Intro To Robotics

Coordinate Transformation

Q: Why do we need Kinematics & Dynamics?

- To study the behaviour and performance of robots

Q: what are manipulators?

- Set of links connected together with joints to perform
a specific task ( pick&place,welding,assembly,…)

end - effector←

Problem : pick the ball using robot arm Le

- To study the behaviour and performance of robots L'

→Joint )

is
Challenges: Joint (1)

- Pose (position + orientation) of the object

- Weight of the object
- Size of the object
- World/environment around the object

Q: Where is the box?

- We represent everything w.r.t the global/fixed/world frame
Q: How to represent point P1?
"

In Global Frame {G}

5 ,
'

\ , •
Pz

÷
- -

g-
frame ←
G

Position d
p=[
p
{ E.¥:
,
vector
d
Point

I In Body Frame {B}

p=[IFg¥! pp=[IFs¥:
☐ ☐
B
P 2
,

Rigid Body : a set of points with fixed distance between each pair

If % is known and the positions of all points are

known w.r.t { B } , then the position of every point
in the rigid body is known in { A }
n
¥±¥¥: A{ ☐
-

'

-
{A}
 Rotation Matrix
Q: What is the relation between frame {1} and frame {2}?

- Using Rotation Matrix

Q: What is Rotation Matrix?

- A (3x3) matrix that describe rotational relationship between one

frame w.r.t another frame.

'
Rz Rotation of frame{2} w.r.t frame{1}

Dot product recap:

Ex =
É Ñ . = IF I III. . Cos (G)

↳ Projection of F on X
= to cos ( Zo)
direction

I =
É I = IÉI 191 Cos (90-0)
y
. . .

↳ Projection of F on y
= to sin ( zo)
direction
Let’s do the same but with frames

new

Fitz
I ✗, ✗2. ✗ I Yz
1 Xi / 2- 2.x ,

Rz={
-

y, I. 5,1-52.51-2-5.5
I. ZMT.EE I ZTÉ
-

Z
old
- -

, ,
,

I
✗z -
X, = 1. 1. Cos (8)
✗ c. Y
,
= 1.1 . Since )

✗ 2. Z ,
= 1. 1. Cos ( go )=o

✗z Yz Zz

[
Cos 0-1 Sin

)
0-1

5)
1
0
1 ×. -
,
'
R2 5.50--1-550--1 Xz ! 'y
-
-

i'
-
=
2
zz

-0--1--5 !
I

!
IT
-

z,

Standard Rotation Matrices

I o o CG SG

) f
o

Rx ,
a-
=/ o

o
ee

SO
-

CG
s Ry ,
a-
=/ -
o

SG
1

o
o

CG
Notes:
. R'
'

=
RT
co SG 0 det ( R ) It

J
__
-

Rz ,
a-
=/ O
so CG

O
o

l
.

.
R is

5G=
"

Sin
orthogonal
(G)
"

Sequence of Rotations - ( ① = Cos (G)

Euler’s theorem:
- Any two independent orthogonal frames can be related by a
sequence of Rotations (not more than 3) about coordinates,
where no two successive rotations may be about the axis

Angel-axis representation :
- Any two independent orthogonal frames can be related by a single
rotation about some axis. ( ①i
axis
d
angel

Angel-axis representation :

- Quaternion can be considered as a rotation of

about the unit vectorOi which are related to
quaternion components by 9° Cos ② < Ñ sin
=
-0
s
z 2
Different Representations of Rotation

Intuition Chain Memory Numerical

9
Rotation
Matrix

Axis-Angle 4
Euler
Angels 3
Quaternion
4
Notes:
- All representations can be used interchangeably
- Min number to represent Rotation -> 3
- Min number to represent Transformation -> 6
Relative Poses

{ R : Relative pose that

•

describes frame {R}

w.r.t frame {0}

Q: Why do we need transformations?

- Because it allow us to transfer information from one frame to another

Position Velocity Acceleration

 Homogeneous Transformation
Q: What is total homogeneous transformation?
- Total change of a frame w.r.t another frame

Rotation Matrix -
between two frames R /d → Position vector between
H= -9×1 -1¥ the two frames
origin of
"
- -
the

- 04×31 ! I -
(4×4)

co - SG o / ✗
so co o
1 Y
G
H☐= -1--0
'
-0--0 -
-

-
o o o f ,

Note:
- This way, we have the ability to completely represent rigid Bodies
w.r.t global frame.

Q: But how?
1- Assign body frame
2- Find Transformation Matrix between
Body frame & Global frame

Q: What is the inverse of homogeneous transformation?

- I
' '
Hz= ! 'd Rzt! RT'd
'
Hz
'
'
Rz , , = -

,
-

=
- -

=
-
 Forward Kinematics
Given:
9
- Joint Variables
,

I
1
"

9
h

Find: ✗
Position of E. E
},
- Pose of the end-effector
y
z
①✗
Gy } → orientation of E. E
Gz

Q: But how? Using DH-Convention

2D 3D

Revolute

Types of Joints:
: Prismatic

Task Space: pose (position+orientation) of end-effector

Q: What is degree of freedom?

DOF

[ E) →[ ¥] [¥ ]→[;] 1¥;) -1;]

Over-Constrained Exact -Constrained Under-Constrained

: Under-Actuated
\ \

\ Over-Actuated
The map between Joint-space & Task-space:

Forward Kinematics
9, ✗

µ
92 y
2-
I
1

9h
↳ ex
C- y
Gz

Inverse Kinematics
Joint-space Task-space

DH-Convention :

- A systematic sequence of steps to solve the forward Kinematics

problem for serial manipulators.
Steps of DH

1- Assign axes z & x only

2- Fill DH Table

Joint
JÉ
&

2
Step(1) : Assign Axes

I) Put all z-axis

Revolute Prismatic
Joint Joint

II) Assign x-axis

Rule(1): Xo 1- Zo
↳ in direction
any

Rule(2): ✗ i. J and A Zi , Zi -1

II) End-Effector Frame

Rule(1): ZEE 11 2- last

Rule(2): ✗ b and A Z.EE Z last

E. E ,
Step(2) : Fill DH-Table

- Transform from one frame to

another is done in 4 steps.

Gi : Rotation around Z
i. -1
between ✗
i. ,
and ✗i

di : Translation along Z from o

it
to Oi
i-1

ai : Translation along Xi from 0 to Oi

i. ,

✗ i: Rotation around Xi between Zi and ,

Zi

i
-1Ti = T
rot * Ttnans *
Ttrans *
T
not
✗ it ✗i
Zi -1,8 Zi - , ,d ✗ i. a

CG -
SG o
o 1 O o o 1 I ° O o
o o ✗
C -0 -5-0
o
SG co o o 0 I 0 0 o 1 o 0
=
* *
o
☒
SG CG
0 0 I o o o 1 d o o , o
o o

O f 0 O l
o o o o o I O

-56cL Sosa CG
CG a

SG CGCX Casa

Soo
-

Sa ca d

O o I
o
Example (1): RP Robot

(1%+9) o o Th

°
(Lz -192) 0 0

T2 0T '
[ 5]
•

= * T R d-

(
=
, , z

o 1 Position of E. E

Orientation of E. E frame
W.r.to
global
went
global frame

✗ = ( Lz +921 Cos ( 9,1

E. E

YEE = ( Lz -19 , ) Sin Cq ),

Simulink Model
Example (2): d3
>k
14
24
↳ ↳
µ >< yk >
"
a- z.IT#z ,
Zs
1¥ I ✗
z

dz 0-4 %
2§gF
✗ ' × ✗ ✗
} 4. xg 6

I ✗,

L Zo
,

+ ¥09 .

old new
-0 , Li O O o → I 0T
,

O dz o -172 I → z
'
Tz

o dz o o 2 → 3 21-3

⑦
4
[
4 0 172 3-34 31-4

Gg O o - ith ↳→ 5 4T
,

-06 ↳ + LG o o 5→ 6 STG

# 'Tz .tt?T4?Tg.sTo
"

T
, .
 Inverse Kinematics
Given: ✗

- Pose of the end-effector ÷

Find: Oz ?

91
92
?
- Joint-variables

:
Q: But how?

1- Geometrical Approach
2- Numerical Approach

Unique
- Solution could be Multiple
No solution

Q: In case of multiple solutions which one to choose ?

- Energy Efficiency
\

- Trajectory Smoothness

- Collision Avoidance
 Inverse Kinematics (Geometric Approach)
Example (1): RP Robot using “geometric method”

①
0-1
Find: = ?

Given:
⑤
Y tan '( Y
tan (g) = G. =
)
✗ ✗

- Using Pythagorean Theorem

( L
, + dzI= ✗2+92 ↳ + dz=
'
✗ + y
'

'
dz= ✗ '
L,
+ y -

Model Simulation Using “Matlab”

>> function [q1,q2] = I_K(x,y)

>> L1 = .5
>> q1 = atan2d(y,x)
>> q2 = sqrt(x^2 + y^2) - L1
>> end
 ?-
[¥]££
Example (2): RRP Robot
=

g.

Ai ? Li

I Find G,

L,
?
i Project everything in x-y plane ¥Q=
T
tan G. =

G. = tail f)
✗
2+5=[42+4] Case 0-2512

☒ Find O-z.dz

- Project on y-z plane

⑦ z= tail ( Z - L,
)
yy
'
✗ +

/ Using Pythagorean Theorem

dz=
'
Lz y' + (
'
+ ✗ + Z - L,)

dz = ✗ 2+5+(2--4)
'
- Lz
 Laws used in geometric approach

☐ Pythagorean Theorem

C
b
92 +
bZ= C2
-

a
② SOHCAHTOA

sin (G) =
b
C

a
Cos (G) =
C
C
b
of •
tano)= be
a

③ Law of cosines

C
1) = a' + d- 2. a. c. cost)

%
 Inverse Kinematics (Numerical Approach)
Q: Why?

- Geometric approach is hard for robot with more than 4-dof.

Newton-Raphson Method:

- Iterative method to solve complex functions

r n

↳ initial
- guess

F- ( ✗ e.) by fcxol - o
f- ( xo )
= = =

Xo ✗
☐✗ Xo -
✗,
-

"

initial guess
"

9 → value at initial
guess
'

✗ ,
= Xo -
[f' (✗ dj fcxu)

General Equation :
"

✗n -11 = ✗n -
f ( ✗ ni 'f( ✗n )
 Stopping Criteria:

1- Convergence of flxn) to a value close to f- ( ✗d)

2- Max number of iterations reached (ex: 100 iter)

Example: RP-Robot using “numerical method”

Find: = ?

Given:

- From forward kinematics

✗
E. [
= (4+92) Cos ( 9, )

YE .E= ( L -19 )Sin( 9 )

, ,
,

Recall:
' '

✗ n+i= Xo - fcxoj f- ( Xo)

F- .
f- =

91 =
91
-
§( ✗ jl a.
( 4+9276519 )
,

%
µ
92 ( L , -19 ,)sinC9 )
,
n+l n

What? “Jacobian Matrix”

?⃝
?⃝
Jacobian Matrix :

9, 92
OF, OF
J=F ox, 0×2

c)Fz c) Fz
FZ
@✗ , 0×2

F. =
(4+92) Cos (9 ) ,

Fz= ( 4+9 ) ,
sin (9 ) ,

OF OF
= - ( 4+9 )Sin(9 ) , , ,
= Cost 9 )
,

29 ,
092

OF OF
= ( L -19 )Cos( 9.)
, , , = Sin( 9 ) ,

29 ,
092

9, 92
( L -19 )Sin(9 ) CosC9 )
g-=L
-
, , ,
, ,

5 ( L -19 )Cos( 9.) Sin( 9 )

, , ,

"
9, 9, - ( 4+9 )Sin(9 ) , ,
cost 9 ) ( L , -19 ,)CosC9 ) -
z
= , ,

92 h -11 92 ( L -19 / Cos / 9 , ) Sin ( 9 , ) ( 4+92)sinC9 ) -

l
n , , ,

- -
I
It , F- ( In )
'

ÉC✗n)
 Forward Velocity Kinematics

The map between Joint-space & Task-space:

oi , i
9 j
& Forward Velocity Kinematics
,
iz
↳
1
l d- ✗
'
Ey
g n É
z

Inverse Velocity Kinematics

Joint-space Task-space

•X=J9
✓ 1h
velocity Jacobian Joint velocities
of .EE Matrix

Differentiation Approach

- From forward kinematics

✗ E. E = ( L , -19 ) cos
,
( 9.)

YEE = (4+92) Sin ( 9, )

 " E-
Find: [ JEE
E) = ?

Q: How? Chain Rule

d 091 ° 092
I =
✗
.
+
✗
•

09 , of
zg , gz

d b
ai ,
ai .

"

Translational velocity
velocity
" "

angular
"

of joint (1) of joint (2)

c) ✗ = - ( L, +9 , ) 5inch )
09 ,

ox
= Cos (9 ) ,

092

I = -
(4+92) sin ( 9,79° +
Cos ( 9 ) -9 ,
, ,

←
-
ox

09 , 09,

similarly ,

yo = ( L, + 9 , )cosC9 , )°9 , -1 5in (9 , ) -92

← +
09 , 092
Matrix Form

D= I
.

y
- ( L , -19-2 )GsC9 )
( 4+921
,

Cos ( 9 )
,
-9 ,

FFF
Jacobian Matrix “General Approach”

01 :O
linear I -9 ,
"

9,
velocity j
of E. E É I

Angular Wy :

velocity Wz Gn
of E. E 6×1 N"
6in

Each raw: represent the contribution/weights of each joint in the

calculation of a specific velocity component of E.E

Each column: represent the contribution of specific joint in all

velocity component of E.E
- We can rewrite Jacobian Matrix as follows :

" "" " " " " " "" "

g)
&

%
Jv ,
Jv , Jun
J =

↳ Rotational velocity

Jvi: describe the effect of the ith joint on translational velocity

describe the effect of the ith joint on rotational velocity

Jwi:

Q: How can we evaluate ( Jvi ) & ( Jwi ) for any joint based on its type?

Types of Joints

Revolute Prismatic

Jvi Jwi Jv; Jwi

=> Prismatic Joint

- when we investigate joint(i) we assume that the rest

of the robot is rigid, and study the effect of this joint
solely.

→ Direction of
Jvi = °Zi-1 velocity due to Ji

Q: what about Jwi ?

Jw :3Doesn’t contribute to
rotational velocity

Prismatic

Jv; = 2- i -
i
Jwi=[ :|
=> Revolute Joint

Jw Zi -1

Q: what about Jv ? i

V= W - r

Similarly,
•
•
Jv Zi ,
✗ Cow -

Oi )
, ,

↳ cross product
Recall: Dot product between 2-vectors
É j
=① vz=
✗2

--_c×,zz-z
✗, 9,2-2 - Z,Yz

v. , v. ✗ v5 ,

Z, Zz Xz Y , Z, X, Tz -
Y, ✗ z
?⃝
 Types of Joints

Revolute Prismatic

°Zi -00in Jwi=°Zi Jvi=°Zi ]T

☐

Jv - i ✗( ON , ) -
i -1 Jwi=[ o o o

Example(1): RP-Robot

- From forward kinematics

°
=L , 00 ,
=
°T
,
=

:p : / :| :
c. 9,

o
o

o
59

O
,
o

l -

☐
°
Zz
Oz
'

go yeah /
-59 (4+92) ( 9,
"
°T= c. 9, o 59
,
(4+92) 59,
2
0 I 0 O

O O O
f -

① 6×1
= Jv,

Jw ,
JVL

JWL 6×2
9 2×1
?⃝
 I) For joint(2) -> prismatic
0

Jwz= o Doesn’t contribute in rotational velocity

o

Jvz=°Zi→=°Z ,
=
09 ,

÷
II) For joint(1) -> revolute
°

Jw ,=°Ze , __°Zo=
:

Jv,=°Zi- , ✗ ( TN -00in ) ,

=
2-
c. ✗ Coz - °O°)
+ -
+

i j k -
( Li -19T) 5g ,
=
o o l =
1L , -1927C ,
(4+9219 (4+9,152 o o

Putting all together

Jv, Jvc
9 /

|
I -
(4+92)<9 ,
C9 ,

yi ( L
, -19,759 , 59 ,
'

I o o 9,
=
☐ g.
Wy o o 2×1

Wz I o

6×1 d ↳ 6×2
Jw , Jwa
?⃝
Example(2): RR-Robot

Method(1): Diffrentiation

- From forward kinematics

✗ =L , Cos (G) Lz COSCG Gz)

E. E + , +

(G ) Lz since ,
YE .g= L, 5in
,
+
+ Gz)

- Using chain rule

IEE = 0×8 ,
+ 0×8 ,
00, 00-2

OTÉ 0T£
JEE =

06 ,
,
+

062
,

- Computing partial derivative

a) ✗ dy

|
= -
L 5
Lz 512 = L, C , + Lz Ciz
, -

gg , gg ,

ox o,
= - Lz 512 =
Lz Ch
O_0 , 00 ,

- Putting all together

ÑE E -
-
L, S
,
-
Lzsiz - Lzsn É ,

JE E-
=
L, C, +
( 292 Lzciz ②2
 Method(2): Using General Approach

=D
I
iy Jv, Tve
'" " ""
£ ⇐i
⇐
Wy Jw , Jw, 2×1

(3*1) (3×1)
Wz

6×1 6×2

- From forward kinematics

H /?
→ °
"

oT,= S
,
C, o 45,

o o ° I -

/ / /
- C ,z 512 0 Llc, -11292

°Tz =
512 Ciz 0 L , S ,+LzS,z

O O , O

O O O l -

I) For joint(1) -> revolute

0

,=Zi→=°Zo=
o

Jw o

Jv ,=°Zi- , ✗ ( TN -00in ) ,

°O° )
☐
=
Zo ✗ ( Zz -

+ -
+

i j k -
LIS, -125,2
=
o o l =

L, C
,
+1242
44+129245 , + Lzsiz 0 0
?⃝
 II) For joint(2) -> revolute
0

Jw;°Ze , -_°Z = o

Jv=°Zi-
2
, ✗ ( TN -00in ) ,

°O°)
☐
= 2-
,
✗ Coz -

+ -
+

j j k -
Lz 512
=
o o I = Lz Ciz

LLCIZ Lz 5,2 0
0

- Putting all together

① |
I -
1,5 -125,2 ,
-
12512
j L
,
C
, + Lzciz L2 (
12

E- ° ° ⇐i
. ←
Wy o o
2×1

Wz 1 I

6×1 6×2
?⃝
 Inverse Velocity Kinematics

The map between Joint-space & Task-space:

ai , I -_ Joi i
9 j
& Forward Velocity Kinematics
,
if
↳
1
I d- ✗
'
Ey
g n É
z

Inverse Velocity Kinematics

Joint-space g- g- -
'
I Task-space

Example: RP-Robot

- Forward velocity kinematics

o

(4+9215 C 09
I
-

, ,
= ,

7¥
y ( L , -19,1C Si
,
-

¥
- Inverse velocity kinematics
-1

i.
.

-
(↳+921s 9 ×
= ,

qj ( 4+9 )
,
e
,
5
,
j

Q: What if the Jacobian has no inverse ?

Cases of no Jacobian inverse:

1- det(J) = 0
?
-
Lis -125,2
,
-
Lzsiz
491-1292 Lzciz ?

0-1 det(J)=o Singularity

Lets
a
=
?

2- According to DOF of Joint space & Task space

Cases

of
D0fj< Doff .E Dofj-Dof.EE Dofg >☐ ⇐
" &
°y =
J % I
=J
9° ,
I
.
=
J %
Ñ
☒

É 3×2
2
2×2
92 y 2×3 %
z, , z✗ , z✗ , 2×1
zy , 3×1

Under-Actuated Exact-Actuated Over-Actuated

J is ( MXN ) , M> N Jis CNXN ) Jis ( MXN ) ,M<N

Pseudo-inverse Inverse Pseudo-inverse

"

J+=( JTJJIJT
"
J F- JTJJT )
 Acceleration Kinematics
The map between Joint-space & Task-space:
ii
iii. is
1
\ Forward Velocity Kinematics y É
✗✗
I ✗y

in
Ñ=f°q )
4-
J
f
Joint-space Task-space
E-E
Joints Accelerations
Accelerations

Example: RP-Robot

- Forward velocity kinematics

o

(4+9215 C G
I
-

, ,
= ,

9,

""YF
y s
,

¥
Given: I -

- Toi

E- Jai Ii
Then +

Inverse Acceleration Solution

Given: ii. Jai +

Ii

'

Then: 9=5 ( ii. jail

Putting All Together

Actual

Joint angels
Ñ=k* ✗ err
⑤ 7
Xd ✗err Controller ✗ Inverse velocity 9 9act
(MIMO) Kinematics ✗ volt
Desired
E- E

Pose
✗ act Actual
↳
E. E Pose

✗ Forward Position
9
Kinematics
 Trajectory Planning

The Big Picture ☒ Kinematics

Mathematical Model { Dynamics
Task-space

Joint-space

I /P o / P
Controller Plant
(MIMO)
+ -

Feedback

Q: what is the difference between “path” and “trajectory” planning ?

"

Path
"

Path Planning: find collision free points/coordinates

from start to goal some without taking time into
consideration. "

Trajectory
"

Trajectory Planning: follow some points/coordinates

with each point coupled with time stamp.
Q:what is the effect of time?

- Introduce more complexity due

to the need of discretisation of time
and motion

Sampling Time (Ts)

- Inverse Kinematics Minimum Time needed to complete all

- Inverse Velocity Kinematics steps/calculations to move the robot
… from one pose to another’s

Types of Trajectory Planning

1) Task-space Planning 2) Joint-space Planning

- we want the end-effector - we don’t care about the
to follow a specific path in end-effector path just
a specific duration move from A -> B smoothly
=> Applications => Applications
1- Welding 1- Pick&Place
2- Assembly
3- Painting
Steps to solve Task-Space Trajectory Planning

Given:
1- start point
2- destination point
3- duration

Do the following :
1- Decompose the trajectory to equations (functions in time)
representing (x,y,z)
2- calculate inverse kinematics to compute joint values at each
time step

Steps to solve Joint-Space Trajectory Planning

Given:
1- start point
2- destination point
3- duration

Do the following :
1- calculate values of joints at start & goal points
using inverse kinematics
2- define interpolation equation for each joint
Example: RP-Robot (Task-space Planning)

Given:
- start point : ①
- destination point :
- duration : to see

Find:
- Joint angels that make the
E.E move in straight line from
start to goal in the required
duration

Solution

- Start with x-axis (2 -> -2) - For y-axis (2 -> 2.5)

✗ (t ) Xo ✗ it Yet )= Yo t
dy
=
+ + .

✗8 Factor by which we will ✗ =

215 - 2
= ,o5
y
change the value of x(t) as
to

time grows yct) = 2 -1,05 - t

initial
goal q →
✗ =
✗ (t ) -
✗ (o)
✗
t
→ duration
-
Z -
Z
✗ = = -
, 4
✗ to

✗ (t ) = 2- ,4t
- Use table to compute joint velocities at each time step

Task-space Planner Inverse Kinematics

" is 9,
t ✗ It 1=2 -
, 4. t tan (
✗

Co , - - -

not 92
Yet) = 2 -1,05 t .
✗2-1 y2 - L,

2 2 45 2,3

1,6 2,05

- 2 2,5

-
Solution / halves of

Joints to follow

the path in to see

Example: RP-Robot (Joint-space Planning)

Given:
- start point : ☐
2

- destination point :
- duration :

÷
Find:
- Joint angels that will move the
robot from start to goal smoothly

Q: Why we want position and orientation to vary smoothly with time ?

1) reduce the peak acceleration of the robot

2) reduce the size of the motors

Q: But how we guarantee smoothness ?

1) position q(t) is continuous

2) velocity q(t) is continuous
1) acceleration q(t) is continuous
, I

2) jerk q(t) is continuous

1" r

Solution

- Let’s use polynomial function that allow us to put

conditions/constrains on position,velocity,acceleration
on start and destination
Fifth-order Polynomial
- has 6-coefficients which allows us to specify 6 boundary
conditions (position,velocity,acceleration) at t = 0 and t = T

9 (t) = ao + 9
,
at + 92 .
É + 93 .
]
t + 94 .
t¥ ag .
É

Time Position Velocity Acceleration

t = 0 q(0) q(0) q(0)

. ' .

t =T q(T) q(T) q(T)

1 , ,

Third-order Polynomial
- for simplicity we will use 3rd-order polynomial.
Always remember that we need to balance between
smoothness and execution time

- has 4-coefficients which allows us to specify 4 boundary

conditions (position,velocity,acceleration) at t = 0 and t = T

É az.tl Joint 111

9 (t) = 90 + 9
,
at + 92 .
+

Time Position Velocity

t = 0 q(0) q(0)

t =T q(T)
i
q(T)
 9 ( t) =
ao + 9. ot-az.tl + az.tl
9° (t) = a
, + 29 , . t +
3 a
}
.
the

Q: But how calculate the coefficients ?

-
at t=o at t= to

9 (o) = ao =
45 91101=45+921107+9,40}

§( o ) = 9, = o 91101=2921101+3921105
I
- equation of joint(1) 92 =
2
,
509

93 = 167
É
-
,

9 (t) = 45 +
2
,
so . t -

,
167 .

90=45; 9, = 0
;

92=2,5 ; 93=-1167 ;

9,
91=90+9 ,
-
t-ait-az.tt

t
similarly ,
compute
( o
,
- - -

,
10) bo bi bi bz

92
9i-botbi.t-bz.th-b.lt