COURSE UNIT

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY 1

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK

16 16
Determination of Static, Velocity and Total Pressure Using Manometers And Pitot Tube

CHECKLIST
 Read course and unit objectives
 Read study guide prior to class attendance
 Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons
 Proactively participate in classroom discussions
 Participate in weekly discussion board (MS Teams)
 Answer and submit course unit tasks

UNIT EXPECTED OUTCOMES (UEOs)

At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:

Cognitive:
1. Use measuring instruments in the performance of laboratory exercises.
2. Analyze the significance of the quantities determined using engineering measuring devices.
3. Analyze the properties of fuels and lubricants using different methods.
4. Design an experiment involving measurement of properties.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Affective:
1. Listen attentively during class discussions
2. Demonstrate tact and respect when challenging other people’s opinions and
ideas
3. Accept comments and reactions of classmates on one’s opinions openly and
graciously.

Psychomotor:
1. Participate actively during class discussions and group activities.
2. Express opinion and thoughts in front of the class.

STUDY GUIDE

Key Pressure Terms

• Static Pressure - used for fan selection

• Velocity pressure - used for meaning CFM in a system
• Total Pressure - used to find velocity pressure
Pt = Ps + Pv
(All measured in inches of Water Gauge)(W.G.)

What is static pressure?

• The resistance to flow (energy added by the fan) measured in inches of water gauge ( in
wg)
• Fan selection is typically based upon a CFM and STATIC Pressure (i.e. CFM @ 0.125" wg)

Static Pressure

• Resistance to flow
• Equal in all directions
• Can be positive or Negative
• Independent of air velocity
• Measured by pressure tap perpendicular to air flow

Total Pressure

• A fluid in motion will exert a Total Pressure on an object in its path

• Measured by pressure tap pointed directly into the air

Velocity Pressure

• Cannot be measured directly

• A pitot tube uses both static pressure and total pressure taps

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

 • Velocity (ft/min) = 1096√Pv/P
• ρ = 0.75lb/ft^2
• Velocity = 4005√Pv

What is a pitot tube?

• A pitot tube, also known as Pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used to measure fluid
flow velocity
• it was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th century

REFERENCES

1. Power Plant Testing By Moyer

2. Figliola, R.S. & Beasley, D.E., Theory & Design for Mechanical Measurements, 5th edition,
2011, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Halman, J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
4. Doebelin, E.O., Measurement System: Application & Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
5. Beckwith, T.G., Marangoni, R.D. & Lienhard, J.H., Mechanical Measurements, Addison
Wesley, Inc.
6. Robert B. Northrop, Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements, Second Edition,
Jun 28, 2005.
7. Alan S. Morris, Reza Langari, Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and Application
8. Alan S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, 3rd edition.
9. fluidslabmanual2-140524214604-phpapp01.pdf

UNIT TASK
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY AND CALIBRATION OF A METER FOR COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW

The objective of this experiment is to determine a calibration curve for a meter placed in a pipe that
is conveying air. The meters of interest are an orifice meter and a venturi meter. These meters are
calibrated in this experiment by using a pitot-static tube to measure the velocity, from which the
flow rate is calculated. Pitot Static Tube When a fluid flows through a pipe, it exerts pressure that is
made up of static and dynamic components. The static pressure is indicated by a measuring
device moving with the flow or that causes no velocity change in the flow. Usually, to measure
static pressure, a small hole perpendicular to the flow is drilled through the container wall and
connected to a manometer (or pressure gage) as indicated in Figure 15.1. The dynamic pressure
is due to the movement of the fluid. The dynamic pressure and the static pressure together make
up the total or stagnation pressure. The stagnation pressure can be measured in the flow with a
pitot tube. The pitot tube is an open-ended tube facing the flow directly. Figure 15.1 gives a sketch
of the measurement of stagnation pressure.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

The pitot-static tube combines the effects of static and stagnation pressure measurement into one
device. Figure 15.2 is a schematic of the pitot static tube. It consists of a tube within a tube which is
placed in the duct facing upstream. The pressure tap that faces the flow directly gives a
measurement of the stagnation pressure, while the tap that is perpendicular to the flow gives the
static pressure. When the pitot-static tube is immersed in the flow of a fluid, the pressure difference
(stagnation minus static) can be read directly using a manometer and connecting the pressure taps
to each leg. Applying the Bernoulli equation between the two pressure taps yields:

where state “1” as the stagnation state (which will be changed to subscript “t”), and state “2” as the
static state (no subscript). Elevation differences are negligible, and at the point where stagnation
pressure is measured, the velocity is zero. The Bernoulli equation thus reduces to:

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Next, we rearrange the preceding equation and solve for velocity

A manometer connected to the pitot-static tube would provide head loss readings ∆h given by

where density is that of the flowing fluid. So velocity in terms of head loss is

Note that this equation applies only to incompressible flows. Compressibility effects are not
accounted for. Furthermore, ∆h is the head loss in terms of the flowing fluid and not in terms of the
reading on the manometer.

For flow in a duct, manometer readings are to be taken at several locations within the cross section
of the flow. The velocity profile is then plotted using the results. Velocities at specific points are
then determined from these profiles. The objective here is to obtain data, graph a velocity profile
and then determine the average velocity.

