COURSE UNIT

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY 1

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK

7 7
Flue Gas Analysis

CHECKLISTk
 Read course and unit objectives
 Read study guide prior to class attendance
 Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons
 Proactively participate in classroom discussions
 Participate in weekly discussion board (MS Teams)
 Answer and submit course unit tasks

UNIT EXPECTED OUTCOMES (UEOs)

At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:

Cognitive:
1. Use measuring instruments in the performance of laboratory exercises.
2. Analyze the significance of the quantities determined using engineering measuring devices.
3. Analyze the properties of fuels and lubricants using different methods.
4. Design an experiment involving measurement of properties.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Affective:
1. Listen attentively during class discussions
2. Demonstrate tact and respect when challenging other people’s opinions and
ideas
3. Accept comments and reactions of classmates on one’s opinions openly and
graciously.

Psychomotor:
1. Participate actively during class discussions and group activities.
2. Express opinion and thoughts in front of the class.

STUDY GUIDE
Introduction

 Exhaust gas generated through combustion processes is called flue gas or stack gas. Its
composition depends on the type of fuel and the combustion conditions, e.g. the air ratio
value. The common fuels consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen with their compounds
and the flue gases resulting from combustion contain oxides of these elements and those of
the impurities together with any excess air and under some conditions, evolved from the
heated material. Many flue gas components are air pollutants and must therefore, due to
governmental regulations be eliminated or minimized by special cleaning procedures before
the gas is released to the atmosphere. The exhaust gas in its original status is called raw
gas, after cleaning it is called clean gas.
 An analysis of the flue gases gives evidence of efficiency of combustion and is a prime
factor in controlling the operation for maximum results and in arriving at improvements in
design.
 Flue gas analysis indicates the air to fuel ratio
 It is often desirable to predict the quantity and analysis of the products of combustion to
determine flue sizes and furnace pressure and to predict the magnitude of stack or flue gas
losses
 There are equations to permit the calculation of the quantities of gases in the combustion
products of gaseous fuels either by volume or by weight. The percentages to be submitted
in all these equations are percentages by volume.

 Safety
 Reduce Pollution
 Energy Saving

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Components of Flue Gas

 Nitrogen
 Hydrogen Cyanide, dust, soot, etc
 Hydrogen halides
 Hydrocarbons
 Hydrogen sulphide
 Oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur
 Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide

Components of Flue Gas

 Nitrogen 77%
 CO2, CO 13%
 Oxygen 5%
 Oxides of N2, S, H2O, Others 5%

Flue Gas Analysis

 Chemical Methods
 Instrumental Methods
 Trace Component Analysis

Sampling

 Samples of flue gases are taken by means of a tube and an aspirator bulb being drawn
either directly into the analyzer or stored in glass sampling tubes for analysis at a later date.
Sample tubes must be made of a gas tight material and it depends on temperature as
follows:
Apparatus
Uncooled metal tube
Combustion glass
Water cooled metal tube
Temperature
Up to 250 centigrade
Up to 500 centigrade
Above 500 centigrades

Chemical Method

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

 Orsat Type
Basically an Orsat type apparatus consists of an accurately calibrated measuring tube
(burette) attached by means of a glass manifold to a succession of absorbing tubes or
scrubbers known as pipettes. In doing an analysis, the sample volume is measured in the
burette before and after the absorption. The difference in two readings is taken as value of
component absorbed in some instruments, 1% of sulfuric acid is mixed with water to decrease
the solubilities of CO2, and O2. However in Orsat, a nearly saturated acid solution of sodium
chloride (NaCl) may be used. It is colored with a very small amount of methyl orange also acts
as an indication that the solution is always acid.

Chemical Method

 Fyrite tester is one such device for testing carbon dioxide. Caustic potash solution is used to
absorb carbon monoxide and this results in a slight vacuum which can be measured with a
gage.

