
• Facilitate a participative decision-making process
----------------------
• Obtain direction from leadership
---------------------- • Obtain commitment from leadership
---------------------- • Co-create an implementation plan that is rooted in the data
---------------------- • Co-create an implementation plan that is concrete

• Co-create implementation plan that is simple
----------------------
• Co-create implementation plan that is clear
----------------------
• Co-create implementation plan that logically sequences activities
---------------------- • Co-create implementation plan that is results-oriented
---------------------- • Co-create implementation plan that is measurable
---------------------- • Co-create implementation plan that is rewarded
10. Intervention
----------------------
----------------------
• Reduce dependency upon consultant
---------------------- • Instill responsibility for follow through
---------------------- • Intervene at the right depth
---------------------- • Pay attention to the timing of activities
• Facilitate concurrent interventions
----------------------
• Help manage impact to related systems
----------------------
• Re-design intervention or mindfully respond to new dynamics
---------------------- 11. Evaluation
---------------------- • Integrate research with theory and practice
• Initiate ongoing feedback in client-consultant relationship
----------------------
• Choose appropriate evaluation methods i.e. that is, interviews,
---------------------- instruments, financial sheets to collect evaluation information
---------------------- • Determine level of evaluation such as reaction, learning, behavioural
change, organisational impact, societal impact
----------------------
• Ensure evaluation method is valid
----------------------
• Ensure evaluation is reliable
---------------------- • Ensure evaluation method is practical
----------------------

12. Follow-Up Notes
----------------------
• Establish method to monitor change during the intervention
----------------------
• Establish method to monitor change after the intervention
• Use information to reinforce positive change ----------------------
• Use information to correct negative change ----------------------
• Use information to take next steps ----------------------
• Link evaluation with expected outcomes
----------------------
13. Adoption
----------------------
• Transfer change skills to internal consultant so learning is continuous ----------------------
• Maintain/increase change momentum ----------------------

• Link change process to daily life of system ----------------------
• Mobilise additional internal resources to support continued change
----------------------
• Determine the parts of the organisation that warrant a special focus
of attention ----------------------
• Pay attention to movement back to old behaviours ----------------------
• Move further away from project-driven change to strategy-driven ----------------------
change
• Be sure customers and stakeholders are satisfied with intervention’s ----------------------
results ----------------------
• Plan renewal/reunion events
----------------------
14. Separation
----------------------
• Recognise when separation is desirable ----------------------
• Process any leftover relationship issues between consultant(s) and ----------------------

client
----------------------
• Ensure that learning will continue
----------------------
• Leave the client satisfied
• Plan for post-consultation contact ----------------------
15. Self-Awareness ----------------------
An effective organisation development (OD) practitioner can: ----------------------
• Clarify personal values
----------------------
• Clarify personal boundaries
----------------------

Notes • Manage personal biases
• Manage personal defensiveness
----------------------
• Recognise when personal feelings have been aroused
----------------------
• Remain physically healthy while under stress
---------------------- • Resolve ethical issues with integrity
---------------------- • Avoid getting personal needs met at the expense of the client (i.e.,
financial, emotional, sexual, etc.)
----------------------
• Work within the limits of your capabilities
----------------------
• Perform effectively in an atmosphere of ambiguity
---------------------- • Perform effectively in the midst of chaos
---------------------- 16. Interpersonal

• Develop mutually trusting relationships with others
----------------------
• Solicit feedback from others about your impact on them
----------------------
• Energise others
---------------------- • Collaborate with internal/external OD professional
---------------------- • Balance the needs of multiple relationships
---------------------- • Listens to others

• Pay attention to the spontaneous and informal
----------------------
• Consistently maintain confidentiality
----------------------
• Interpersonally relate to others
---------------------- • Use humour effectively
---------------------- 17. Other

• Interpret cross-cultural influences in a helpful manner
----------------------
• Handle diversity and diverse situations skillfully
----------------------
• Communicate directions clearly to large groups
---------------------- • Use the latest technology effectively
---------------------- • Use the internet effectively
---------------------- • Facilitate small group interventions (up to 70)
• Facilitate large group interventions (70-2,000)
----------------------
• Apply the skills of international OD effectively
----------------------
• Function effectively as an internal consultant
----------------------

• Demonstrate ability to conduct trans-organisational development Notes
• Demonstrate ability to conduct community development
----------------------
• Be aware of the influences of cultural dynamics on interactions with
others ----------------------
This is a long list of competencies of an OD Consultant. In order to be ----------------------
successful an OD consultant must acquire a majority of these skills. The most
important matter is his own commitment to bring about the change. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. OD consultants stay focused on the purpose of the consultancy.
----------------------
2. During intervention phase, effective OD practitioners increase
dependency upon consultants. ----------------------
3. During separation phase of client-consultant relationship, OD
----------------------
practitioners can recognise when separating is desirable.
4. It is not possible for an OD practitioner to facilitate concurrent ----------------------
interventions. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
Based on your study on the section above, make a comprehensive list ----------------------
of qualities of a OD consultant in each phase of his association with an
organisation. Analyse his roles and responsibilities in contrast with the ----------------------
internal change agents. ----------------------
----------------------
10.5 THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION
----------------------
DEVELOPMENT CODE OF ETHICS
----------------------
The purpose in developing an International O.D. Code of Ethics is threefold:
----------------------
• To increase professional and ethical consciousness among O.D.
professionals and their sense of ethical responsibility ----------------------
• To guide O.D. professionals in making more informed ethical choices and
----------------------
• To help the O.D. profession itself function at the fullness of its potential.
----------------------
We recognise that for us to exist as profession, a substantial consensus
is necessary among the members of our profession about what we profess ----------------------
particularly our values and ethics. This statement represents a step towards such
a consensus. ----------------------
----------------------

Notes Values of O.D. Professionals
As an O.D. professional, I acknowledge the fundamental importance of the
---------------------- following values both for my profession and myself:
---------------------- • Quality of life - people being satisfied with their whole life experience;
---------------------- • Health, human potential, empowerment, growth and excellence - people

being healthy, aware of the fullness of their potential, recognising their
---------------------- power to bring that potential into being, growing into it, living it, and,
generally, doing the best they can with it, individually and collectively;
----------------------
• Freedom and responsibility - people being free and responsible in
---------------------- choosing how they will live their lives;
• Justice - people living lives whose results are fair and right for everyone;
----------------------
• Dignity, integrity, worth and fundamental rights of individuals,
---------------------- organisations, communities, societies, and other human systems;
---------------------- • All-win attitudes and cooperation - people caring about one another
and about working together to achieve results that work for everyone,
---------------------- individually and collectively;
---------------------- • Authenticity and openness in relationship;
• Effectiveness, efficiency and alignment - people achieving the maximum
---------------------- of desired results, at minimum cost, in ways that coordinate their
---------------------- individual energies and purposes with those of the system-as-a-whole,
the subsystems of which they are parts, and the larger system of which
---------------------- their system is a part;
---------------------- • Holistic, systemic view and stakeholder orientation — understanding

human behaviour from the perspective of whole system(s) that influence
---------------------- and are influenced by that behaviour; recognising the interests that
different people have in the system’s results and valuing those interests
---------------------- fairly and justly;
---------------------- • Wide participation in system affairs, confrontation of issues leading to
effective problem solving, and democratic decision making.
----------------------
---------------------- 10.6 ETHICAL ISSUES AND GUIDELINES FOR OD

PROFESSIONALS
----------------------
Whenever professionals offer advice or intervene in the affairs of
----------------------
individuals, groups, organisations or government agencies, questions arise
---------------------- concerning honesty, fairness and conflict of interests.
Ethics refer to issues or practices that should influence the decision
----------------------
making process in terms of ‘doing the right thing’ In other words, ethics reflect
---------------------- the morals – what is considered right or wrong of a society or a culture.
---------------------- As an OD professional, it is critical that some ethical guidelines are

committed to and followed religiously. The following are some of them: (Source
---------------------- The OD Institute, 1994)

I. Responsibility to Self Notes
A. Act with integrity; be authentic and true to self
----------------------
B. Strive continually for self-knowledge and personal growth
----------------------
C. Recognise personal needs and desires and, when they conflict with
other responsibilities, seek all-win resolutions of those conflicts. ----------------------
D. Assert own economic and financial interests in ways that are fair ----------------------
and equitable to self as well as to clients and their stakeholders.
II. Responsibility for Professional Development and Competence ----------------------
A. Accept responsibility for the consequences of acts and make ----------------------

reasonable efforts to ensure that services are properly used;
terminate services if they are not properly used and do what he / she ----------------------
can to see that any abuses are corrected. ----------------------
B. Strive to achieve and maintain a professional level of competence
----------------------
for both self and profession by developing the full range of own
competence and by establishing collegial and cooperative relations ----------------------
with other OD professionals.
----------------------
C. Recognise own personal needs and desires and deal with them
responsibly in the performance of professional roles. ----------------------
D. Practice within the limits of your competence, culture, and
----------------------
experience in providing services and using techniques.
E. Practice in cultures different from own only with consultation from ----------------------
people native to or knowledgeable about those specific cultures. ----------------------
III. Responsibility to Clients and Significant Others
----------------------
A. Serve the long-term well-being, interests and development of the
client system and all its stakeholders, even when the work being ----------------------
done has a short-term focus.
----------------------
B. Conduct any professional activity, programme or relationship in
ways that are honest, responsible, and appropriately open. ----------------------
C. Establish mutual agreement on a contract covering services and ----------------------
remuneration.
----------------------
D. Deal with conflicts constructively and avoid conflicts of interest as
much as possible. ----------------------
E. Define and protect the confidentiality of client-professional ----------------------
relationships.
F. Make public statements of all kinds accurately, including promotion ----------------------
and advertising, and give service as advertised. ----------------------
IV. Responsibility to the Profession
----------------------
A. Contribute to continuing professional development for self, other
practitioners, and the profession. ----------------------

Notes B. Promote the sharing of OD knowledge and skill.
C. Work with other OD professionals in ways that are exemplary of
----------------------
what our profession says we stand for.
---------------------- D. Work actively for ethical practice by individuals and organisations
engaged in OD activities and, in case of questionable practice, use
----------------------
appropriate channels for dealing with it.
---------------------- E. Act in ways that bring credit to the OD profession and with due
regard for colleagues in other professions.
----------------------
V. Social Responsibility
----------------------
A. Act with sensitivity to the fact that ‘my’ recommendations and
---------------------- actions may alter the lives and well-being of people within client
systems and the larger systems of which they are subsystems.
----------------------
B. Act with awareness of the cultural filters which affect your view
---------------------- of the world. Respect cultures different from my own, and be
sensitive to cross-cultural and multicultural differences and their
---------------------- implications.
---------------------- C. Promote justice and serve the well-being of all life on Earth.
---------------------- D. Recognise that accepting this Statement as a guide for one’s
behaviour involves holding myself to a standard that may be more
---------------------- exacting than the laws of any countries in which I practice, the
guidelines of any professional.
----------------------
---------------------- 10.7 ISSUES IN CONSULTANT - CLIENT RELATIONSHIP

---------------------- A number of interrelated issues can arise in Consultant –Client relationships
in OD activities and they need to be managed properly if adverse effects are to
----------------------
be avoided. The important areas are as under:
---------------------- • Entry and Contracting
---------------------- • Defining the Client System
---------------------- • Trust
• The nature of Consultant’s expertise
----------------------
There are no standard solutions to these problems. But some common
---------------------- areas are explained below:
---------------------- Entry and Contracting: Normally, a Chief Executive Officer makes a
telephonic call to the Consultant. During the discussion a brief description of
---------------------- some problems and how the expertise of the consultant can be made use of in
the process is assessed. During the face to face meeting the consultant explores
----------------------
with the potential client some of the deeper aspects of the problem. He also
---------------------- assesses the pattern of communications, overall relationships and management
intentions.
----------------------