Average Velocity

The average velocity is related to the flow rate through a duct as

where Q is the volume flow rate and A is the cross-sectional area of the duct. We can divide the
flow area into five equal areas, as shown in Figure 15.3. The velocity is to be obtained at those
locations labeled in the figure. The chosen positions divide the cross section into five equal
concentric areas. The flow rate through each area labeled from 1 to 5 is found as

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

 The total flow rate through the entire cross section is the sum of these:

The importance of the five chosen radial positions for measuring V1 through V5 is now evident.
Velocity Measurements Equipment Axial flow fan apparatus Pitot-static tube Manometer The fan of
the apparatus is used to move air through the system at a rate that is small enough to allow the air
to be considered incompressible. While the fan is on, make velocity profile measurements at a
selected location within the duct at a cross section that is several diameters downstream of the fan.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Repeat these measurements at different fan speed settings so that 9 velocity profiles will result.
Use the velocity profiles to determine the average velocity and the flow rate.

Incompressible Flow Through a Meter Incompressible flow through a venturi and an orifice meter
was discussed in Experiment 9. For our purposes here, we merely re-state the equations for
convenience. For an air over liquid manometer, the theoretical equation for both meters is

Now for any pressure drop ∆hi, there are two corresponding flow rates: Qac and Qth. The ratio of
these flow rates is the venturi discharge coefficient Cv, defined as

for turbulent flow. The orifice discharge coefficient can be expressed in terms of the Stolz equation:

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Compressible Flow Through a Meter When a compressible fluid (vapor or gas) flows through a
meter, compressibility effects must be accounted for. This is done by introduction of a
compressibility factor which can be determined analytically for some meters (venturi). For an orifice
meter, on the other hand, the compressibility factor must be measured. The equations and
formulation developed thus far were for incompressible flow through a meter. For compressible
flows, the derivation is somewhat different. When the fluid flows through a meter and encounters a
change in area, the velocity changes as does the pressure. When pressure changes, the density of
the fluid changes and this effect must be accounted for in order to obtain accurate results. To
account for compressibility, we will rewrite the descriptive equations. Venturi Meter Consider
isentropic, subsonic, steady flow of an ideal gas through a venturi meter. The continuity equation is

where section 1 is upstream of the meter, and section 2 is at the throat. Neglecting changes in
potential energy (negligible compared to changes in enthalpy), the energy equation is

The enthalpy change can be found by assuming that the compressible fluid is ideal:

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

Substituting into the mass flow equation, we get after considerable manipulation Equation 15.1 of
Table 15.1, which summarizes the results. Thus, for compressible flow through a venturi meter, the
measurements needed are p1, p2, T1, the venturi dimensions, and the fluid properties. By
introducing the venturi discharge coefficient Cv, the actual flow rate through the meter is
determined to be

Combining this result with Equation 15.1 gives Equation 15.2 of Table 15.1. It would be convenient
if we could re-write Equation 15.2 in such a way that the compressibility effects could be
consolidated into one term. We attempt this by using the flow rate equation for the incompressible
case multiplied by another coefficient called the compressibility factor Y; we therefore write

We now set the preceding equation equal to Equation 15.2 and solve for Y. We obtain Equation
15.3 of the table. The ratio of specific heats γ will be known for a given compressible fluid, and so
Equation 15.3 could be plotted as compressibility factor Y versus pressure ratio p2/p1 for various
values of D2/D1. The advantage of using this approach is that a pressure drop term appears just
as with the incompressible case, which is convenient if a manometer is used to measure pressure.
Moreover, the compressibility effect has been isolated into one factor Y.

Orifice Meter

The equations and formulation of an analysis for an orifice meter is the same as that for the venturi
meter. The difference is in the evaluation of the compressibility factor. For an orifice meter the
compressibility factor is much lower than that for a venturi meter. The compressibility factor for an
orifice meter cannot be derived, but instead must be measured. Results of such tests have yielded
the Buckingham equation, Equation 15.4 of Table 15.1, which is valid for most manometer
connection systems.

Calibration of a Meter

Figures 15.4 and 15.5 show how the apparatus is set up. An axial flow fan is attached to the shaft
of a DC motor. The rotational speed of the motor, and hence the volume flow rate of air, is
controllable. The fan moves air through a duct into which a pitot-static tube is attached. The pitot
static tube is movable so that the velocity at any radial location can be measured. An orifice or a
venturi meter can be placed in the duct system. The pitot static tube has pressure taps which are
to be connected to a manometer. Likewise, each meter also has pressure taps, and these will be
connected to a separate manometer. A meter for calibration will be assigned by the instructor. For
the experiment, make measurements of velocity using the pitot-static tube to obtain a velocity
profile. Draw the velocity profile to scale. Obtain data from the velocity profile and determine a
volume flow rate. For one velocity profile, measure the pressure drop associated with the meter.
Graph volume flow rate as a function of head loss ∆h obtained from the meter, with ∆h on the
horizontal axis. Determine the value of the compressibility factor experimentally and again using

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE

the appropriate equation (Equation 15.3 or 15.4) for each data point. A minimum of 9 data points
should be obtained. Compare the results of both calculations for Y.

Prepared by: Engr. Sandra E. Abancio, RMEE