Instrumental Method

1. GAS LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

Gas liquid chromatography is a comparatively new technique with a wide field of
applications. It consists of the separation of the constituents of a flue gas by absorption on a
packed column from a moving stream of carrier gas. The length of time each constituent gas is
retained on a specific column is constant under given conditions. It is known as the retention
time and it depends upon the temperature, flow rate of the carrier gas, size of column and the
molecular structure of the gas.
For separating O2, N2, and CH4
Column Material Linde Molecular Sieve Type 5A
Column Length 2 meters
Operating Temperature 40 centigrades
Sample Size 1 ml

 For separating Air, methane, ethane, CO2 and propane

Column Material Silica Gel
Column Length 2 meters
Operating Temperature 40 Centigrade
Helium Flow 50ml/min
Sample Size 1 ml

1) The individual components are moved by the carrier gas into a detector cell connected to an
electronic recorder.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

2) The detector cell then transmits the output to a moving chart by means of a standard
electronic recorder
3) The position height and area under the curve bear a definite relationship to the amount and
type of each gas separated by the column
4) The succession of curves drawn by a given sample of put into the chromatography are
compared to similar set of curves drawn by an equivalent sample of a standard gas
5) If a standard gas is not available, air may be used as a standard
6) Gas chromatographs are easy to operate but the standardization and interpretation should
be under the supervisor of a well-trained technologist

Mass Spectroscopy

 Mass spectroscopy is primarily a lad technique requiring more expensive equipment than
gas chromatography. In this procedure the molecular species making up gaseous mixture
are ionized and dissociated by electron bombardment, the resulting positive ions of different
masses are then accelerated in an electric field and separated magnetically. A spectrogram
is obtained showing the mass of each constituent and this is compared to a similar
spectrograph for a known mixture. Instrumentation for mass spectroscopy is considerably
expensive.

Trace Components Analysis

 Carbon Monoxide
 Water Vapor
 Oxides of Sulphur
 Oxides of Nitrogen

 For Detection of CO:

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

 Water vapor is determined by sampling and the flue gas must reach the instrument at a
temperature above the dew point. Dew point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor
phase is in equilibrium with a minute quantity of liquid phase in any system. More simply it is
the temperature at which condensation begins to occur.
Units of Measurement

 The gas concentration is measured in ppm. Ppm means part per millions.
 100 ppm is equivalent to 0.01%, 1000 ppm is equivalent to 0.1%, 10000 ppm is equivalent
to 1%. Pollutants can be measured in mg/m 3 (milligrams per cubic meter). This is mass
refer to a volume in normal condition (0 oC 1013mBar). Ppm is converted in this unit with a
coefficient different for each gas.
 Example: CO mg/m3 = CO ppmx1.25
 The conversion to an energy related unit can again be done by multiplying a constant which
is different for individual gases (mg/kWh: milligrams per kilowatt-hour of energy)
 Example: CO mg/kWh = CO ppm x 1.074

Conclusion

 Since flue gases consist of the end products of a combustion process, their composition is
of interest and important from the viewpoint of 1. Safety, 2. Efficiency and 3. computation of
specific values which might affect the continuity of a process. In combustion process, the
common personnel hazard is carbon monoxide which can result from incomplete
combustion. An operational hazard can be present wherever combustible gases or vapors
are in contact with a substance which will support combustion and the properties are in the
explosive range. Flue gas analysis can be used to detect and to confirm and locate
suspected condition of this nature.
 The use of flue gas analysis to promote efficiency are varied and many. Efficiency and
economy do not necessarily imply the complete oxidation in the least amount of oxygen or
air. It is the reason by which the goals for good utilization can be reached.
 For gas appliances to operate safely without liberating injurious quantities of toxic gases
 For gas appliances to operate near optimum efficiency

REFERENCES

1. Power Plant Testing By Moyer

2. Figliola, R.S. & Beasley, D.E., Theory & Design for Mechanical Measurements, 5th edition,
2011, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Halman, J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
4. Doebelin, E.O., Measurement System: Application & Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
5. Beckwith, T.G., Marangoni, R.D. & Lienhard, J.H., Mechanical Measurements, Addison
Wesley, Inc.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

6. Robert B. Northrop, Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements, Second Edition,
Jun 28, 2005.
7. Alan S. Morris, Reza Langari, Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and Application
8. Alan S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, 3rd edition.
9. ex-8-flue-gas-analysis.pdf (wordpress.com)
UNIT TASK

Aim: Flue gas analysis using Orsat apparatus.