Then in the next meeting they decide how and when to launch OD Notes
intervention, number of people to be involved to begin with and so on. Initial
programme is decided with assurance from the core team to render proper co- ----------------------
operation and support. The consultant has to give assurance that the information
received by him will be strictly confidential. The formal compensation aspects ----------------------
of the initial contract are also important and need to be clarified. The scope and ----------------------
tenure of OD activities should be clearly spelt out. Other terms and conditions, if
any should also be clarified. Contracting is repetitive and continually renewable. ----------------------
Defining the Client System ----------------------
It is necessary to define as to who the client is? The client may be an
----------------------
individual or a management team. The preferable model to begin with is a
single person or a small group of three to four persons. As the progress in OD ----------------------
activities takes place, additional persons could be involved. The key aspect is
development of trust and confidence. ----------------------
Another model is to begin with the top management team for example ----------------------
CEO, Vice President of Human Resources or another Vice President. Another
model is to have a steering committee comprised of representatives of different ----------------------
levels and functional areas.
----------------------
‘Who the client is’ has more to do with interactions, interrelationships,
and interfaces than to specific persons or units. This is a tremendously useful ----------------------
concept. ----------------------
The Trust Issue
----------------------
A good deal of interaction in early contacts between client and consultant
is implicitly related to developing a relationship of mutual trust. Initially, the ----------------------
client is always conscious that the matter discussed may become public with
the outsider intervening in the system. Subordinates may be concerned that ----------------------
they will be manipulated toward their superior’s goals with little attention to ----------------------
their own problem. This can be taken care of with the passage of time. The
consultant has to start with neutrality and understand the client’s motives and ----------------------
bring to the surface those which are hidden. Any fear of punishment will lead to
failures. ----------------------
There may be good performers and bad performers. Since all of them have ----------------------
to be involved the consultant cannot show favouritism to a few individuals.
----------------------
Similarly the consultant and core team should not unnecessarily demonstrate
that they are more superior than others. Confidentiality must be maintained ----------------------
in all the circumstances. Even unintentional errors can destroy Consultant-
Client relationship. The role of the consultant has to be clear. He should not ----------------------
be involved in any administrative matters. Certain matters may not be made
----------------------
public. The type of communication from the consultant should be well planned
to avoid undesired implications. ----------------------
The Nature of the Consultant’s Expertise
----------------------
The client engages the consultant to render expert services. The OD
consultant may be an expert in Personnel policies, or business strategy. The job ----------------------

Notes of a consultant is to present a variety of options. The responsibility of decision
making should not be entrusted to him as it would defeat the basic purpose of
---------------------- OD. He should not spend his time in giving more than minimal reports.
---------------------- Actually, the consultant should try to keep away the role of an expert in
the OD process. This is because:
----------------------
a) His main objective is to help the client build their own resources
---------------------- b) This role requires the consultant to defend his recommendations
---------------------- c) Publicity of confidential reports even internally may create problems
---------------------- d) Client may start expecting more and more

e) Client may form a habit of dependency on consultant
----------------------
To summarise, the consultant should help clients learn without prescribing
---------------------- a particular method. S/He should act in the expert role in the process used and
not on the task. For example, if an organisation is engaged in the exercise of
----------------------
restructuring, the OD consultant may suggest various options involving which
---------------------- of the functions should be clubbed together, who should report to whom and
related matters. However, such intervention should ordinarily be presented in a
---------------------- team situation so as not to be misinterpreted.
---------------------- Since, an OD consultant has more extensive knowledge of management
and Organisation he would be definitely more effective. But there is a difference
---------------------- between being essentially a facilitator-educator and being essentially an advice-
giver.
----------------------
Miscellaneous Issues
----------------------
a) Diagnosis and appropriate interventions
---------------------- Another pitfall for the consultant is the temptation to apply the intervention
---------------------- he or she likes and which has produced good results in the past. Sometimes
thorough diagnosis may not suggest so. There need not, for example, be
---------------------- overemphasis on one technique. Members should not develop defensive
mechanisms in the process. Hence, selecting and designing for a particular
---------------------- organisation is a skilled job.
---------------------- b) Depth of Intervention
---------------------- This is one of the major aspects of intervention. Depth of interventions
can be ascertained using concepts of accessibility and individuality.
---------------------- Accessibility means the degree to which data are more or less public versus
being hidden or private and the ease with which intervention skills can be
----------------------
learned. Individuality means closeness to the person’s perception of self
---------------------- and degree to which the effects of an intervention are in the individual
rather than to the organisation.
----------------------
Hence, at first it is advisable to intervene at a level which can provide
---------------------- solutions to the problems at hand. Secondly, keep energy resources of the
client in mind
----------------------

c) Getting absorbed in the culture of the organisation. Notes
One of the mistakes which is likely to occur in the process is that the
----------------------
consultant may himself become habitual to the culture of the client
organisation. Sometimes he may get affected by the personal talks ----------------------
and feelings of various groups. Such opinions may have an effect on
the intervention process. Also during the intervention process, the ----------------------
organisation may take administrative decisions. Normally these should
----------------------
not affect intervention process.
d) Consultant as a model ----------------------
Another important issue is whether change agents are willing and able ----------------------
to practice what they preach. For example, a consultant may advocate
openness and keeping his own feelings secret. This would have a definite ----------------------
effect on the feeling of competency. There is no need to be emotional and
----------------------
be too involved. But being too aloof emotionally will tend to minimise
the possibilities of helping the client. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. An effective OD practitioner can transfer _____________ skills to
internal consultant, so learning is continuous. ----------------------
2. Issues or practices that should influence the decision-making process
----------------------
in terms of ‘doing the right things’ are referred to as _____________.
3. In order to build the trust with the client, the consultant must maintain ----------------------
_____________ in all circumstances.
----------------------
4. A consultant should be a facilitator-educator rather than a person
offering _____________. ----------------------
5. The main objective of the OD consultant is to help the client build ----------------------
their own _____________.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
Collect information of few OD consulting firms and if possible interact ----------------------

with the OD practitioners to understand the way they deal with different
----------------------
organisations and what difficulties they experience while dealing with the
ethical issues related to their professional vis-à-vis social responsibilities. ----------------------
Prepare a brief report for your enhanced understanding.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 10.8 THE DEPENDENCY ISSUE AND TERMINATING THE
RELATIONSHIP
----------------------
---------------------- OD consultant has to help the client system acquire skills and insights,
rather than making an organisation dependent on him. It is desired that the role
---------------------- of a consultant is not traditional consultancy. The consultant should facilitate
learning. As soon as OD efforts reach maturity, OD consultant should plan
---------------------- for gradual reduction. In large organisations one or more consultants may be
---------------------- retained in an ongoing relationship, but with less frequent use. If the consultants
are constantly developing their skills, they can continue to make innovative
---------------------- contributions.
---------------------- The consultants should sense that his or her assistance is no more
required. Then he should take up the matter with the client. Some of the OD
---------------------- efforts need rejuvenation. OD efforts frequently flounder because of internal
power struggles that have not been sensed early enough by the consultant or
---------------------- understood well enough for anyone to intervene constructively. The threat
---------------------- may be the practitioner, the OD effort or may not be wholly unrelated to OD
process. If the people in the organisation get caught up in the political power
---------------------- maneuvering the OD efforts may be immobilised.
---------------------- Such situations are to be confronted head on. A long term OD effort should
replace most such covert maneuvering with open working through issues.
----------------------
----------------------
10.9 IMPLICATIONS OF OD FOR THE CLIENT
---------------------- Earlier in this unit, we have examined relationships between the client
and the consultant. In this section, let us examine implications of OD for the
---------------------- client. As observed an OD is an effort initiated by the top management for
organisational growth. Since major policy-making and decision making lies
---------------------- in this cadre, its importance need not be explained again. What do the Chief
---------------------- Executive Officer and Top managerial Team gain from OD? Important features
are summarised here:
---------------------- 1. Data base for Management decisions: The OD process creates a large
---------------------- data base for management decisions. Especially expertise, perceptions
and sentiments of team members throughout the organisation are more
---------------------- extensively considered than before.
---------------------- To expand the Influence Process: The OD process leads to further
process of influence. Managers and subordinates influence each other.
----------------------
2. Capitalisation of Strength: OD efforts help in capitalising the strength
---------------------- of the informal system through various interventions. It also helps in
making formal and informal systems more congruent. Individuals have
---------------------- a lot of potential information on Appreciations, Frustrations etc. These
energies used in suppressing are rechanneled into cooperative effort.
----------------------
----------------------

3. To become more responsive: Managements become more responsive to Notes
data which gets generated and move towards improving organisational
health. ----------------------
4. Conflict Resolution: It helps in reducing conflicts. Avoids win-lose ----------------------
situations and creates a sense of co-operation. Problems get solved
through understanding and negotiation. ----------------------
5. Examine Leadership Style: The process can examine its own leadership ----------------------
style and ways of managing. Success is the ultimate aim and hence any
style that does not produce results or produces adverse results are to be ----------------------
properly taken care of.
----------------------
6.
To legitimatise and encourage the collaborative management: It
improves collaboration, develops team-work and helps in building an ----------------------
altogether new culture.
----------------------
These are the some of the many advantages management can have through
OD interventions. It is necessary that the OD Consultant be clear about ----------------------
them since the beginning and to help the top management group to be ----------------------
clear about them as the process unfolds.
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● Change agents are the people with the responsibility for implementing
----------------------
change in an organisation. They can be classified into two categories as
Internal Change Agents and External change agents. ----------------------
●● A trusting relationship helps the consultant deal with the challenges posed
----------------------
by those who are uncomfortable or in disagreement with the change effort,
and the consultants’ style and values are the key factors in establishing ----------------------
trust and making relationships successful.
----------------------
●● To guide an OD intervention all the way to successful completion requires
a special set of knowledge, skills and abilities on the part of OD consultant. ----------------------
●● Every consultant must follow the code of ethics prescribed by the
----------------------
International OD. It prescribes value system, ethical issues, responsibilities
towards clients, professional development and self. ----------------------
●● Finally, we have studied when the consultant should exit and the post exit
relationships. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Change Agents: Persons entrusted with the responsibility of bringing
----------------------
about change in the organisation
●● Competencies: Basic key qualities required for any position ----------------------
●● Code of ethics: A set of activities which should and should not be done ----------------------
with reference to moral values related to any business or any other activity
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1. Illustrate comparative benefits of Internal and External Change Agents.
---------------------- 2. Explain the important qualities that a consultant should have to make any
OD programme successful.
----------------------
3. Discuss the moral responsibilities of an OD Consultant at the end of a
---------------------- programme.
---------------------- 4. Explain in brief the learning of an OD programme from the management
point of view.
----------------------


1. The multiple roles played by the change agent include
----------------------
i. Leader and facilitator
----------------------
ii. Negotiator and advisor
---------------------- 2. External change agents
---------------------- i. Include consultants, advisors and researchers
---------------------- ii. Are not regular employees of the organisation

iii. Are experts of psychology, OB, HRM and Business Administration
----------------------
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of internal change
---------------------- agents?
---------------------- i. They are readily available whenever required by the organisation
with no additional cost
----------------------
ii. They have established relationships with organisational members
---------------------- iv. They understands the organisational philosophy, jargons and
---------------------- customs
4. The ideal OD consultants:
----------------------
ii. Provides perspectives and objectivity
----------------------
iii. Protects confidentiality
---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. True
2. False
----------------------
3. True
----------------------
4. False
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. An effective OD practitioner can transfer change skills to internal
consultant, so learning is continuous. ----------------------
2. Issues or practices that should influence the decision-making process in ----------------------
terms of ‘doing the right things’ are referred to as ethics.
----------------------
3. In order to build the trust with the client, the consultant must maintain
confidentiality in all circumstances. ----------------------
4. A consultant should be a facilitator-educator rather than a person offering ----------------------
advice.
5. The main objective of the OD consultant is to help the client build their ----------------------
own resources. ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Cummings and Worley. 1997. Organization Development and Change.
South-Western Publishing. ----------------------
& Co. ----------------------
3. Van Eynde (Editor), Judith C. Hoy (Editor), Dixie cod Van Eynde, Dixie ----------------------
Cody Van Eynde (Editor). 1997. Organization Development Classics:
The Practice and Theory of Change -- The Best of the OD Practitioner. ----------------------
Jossey-Bass.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Power and Politics and Organisation Development
UNIT
11
Structure:
11.1 Meaning and Definition of Power

11.2 Bases of Power
11.3 Organisational Politics
11.4 Diagnosing Political Power in Organisations
11.5 Power Tactics
11.6 The Role of Power and Politics in the Practice of OD
11.7 Operating in a Political Environment
Summary
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Power and Politics and Organisation Development 217

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
●● Explain the concept of Power and Politics in an organisation
---------------------- ●● Evaluate the bases of power and the power tactics in organisations
---------------------- ●● Justify the role of Power and Politics in the context of Organisation
Development initiatives
----------------------
●● Analyse the methods to diagnose political power in organisations
---------------------- ●● Formulate the strategies for an OD consultant to operate in a political
---------------------- environment
----------------------
11.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF POWER
----------------------
Power and politics are indisputable facts of social and organisational life.
----------------------
Since these cannot be avoided the wise thing is to use it in such a way that it
---------------------- least affects the effectiveness of an organisation. Hence, in this unit, we will
analyse various facts related to this subject.
---------------------- The OD practitioner needs both awareness of (knowledge) and
competence (skill) in the field Organisational Power and Politics. The use of
----------------------
power is essential in effecting a change.
---------------------- Let us first understand exact meaning of Power
Power: It is an intentional influence over the beliefs, emotions and
----------------------
behaviour of people. Potential power is the capacity to do so and kinetic power
---------------------- is the act of doing so. It can also be defined as a capacity that A has to influence
the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.
---------------------- In simple words, we take it as a capacity to effect organisational outcomes.
The phenomenon of power is ubiquitous. Without influence, there would be no
----------------------
cooperation and no society. This power is observed in all fields: Political, Religious,
---------------------- Social, Technological, Financial, Spiritual and organisational activities.
Leading, influencing, selling, persuading- are some examples of the
---------------------- positive use of power. Crushing, forcing, hurting, coercing etc. are the negative
---------------------- examples of power. Power by itself is neither good nor bad. Many problems of
power stem from personal goals of persons holding power.
---------------------- The importance of Power is well recognised even in Indian Mythology. Devi
(Goddess) has been treated as the source of power called popularly as Shakti. Hence,
---------------------- we talk of Supernatural power, mental power, Adhyatmic power etc. Old saints used
---------------------- to go to Himalayas to acquire such power. It is a source of energy. Performing Pooja,
Yagnya, Hawan, Fasting are also taken as sources of gaining power.
----------------------
11.2 BASES OF POWER
----------------------
Power exists virtually in all social situations. It has two faces: positive
---------------------- and negative.

Negative power is characterised by human need for domination. It is a Notes
primitive and unsocialised need.
Positive Power is a power to initiate, influence and lead, guide, motivate. ----------------------
There are several ways to look at power in an organisation. One of the ways ----------------------
is to categorise power into two forms – Positional Power and Personal Power.
Positional power is that which one acquires because of holding a particular ----------------------
position. Personal power is individual and is related to one’s personality.
----------------------
Important sources of power as suggested by some authors or bases of
power are given below: ----------------------
1. Reward Power: It is based on the ability of the power holder to distribute ----------------------
rewards that others view as valuable.
2. Coercive Power: This is based on the ability of power holder to punish ----------------------
another. It is dependent on fear. ----------------------
3. Legitimate Power: The power a person receives as a result of his / her
position in the formal organisation. It means lawful power. ----------------------
4. Information Power: Power that comes from access to and control over ----------------------
information. The power holder knows important facts or information that
is needed by the other. ----------------------
5. Expert Power: Influence based on special skills and knowledge of the ----------------------
person. The power holder has expert knowledge in the field.
6. Referent Power: Influence based on possession by an individual of ----------------------
desirable resources or personal traits. It is also an attraction of the power ----------------------
receiver towards the power holder.
7. Charismatic Power: An extension of referent power stemming from an ----------------------
individual’s personality and interpersonal style.
----------------------
Due to this dichotomy between position and personal power, power
relationships in organisations are rarely straightforward. In one study (Pfeffer ----------------------
and Konrad) for example, workers who had access to more social communication
had greater power and higher wages, suggesting position plays an important ----------------------
role in power. ----------------------
On the other hand, in a survey of 216 CEOs, (Stewart, 1989) 28%
believed that their power came from their position, whereas 83% believed that ----------------------
their power is based in their personalities. ----------------------
Not surprisingly, experienced OD practitioners rarely make assumptions
about power based on organisational charts alone since charts of positions tell ----------------------
nothing about the people who occupy those positions.
----------------------
Today, most OD professionals recognise that the field of OD has been
slow to appreciate the importance of the role that power plays in organisational ----------------------
change. Although consultants have become experts in diagnosing problems
and developing interventions to address those problems, they are much less ----------------------
sophisticated about addressing power issues in organizational culture. However, ----------------------
every OD consultant will be able to explain how power in organizations have
enabled or constrained the change efforts in the organisation. ----------------------

Notes Not surprisingly, when influential individuals are opposed to a change
effort, the work of the consultant is greatly complicated. In many cases, the
---------------------- opposition to change is not expressed directly. Instead, managers use Power
Tactics to influence the outcome of an intervention. Conversely, the support of
---------------------- powerful people greatly facilitates a change effort and one of the first rules for
successful organisational consulting is always to have the support of powerful
----------------------
managers when directing a change effort.
----------------------
11.3 ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS
----------------------
There are many definitions of politics. Only a few of them have been cited
----------------------
here. Organisational politics involve those activities taken within organisations
---------------------- to acquire, develop and use power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred
outcomes in a situation in which there is uncertainty about choices.
----------------------
Harold Laswell defined politics simply as the study of who gets what,
---------------------- when and how. Organisational Politics involve those activities of influence to
enhance or protect the self interest of individuals or groups.
----------------------
Politics is a subset of power. It is informal power illegitimate in nature.
---------------------- These definitions suggest that power and politics are similar in nature. Both
relate to influence. Politics involves self-interest. Pursuit of unsanctioned
---------------------- organisational goals and use of unsanctioned, organizational means are the
---------------------- examples of negative politics. It is illegitimate use of authority, information
or resources. Organisational politics tend to be associated with the decision
---------------------- making resource allocation and conflict resolution. The pattern of decision-
making could be bureaucratic, rational or political.
----------------------

---------------------- Match the following.
---------------------- i. Reward power a. Power that comes from access to and
control over important facts and figures
---------------------- needed by other
---------------------- ii. Coercive power b. The power a person receives as a
result of his/her position in the formal
----------------------
organization
---------------------- c. It is based on the ability of power holder
to distribute something that others view
----------------------
iii. Legitimate power as valuable
---------------------- iv. Information power d. This is based on the ability of power
holder to threaten / punish other. It is
----------------------
dependent on fear
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
Write your own views on Organisational Politics in about 20 lines. Classify
----------------------
them as either positive or negative.
----------------------
----------------------
11.4 DIAGNOSING POLITICAL POWER IN ----------------------
ORGANISATIONS
----------------------
When an internal or external consultant enters an organisational setting,
----------------------
knowing who has power and source of that power increases the probability
of a successful intervention. At the same time, the probability of success is ----------------------
increased by the consultant’s accurate assessment of his or her own power.
----------------------
The following points provide some guidelines to the consultants for
evaluating their own levels of influence: ----------------------
Although OD practitioners can use a variety of tactics to increase ----------------------
their power with the organisational settings, the process of personal power
enhancement will be more effective if the consultant understands the existing ----------------------
power relationships within the organisation. One way to understand the power
dynamics is to perform a political diagnosis just as conducting an issues ----------------------
diagnosis to identify problem areas is useful. ----------------------
At the level of the individual, there are at least three diagnostic approaches
for assessing power. ----------------------
Position Analysis: Position Analysis focuses on jobs and responsibilities of ----------------------

an individual with the organisation. Starting with organisational chart, the
OD practitioner makes an estimate of the personal power of key individuals. ----------------------
In addition, he or she attempts to determine the linkages of the individuals ----------------------
in question with people outside the organisation. A person who represents
the company to a regulatory body, for example, and has access to powerful ----------------------
people outside the company, is likely to have considerable power within the
organisation as well. ----------------------
Reputational Analysis: Reputational Analysis is based on the idea that ----------------------

powerful people are known to others, and one way to gauge power is to ask
----------------------
about an individual’s reputation. Although this could be subjective the view
of people who hold power, this provides more information than studying ----------------------
an organisational chart. More than one person can be asked to improve the
reliability of reputational analysis. ----------------------
Decision Analysis: Decision Analysis attempts to identify people who have ----------------------
directly influenced decisions on organisational issues. Although members of
complex organisations make hundreds of decisions daily, only a few decisions ----------------------
are really important in terms of power and politics. The typical important
----------------------

Notes decisions revolve around issues like budgets, re-organisation and key personnel
decisions. In studying the decision process, informal decision-makers such
---------------------- as those who provide information to decision-making process also need to be
considered.
----------------------

---------------------- 1. According to Harold Laswell, the study of who gets what, when and
how may be called ________.
----------------------
2. The analysis, which focuses on jobs and responsibilities of individuals
---------------------- within the organization, is known as ________ analysis.
---------------------- 3. When it is not possible to express opposition to change, managers use

_____ tactics to influence the outcome of an intervention.
----------------------
4. At the level of the individual, there are three diagnostic approaches
---------------------- for assessing power, i.e., position analysis, decision analysis and
____________ analysis.
----------------------
5. Crushing, forcing, hurting, coercing etc. are the _______ examples of
---------------------- power.
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 2
---------------------- Visit few government organizations to analyse the significance of the
legitimate power and information power vested in government officials.
----------------------
Make a note of the way it affects the overall organizational functioning.
----------------------
---------------------- 11.5 POWER TACTICS

---------------------- As suggested earlier, OD consultants: both internal and external often
---------------------- enter situations with power. Regardless of its basis, the power of an external
consultant is usually weak. According to Schein, managers use three types
---------------------- of tactics to accomplish their goals. Using Social Networks requires building
alliances and coalitions, gaining access to top decisions makers and relying
---------------------- on contacts for information. It is interesting to note that dealing directly with
---------------------- decision-makers was the tactic, which sometimes succeeded and failed the rest
of the times.
----------------------
1. Playing It Straight refers to using information to convince others, paying
---------------------- particular attention to the needs of certain groups and being persistent.
2. Going around the Formal System refers to finding strategies to overcome
----------------------
roadblocks to accomplish goals. This strategy often requires relying on
---------------------- reputation, charisma or professional credibility to succeed.

Table 11.1: Power Base and Power Strategy Connection Notes
Individuals Power Bases Strategies for success
----------------------
l Knowledge l Playing it straight
Expertise Use datato convince ----------------------
Information Focus on target group
Tradition Be persistent ----------------------
l Other’s support l Using Social Networks
----------------------
Political Access Alliances and coalitions
Staff support Deal with decision maker ----------------------
Contacts for information
l Personality l Going around formal system ----------------------
Charisma Work around road blocks
Reputation (Don’t) use organisational rules ----------------------
Professional credibility ----------------------
Many researchers have studied the tactics individuals use to become
powerful in organisations. Some of the most common tactics include the ----------------------
following: ----------------------
1. Forming coalitions and alliances: As suggested above, this is probably
----------------------
the most common way to gain influence among the organisational
members. ----------------------
2. Controlling access to individuals: Members who are able to control
----------------------
contact with higher executives typically become very influential with the
organisation. For this reason, secretaries and administrative assistants to ----------------------
senior managers often have power far beyond their position power.
----------------------
3. Controlling access to information and other resources: When people
are dependent on others for access to information and any other resources ----------------------
necessary to do their jobs, they are in a weak position. Again, people who
hold positions of low status can gain considerable power by controlling ----------------------
access to critical information and resources. In general, people who ----------------------
control budgets are more powerful.
4. Setting the Agenda: One of the easiest ways to be powerful, is to make ----------------------
certain that issues that diminish personal influence never arise in the ----------------------
organisation. Powerful people maintain their power by seeing that only
certain issues are discussed. A powerful person may also determine the ----------------------
criteria by which his or her performance will be evaluated; what issues
are raised in meetings and who is invited to organizational events. ----------------------
5. Attacking others: Another way to become powerful is to find someone ----------------------

else to blame mistakes on. In highly political environments, depreciating
the achievements of others is a common strategy for making oneself more ----------------------
powerful. ----------------------
6. Managing the impression one makes: This may involve becoming
----------------------
associated with organisational successes and distanced from failures,
associating with the “right” people, or managing the way one dresses, ----------------------

Notes behaves and speaks. One tactics of impression management is to give the
appearance of being indispensable by becoming highly visible within the
---------------------- organisation.
---------------------- The successful use of power tactics alone will not, of course, create a
successful intervention. OD practitioners must have an excellent command
---------------------- of intervention techniques as well as the interpersonal skills and influence
to have these techniques accepted by organizational members. In most
----------------------
situations, however, acceptance is, at least, in part, a political process.
----------------------
11.6 THE ROLE OF POWER AND POLITICS IN THE
----------------------
PRACTICE OF OD
----------------------
Let us now examine the role of power and politics in an Organisation
---------------------- Development.
---------------------- OD was founded on the belief that using methods of behavioural science
to increase collaborative problem solving would increase both organisational
---------------------- effectiveness and individual well-being.
To increase collaborative problem solving is to increase the positive face
----------------------
of power and decrease the negative face of power. Thus, from its inception,
---------------------- OD addressed issues of power and politics by proposing that collaboration,
cooperation and joint problem solving are better ways to get things done in
---------------------- organisations than relying solely on bargaining and politics.
---------------------- Virtually, all OD interventions promote problem solving, not politics as a
preferred way to get things accomplished.
---------------------- OD interventions increase problem solving, collaboration, cooperation,
---------------------- fact-finding and effective pursuit of goals while decreasing reliance on negative
power and politics.
---------------------- OD interventions do not deny or attempt to abolish the reality of power in
---------------------- organisations rather they enhance the positive face of power.
OD values are consistent with the positive face of power. Values such as
---------------------- trust, openness, collaboration, individual dignity and promoting individual and
organisational competence are a part of foundation of OD. Power equalisation
----------------------
has long been described as one of the values of OD.
---------------------- The role of OD practitioner is that of a facilitator, catalyst, problem solver
and educator. He / She is not a political adviser or power broker.
----------------------
The facilitator or educator role is incompatible with a political activist role
---------------------- because cooperation requires one set of behaviours and competition requires
another set altogether.
----------------------
The OD practitioner has three primary tasks
---------------------- a) To generate valid, useful information
---------------------- b) To promote free, informed choice and
c) To help promote the client’s internal commitment to the choices made
----------------------
Organisational members are free to accept or reject the practitioner.
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
1. Collaboration and joint problem solving are better ways to get things
done in organizations than relying solely on bargaining and politics. ----------------------
2. The first rule for successful organization consulting is always to have ----------------------
the support of trade union when directing a change effort irrespective
of management’s wishes. ----------------------
3. People who hold positions of low status can gain considerable power ----------------------
by controlling access to critical information and resources.
----------------------
4. One of the easiest ways to be powerful is to make certain that issues
that diminish personal influence never arise in the organization. ----------------------
5. OD consultants need not get involved in the strategic management ----------------------
process to focus on issues critical to organizational success.
----------------------
6. Politics is a subset of power.
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
----------------------
People resist change and tend to create political environment. Make a list of
the probable difficulties faced by the OD practitioners while operating in a ----------------------
political environment.
----------------------
----------------------
11.7 OPERATING IN A POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
----------------------
This section provides some general observations on operating in a political
environment. Michael Beer has identified means by which an OD group can ----------------------
gain and wield power during its change efforts in an organisation. ----------------------
1. Competence: Demonstrated competence is the most important source of
power, acceptability and ability to gain organisational support. ----------------------
2.
Political access and sensitivity: Cultivating and nurturing multiple ----------------------
relationships with key power figures in the organisation will ensure timely
----------------------
information and multiple sources of support.
3. Sponsorship: OD groups will gain power to the extent they have ----------------------
sponsorship, preferably multiple sponsorship in powerful places. This has
----------------------
been recognised under the term “get top level support for the programme”.
4. Stature and Credibility: Beer notes that power accrues to those who ----------------------
have been successful and effective. Success leads to credibility and
----------------------
stature. Early successes in the OD programme and its usefulness to key
managers of the organisation help promote this reputation. ----------------------

Notes 5. Resource Management: Power accrues to those who control resources-
in this case, the resources of OD expertise and ability to help organisational
---------------------- sub units solve their pressing problems.
---------------------- 6. Group Support: If the OD group is strong internally, it will be strong
externally. If the OD group is cohesive and free of internal dissention, it
---------------------- will gain power.
---------------------- The OD practitioner should learn as much as possible about bargaining,

negotiations, and nature of power and politics, the strategy and tactics of power
---------------------- and the behaviour and characteristics of power-holders.
---------------------- Advice to OD practitioners who want to operate more effectively in a

political environment
---------------------- Rule 1: Become a desired commodity, both as a person and as a professional.
---------------------- Becoming a desired commodity as a person means being interpersonally
competent and trustworthy. Skills such as listening, communicating, problem
---------------------- solving, coaching, counselling and showing appreciation for the strengths of
others are components of interpersonal competence. Making oneself a desired
---------------------- commodity as a professional is related to the issues of competence, stature
and credibility as articulated by Beer. Good OD consultants are experts on
----------------------
organisation, people and change.
---------------------- Rule 2: Make the OD programme itself a desired commodity OD
programmes become desired commodities when they are instruments that allow
----------------------
individuals and organisations to reach their goals. OD programmes should be
---------------------- result oriented. Another way to make this happen is to focus on issues critical to
organisational success. For this, the OD consultants need to get involved in the
---------------------- strategic management process.
---------------------- Rule 3: Make the OD programme a values commodity for multiple powerful
people in the organisation. When the OD programme serves the needs of top
---------------------- executives, it gains an aura of respect and protection that sets it above most
political games. Being of value to multiple power holders rather than a single
---------------------- one increases support and reduces the likelihood that the programme will
---------------------- become the target of political activities.
Rule 4: Create win-win solutions: The nature of organisation and the nature of
---------------------- OD suggest this rule. Organisations are social systems in which members have
both a history and a future of interacting. Effective conflict management techniques
----------------------
are required to enhance stable constructive relationships. Most OD interventions
---------------------- promote win-win solutions for conflict resolutions. OD professionals who are
skilled in conflict management techniques and OD programmes that encompass
---------------------- conflict resolution activities become valued commodities.
---------------------- The preceding rules describe ways to increase or solidify one’s own power
base. The following rules describe ways to avoid becoming involved in one’s
---------------------- own or in others’ political struggles. Each is derived from one general principle:
Mind your own business.
----------------------
Rule 5: Mind your own business, which is to help someone else solve his
---------------------- or her major problems. Sometimes OD practitioners overlook that others hire

them, usually managers, to help them achieve their own goals and solve their Notes
problems. The OD programme belongs to the manager, not the OD consultant.
A valuable by-product of this fact is that if the programme runs into political ----------------------
turbulence, the manager will vigorously defend it.
----------------------
Rule 6: Mind your own business, which is to be an expert on process not
content. The proper role of OD consultants is to provide decision makers with ----------------------
sound decision making process, not by getting involved in answers to questions
like which goal to pursue, whom to promote, using means X or Y etc. Abiding ----------------------
by this rule keeps the consultant from becoming entangled in politics while
----------------------
at the same time increasing his or her usefulness to the organisation’s power-
holders. The principle is simple but powerful: “Know your legitimate business ----------------------
and stick to it.”
----------------------
Rule 7: Mind your own business because to do otherwise is to invite
political trouble. A subtle phenomenon is involved here: when people engage ----------------------
in illegitimate behaviour, such behaviour is often interpreted as politically
motivated. Illegitimate behaviour encroaches on others’ legitimate turf, which ----------------------
arouses defensive actions.
----------------------
Attention to these rules can save OD practitioners’ time and energy that
can be profitably invested in the OD programme. ----------------------
In summary, an OD Practitioner should incorporate the modern approaches to ----------------------
power by:
●● Building its own power base so that it has access to those who have power. ----------------------
●● Utilising power strategies that are open and above-board to influence the ----------------------
key power holders to accept the use of OD.
----------------------
●● Providing a facilitative process for these power holders.
●● Assisting the power structure to confront and transform itself so that ----------------------
change can be more lasting.
----------------------
●● Upholding the concern and interest of those with less power who are
affected by these changes. ----------------------
There is a four-phase OD process used to take care of power problems: ----------------------
Phase I Consolidating Power to prepare for a change
----------------------
Phase II Focusing Power on Strategic Consensus
----------------------
Phase III Aligning power with structure and people.
Phase IV Releasing power through Leadership and Collaboration. ----------------------
These stages are the means the OD Consultant uses to “take the high ----------------------
road,” build a power base, influence key power holders to accept use of OD,
then utilise a facilitative OD process in which the power holders work on ----------------------
strategic business issues by developing a corporate strategy using consensus
decision making. ----------------------
This will cause the power structure to realise that the collaborative power ----------------------
is preferable to manipulation and deception. This would decide the ultimate
success of the Organisational Development. ----------------------

Notes Summary
---------------------- • Power and politics go hand in hand. Politics is the study of who gets
what, when and how. Organisational Politics involve those activities of
----------------------
influence to enhance or protect the self-interest of individuals or groups.
---------------------- • At the level of the individual, there are at least three diagnostic approaches
for assessing power: Position analysis, Reputational analysis and Decision
----------------------
analysis.
---------------------- • OD interventions increase problem solving, collaboration, cooperation,
fact finding and effective pursuit of goals while decreasing reliance on
----------------------
negative power and politics.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• Power: Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of people.
----------------------
• Politics: Politics is the practice and theory of influencing other people on
---------------------- a global, civic or individual level. More narrowly, it refers to achieving
and exercising positions of governance – organized control
----------------------
• Tactics: In everyday situations, people use a variety of power tactics
---------------------- to push or prompt people into particular action. Some of these tactics
---------------------- include bullying, collaboration, complaining, criticizing, demanding,
disengaging, evading, humour, aspiring, manipulating, negotiating,
---------------------- socializing and supplicating.
----------------------
----------------------
1. What are the different sources of power?
----------------------
2. How does one diagnose political power in organisation?
---------------------- 3. What are different tactics adopted by people to gain power in the organisations?
---------------------- 4. What qualities should an OD practitioner possess to deal with political
situations in OD?
---------------------- 5. Explain guiding principles for OD practitioners when dealing with
---------------------- political situations.

---------------------- Match the following.
i. –c
----------------------
ii. –d
----------------------
iii. –b
---------------------- iv. –a

Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. According to Harold Laswell, the study of who gets what, when and how
may be called Politics. ----------------------
2. The analysis, which focuses on jobs and responsibilities of individuals ----------------------
within the organization, is known as position analysis.
----------------------
3. When it is not possible to express opposition to change, managers use
power tactics to influence the outcome of an intervention. ----------------------
4. At the level of the individual, there are three diagnostic approaches for ----------------------
assessing power, i.e., position analysis, decision analysis and reputational
analysis. ----------------------
5. Crushing, forcing, hurting, coercing etc. are the negative examples of ----------------------
power.
----------------------
1. True ----------------------
2. False ----------------------
3. True
----------------------
4. True
----------------------
5. False
6. False ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bhatia, S.K. Organisation Development and Transformation. New Delhi:
----------------------
2. Brunnings, Halina. Carol Cole, Clare Huffington Ed. A Manual of ----------------------
Organizational Development: The Psychology of Change. London:
----------------------
South-Western Publishing.
----------------------
4. Ramnarayan, S &T V Rao. Organization Development: Accelerating
Learning and Transformation. Sage Publications. ----------------------
5. Singh, Kavita. Organisation Change and Development. New Delhi: Excel ----------------------
Books.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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125 Organisational Development

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125 Organisational Development

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Organisational

(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)

Course Design and Review Committee

Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune

Copyright © 2019 Symbiosis Open Education Society

1.1 Organisation: Meaning and Definition

---------------------- Organisation is a social system deliberately established to carry out some

Organisations also need to have hierarchies of authority and accountability. ----------------------

Organisational Structure is created to demonstrate the level of position ----------------------

----------------------  hese could be Own, Private, Partnership, Co-Operative, Government

---------------------- III. Based on Legal Status

Organisations may be either temporary or permanent. ----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- i. Top Management

iv. Geographical conditions ----------------------

---------------------- 4. Explain the concept of development. Do you think development is

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- i. Minimum Technical skills

---------------------- Suggested Reading

---------------------- 1. Mehta, Amitabh. Organisation Development. New Delhi: Global India

Organisation: Change and Organisational Development 11

---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- How important is organisational change? Consider this: The parents of

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 13

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- Under what condition would you choose evolutionary and

The primary forces at work in globalisation are: ----------------------

To cope with international competition organisations need to be flexible. ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 15

---------------------- Fill in the blanks.

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 17

iv. Threat to existing social relationship ----------------------

Though Organisational Development is a planned change neither a ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 19

---------------------- Changing Technology

---------------------- Changing the Structure

The steps involved in Change Management are as under: ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 21

---------------------- Fig. 2.2 : Effective Change Management

_ Identifying key Stakeholders ----------------------

Sustaining Momentum ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 23

OD is altogether a different strategy. It involves cultural development. ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 25

---------------------- Case Study

1. Why was the change resisted by employees? ----------------------

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 27

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 29

---------------------- State True or False.

---------------------- Fill in the blanks.

---------------------- iii. Death of shareholders

Organisation Change and Organisational Development 31

3.1 Definition of Organisational Development

Characteristics of Organisational Development 33

Characteristics of Organisational Development 35

---------------------- 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS of ORGANISATIONAL

---------------------- OD draws on the behavioral sciences as a basic discipline, particularly

Check your Progress 1 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------

iv. Communicating ----------------------

Characteristics of Organisational Development 37

---------------------- ii. Social psychology

---------------------- Although OD programmes should be specifically designed to match the

---------------------- ●● To find synergistic solutions to enterprise problem.

---------------------- hese could be Own, Private, Partnership, Co-Operative, Government