Introduction The combustion products are mainly gaseous. When a sample is taken for
analysis it is usually cooled down to a temperature which is below the saturation
temperature of the steam present. The steam content is therefore not included in the
analysis, which is then quoted as the analysis of the dry products. Since the products are
gaseous, it is usual to quote the analysis by volume. An analysis which includes the steam
in the exhaust is called a wet analysis. The most common means of analysis of the
combustion products is the Orsat apparatus which is described as below:

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP: An Orsat’s apparatus consists of the following: (i) A burette (ii) A
gas cleaner (iii) Four absorption pipettes 1, 2, 3, 4. The pipettes are interconnected by
means of a manifold fitted with cocks S1, S2, S3 and S4 and contain different chemicals to
absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O2). Each pipette is also
fitted with a number of small glass tubes which provide a greater amount of surface. These
tubes are wetted by the absorbing agents and are exposed to the gas under analysis. The
measuring burette is surrounded by a water jacket to prevent, changes in temperature and
density of the gas. The pipettes 1, 2, 3, 4 contain the following chemicals: Pipette 1:
Contains ‘KOH’ (caustic soda) to absorb CO2 (carbon dioxide) Pipette 2: Contains an

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

alkaline solution of ‘pyrogallic acid’ to absorb O2 (oxygen) Pipette 3 & 4: Contain an acid
solution of ‘cuprous chloride’ to absorb CO (carbon monoxide) Furthermore the apparatus
has a levelling bottle and a three-way cock to connect the apparatus either to gases or to
atmosphere.

Procedure: 100 cm3 of gas whose analysis is to be made is drawn into the bottle by
lowering the levelling bottle. The stop cock S4 is then opened and the whole flue gas is
forced to pipette 1. The gas remains in this pipette for some time and most of the carbon
dioxide is absorbed. The levelling bottle is then lowered to allow the chemical to come to its
original level. The volume of gas thus absorbed is read on the scale of the measuring bottle.
The flue gas is then forced through the pipette 1 for several times to ensure that the whole
of the CO2 is absorbed. Further, the remaining flue gas is then forced to the pipette 2 which
contains pyrogallic acid to absorb whole of O2. The reading on the measuring burette will
be the sum of volume of C2 and O2. The oxygen content can then be found out by
subtraction. Finally, as before, the sample of gas is forced through the pipettes 3 and 4 to
absorb carbon monoxide completely. The amount of nitrogen in the sample can be
determined by subtracting from total volume of gas the sum of CO2, CO and O2 contents.
Orsat apparatus gives an analysis of the dry products of combustion. Steps may have been
taken to remove the steam from the sample by condensing, but as the sample is collected
over water it becomes saturated with water. The resulting analysis is nevertheless a true
analysis of the dry products. This is because the volume readings are taken at a constant
temperature and pressure, and the partial pressure of the vapor is constant. This means
that the sum of the partial pressures of the remaining constituents is constant. The vapor
then occupies the same proportion of the total volume at each measurement. Hence the
vapor does not affect the result of the analysis.

Note: Quantitatively the dry product analysis can be used to calculate A/F ratio. This
method of obtaining the A/F ratio is not so reliable as direct measurement of air
consumption and fuel consumption of the engine. More caution is required when analyzing
the products of consumption of a solid fuel since some of the products do not appear in the
flue gases (e.g. ash and unburnt carbon). The residual solid must be analyzed as well in
order to determine the carbon content, if any. With an engine using petrol or diesel fuel the
exhaust may include unburnt particles of carbon and this quantity will not appear in the
analysis. The exhaust from internal combustion engines may contain also some CH4 and
H2 due to incomplete combustion. Another piece of equipment called the Heldane
apparatus measures the CH4 content as well as CO2, O2 and CO.

Questions:

1. What is wet analysis and dry analysis?

2. Why this flue gas analysis is done?
3. Explain working procedure and construction of Orsat apparatus with neat sketch.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE