Adrian Lees - D. - Science and Racket Sports IV-Routledge (2008)

Science and Racket Sports IV
Science and Racket Sports IV presents a selection of important contemporary

research into the four core racket sport disciplines of tennis, badminton,
squash and table tennis. It showcases the best of the peer-reviewed papers and
keynote addresses presented at the Fourth World Congress of Science and
Racket Sports, Madrid.
Including contributions from many of the world’s leading racket sport
scientists, researchers and practitioners, the book details cutting-edge
research in six key areas:
• Physiology
• Biomechanics
• Sports medicine
• Psychology
• Performance analysis
• Pedagogy, sociology and coach education.
This invaluable collection touches on the most important issues within

contemporary sport science, and explores the full range of theoretical,
experimental and applied work within the study of racket sports. It is
essential reading for all sports scientists, sports physicians, therapists and
coaches working in this area.
Adrian Lees is Professor of Biomechanics and Deputy Director of the

Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool John Moores
University. As chair of the World Commission of Sports Biomechanics
Steering Group for Science and Racket Sports, he has promoted the three
previous Science & Racket Sports Congresses and associated books. Author
of over 20 books and chapters, he is editorial board member for the Journal
of Sports Sciences, and Fellow of the British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences and the European College of Sports Sciences. David
Cabello is Senior Lecturer in the Education Sciences Faculty at the University
of Granada. Gema Torres Luque is Senior Lecturer at the Catholic University
of Murcia, Spain. They co-organized the Fourth World Congress of Science
and Racket Sports.
Fourth World Congress of
Science and Racket Sports,
21–23 September, 2006
Held at the Spanish Olympic Centre,
Madrid, Spain
Organizing Committee
David Cabello (Chair)
Fernando Calvo Marín
Antonio Garde Olea
Rogelio Chantada Lago
Julián García Angulo
Gonzalo de la Herrán
Adrian Lees
Emilio Lezana García
Ángel Luis López de la Fuente
Jesús Mardaras García
Francisco Pradas de la Fuente
Inmaculada Roldán Miranda
Javier Sampedro Moliner
David Sanz Rivas
Gema Torres Luque
Miguel de la Villa Polo
Scientific Committee
David Cabello
Alberto Carazo Prada
Mike Hughes
Jean-Francois Kahn
Adrian Lees (Chair)
Ian Maynard
Ignacio Refoyo Román
Inmaculada Roldán Miranda
David Sanz Rivas
Gema Torres
Science and Racket Sports IV
Edited by A. Lees, D. Cabello

and G. Torres
First published 2009
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
© 2009 A. Lees, D. Cabello and G. Torres for selection and editorial

matter; individual chapters, the contributors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-89487-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 10: 0–415–43556–0 (hbk)

ISBN 10: 0–203–89487–1 (ebk)
ISBN 13: 978–0–415–43556–7 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978–0–203–89487–3 (ebk)
Contents
List of figures x
List of tables xii
List of contributors xv
Preface xxi
Introduction 1
PART 1
Physiology of racket sports 3
1 Physiological testing in badminton 5

O. FAUDE, T. MEYER, M. FRIES AND W. KINDERMANN
2 Core temperature and hydration status in

professional tennis players measured in live tournament
conditions 14
A.J. PEARCE
3 Anaerobic performance during intermittent

exercise and body composition in tennis players of different
biological and chronological ages 22
E. ZIEMANN AND T. GARSZTKA
4 Comparison of laboratory and on-court testing

of aerobic fitness in tennis players 29
R.W. MEYERS
5 A specific incremental test in tennis 36

O. GIRARD, R. CHEVALIER, F. LEVEQUE, J.-P. MICALLEF AND
G.P. MILLET
vi Contents
6 Muscle fibre type distribution and fibre size of
triceps brachialis in elite tennis players 44
J. SANCHÍS-MOYSI, A. GUADALUPE-GRAU, S. GUERRA,
H. OLMEDILLAS, O. BERNALES, C. DORADO AND J.A.L. CALBET
7 Development of a tennis-specific fatigue-inducing

protocol and the effects of caffeine on performance 51
D.J. HORNERY, D. FARROW, I. MUJIKA AND W. YOUNG
8 Nutrition knowledge and nutrition habits of

tennis coaches 58
B.R. MATKOVIĆ, B. MATKOVIĆ AND P. TUDOR-BARBAROS
9 Correlations of physiological responses in

squash players during competition 64
J.R. ALVERO CRUZ, J. BARRERA EXPÓSITO, A. MESA ALONSO
AND D. CABELLO
10 Field-based assessment of speed and power in

junior badminton players 70
M.G. HUGHES
11 Energy expenditure measurement in badminton

players during a training camp using doubly-labelled water 77
E. WATANABE, S. IGAWA, T. SATO, M. MIYAZAKI, S. HORIUCHI
AND K. SEKI
12 Kinanthropometric profile, body composition,

somatotype and grip strength dynamometry in young high
level tennis, badminton and table tennis players 83
F. PRADAS, E. MARTÍNEZ, P.E. ALCARAZ AND L. CARRASCO
13 Analysis of the somatotype, body composition

and anthropometry in badminton players between 12 and
16 years 91
M. DE HOYO, B. SAÑUDO AND F. PARÍS
PART 2
Biomechanical and medical aspects of racket sports 97
14 Biomechanics of racket sports: developments and

current status 99
A. LEES
Contents vii
15 Angular velocities in the tennis serve 106
C. LÓPEZ DE SUBIJANA AND E. NAVARRO
16 Comparison of injuries between Slovenian table

tennis and badminton players 112
M. KONDRIČ, G. FURJAN-MANDIĆ, L. PETRINOVIĆ-ZEKAN AND
D. CILIGA
17 Prevention of injuries and cardiovascular events

in veteran table tennis players 118
J.-F. KAHN AND T. CHARLAND
18 Strategies and support mechanisms used by elite

Australian female tennis players returning to the circuit
from injury 124
A.J. PEARCE, J.A. YOUNG AND M.D. PAIN
19 The use of plantar supports in badminton and

squash players 132
G.A. GIJÓN NOGUERÓN, M. GIJÓN NOGUERÓN AND
D. CABELLO
20 Centre of gravity in paddle rackets: implications

for technique 139
P.T. GÓMEZ PÍRIZ AND M.F. ÁLVAREZ
PART 3
Psychological aspects of racket sports 143
21 Anticipation and skill in racket sports 145

A.M. WILLIAMS
22 A perception-action perspective on learning and

practice in racket sports 154
G.J.P. SAVELSBERGH, F. RIVAS AND J. VAN DER KAMP
23 Influence of training and task difficulty on

efficiency of a forehand drive in table tennis 162
L. JOSPIN, V. FAYT AND S. LAZZARI
24 Tennis play simulator 1: psychomotor predispositions

for tennis based on locomotor movements 169
J. LAPSZO
viii Contents
25 Tennis play simulator 2: speed of sequential ball-hitting
movements under practice and competitive conditions 177
J. LAPSZO
PART 4
Performance analysis of racket sports 185
26 Computerized notational analysis and

performance profiling in racket sports 187
M.D. HUGHES, M.T. HUGHES AND H. BEHAN
27 Playing patterns of world elite male and Austrian

top male single’s badminton players 197
E. OSWALD
28 Comparison of the average game playing time in

different scoring systems in badminton 204
L. PETRINOVIĆ-ZEKAN, Ž. PEDIŠIĆ, D. CILIGA AND M. KONDRIČ
29 Feedback systems in table tennis 208

A. BACA AND P. KORNFEIND
30 Practice oriented match analyses in table tennis as

a coaching aid 214
R. LESER AND A. BACA
31 Quantitative analysis of playing efficiency in squash 220

G. VUČKOVIĆ, B. DEŽMAN, S. KOVAČIČ AND J. PERŠ
32 A comparison of whole match and individual set

data in order to identify valid performance indicators for
real-time feedback in men’s single tennis matches 227
H.J. CHOI, P.G. O’DONOGHUE AND M.D. HUGHES
33 Variability in men’s singles tennis strategy at the

US Open 232
P.G. O’DONOGHUE
34 Time analysis of three decades of men’s singles at

Wimbledon 239
H. TAKAHASHI, T. WADA, A. MAEDA, M. KODAMA,
H. NISHIZONO AND H. KURATA
Contents ix
PART 5
Pedagogy, sociology and coach education in racket sports 247
35 New perspectives and research applications in tennis 249

M. CRESPO
36 Sport identity of Polish badminton players in the

context of other selected sport disciplines 255
M. LENARTOWICZ AND P. RYMARCZYK
37 Coach education: models, characteristics and

views of Greek tennis coaches 262
N. GRIVAS AND K. MANTIS
38 Modern teaching methods for tennis: what do

they have in common? 269
P.G. UNIERZYSKI AND M. CRESPO
39 Season-of-birth effects on elite junior tennis

players’ world rankings 275
P. G. O’DONOGHUE
40 Health-related habits of tennis coaches 282

B.R. MATKOVIĆ, B. MATKOVIĆ AND L. RUŽIĆ
41 Integrated functional evaluation: a specific

proposal for badminton 287
C. BLASCO, A. RUIZ AND R.P. GARRIDO
42 The social structure of racket sports practice in Spain 295

R. LLOPIS GOIG AND D. LLOPIS GOIG
Index 301
Figures
2.1 Core body temperature sensor pill 16

2.2 Measurement of a player in-match during change of ends 17
3.1 Directions of movement during the ‘PUST’ tennis-specific
drill 24
4.1 Illustration of the calculation for the three
intensities used 31
4.2 Representation of the Tan determination 32
5.1 Set-up of the specific incremental fitness test for
tennis players 38
7.1 Serve velocity and RPE over the duration of the protocol 56
10.1 Layout of the badminton half-court for the specific
speed test 72
10.2 Scatter plot (and linear trend lines) for vertical jump
height and agility test results in male and female players 74
15.1 The calibration system 107
15.2 Filming area location 108
15.3 The 28-point body model 108
16.1 Training and competitive status of top athletes (both
games) 113
16.2 Location of injury (both games) 114
19.1 Orthotic compensator elements 134
20.1 Lines of application of the gravity force from two
different suspension points in a paddle racket 140
20.2 Distances from the COG to the proximal point and
weight 142
21.1 Mean (± SE) percentage time spent viewing each
fixation location 147
23.1a Performance in the nine experimental conditions 166
23.1b HR in the nine experimental conditions 166
24.1 The tennis play simulator – version 1 171
25.1 The tennis play simulator 2 179
25.2 Profiles of tested psychomotor factors for the best
player, the tested group and freely chosen player 181
Figures xi
25.3 The profile of correlation coefficients between tested
psychomotor factors and sporting results ranking for tested
group 182
27.1 Types of service strokes 199
27.2 Faults and points during the return 200
27.3 Types of strokes during the rally 201
27.4 Shot frequencies in different areas 201
27.5 Distribution of too-short and optimal long strokes 202
27.6 Distribution of different kinds of strokes before point 203
29.1 Setup for detection of ball impact positions 209
29.2 Computer screen presenting a series of ball impact
positions 210
29.3 Left: Schematic presentation of the system for
calculating impact time intervals. Right: complete system
without PC/PDA 211
29.4 Presentation of impact time intervals 211
29.5 Feedback training using impact position detecting
system 212
30.1 Flowchart of applied match analysis in table tennis 215
30.2 Data collection screen 216
30.3 Success and failure of player A when starting a rally
with his own service 217
30.4 Video feedback screen 218
31.1 The court divided into 29 segments 222
33.1 Distribution of percentage net points for different
players 235
33.2 Relationship between the mean and SD for
percentage net points 235
34.1 A comparison of time duration per point among
match groups 241
34.2 A comparison of rally length per point among match
groups 241
34.3 A comparison of time duration of first service among
match groups 242
34.4 A comparison of time duration of second service
among match groups 243
34.5 A comparison of time duration of ground stroke
among match groups 243
34.6 A comparison of time between points among match
groups 244
41.1 Quantitative evaluation 292
Tables
2.1 Hydration status as measured by specific gravity 18

2.2 Hydration status as measured by changes in athlete
body mass 18
2.3 Core temperature at match start, peak and mean
temperature 19
2.4 Mean core temperature responses in five players 19
3.1 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects
(chronological age) 25
3.2 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects
(biological age) 25
3.3 Physiological characteristics in anaerobic capacity
and anaerobic power in biological groups 26
3.4 Time of ‘PUST’ tennis drills in relation to biological age 26
4.1 Mean and correlation data for the variables assessed 33
5.1 Physiological values in tennis players 41
6.1 General subject characteristics 45
7.1 Comparative physiological responses between conditions 55
8.1 Questionnaire with the marked true or false answers 60
9.1 General data 66
9.2 Values are mean of lactate concentration, RPE Borg
Scale and mean heart rate between winners and losers 66
9.3 Correlation between variables 66
10.1 Mean ± standard deviation results for fitness test data 73
10.2 Correlation matrix for female subjects 73
10.3 Correlation matrix for male subjects 74
11.1 Physical characteristics of subjects 78
11.2 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in men 79
11.3 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in women 79
11.4 Result of dietary intake in men 80
11.5 Result of dietary intake in women 81
12.1 Biometric data in terms of racket sports practised 84
12.2 Skinfolds in terms of racket sports practised 85
12.3 Body composition in terms of racket sports practised 86
Tables xiii
12.4 Somatotype in terms of racket sports practised 87
12.5 Grip strength in terms of racket sports practised 87
12.6 Muscle mass, arm perimeter and grip strength 87
13.1 Analysis of the skinfolds and Σ in the 4 and 6 folds 93
13.2 Information relative to the BMI and body composition 93
13.3 Information relative to the somatotype 93
15.1 Angular velocities from players A and B 109
15.2 Maximum angular velocities key instances 109
16.1 Percentage of injuries in muscles, tendons and joints 114
16.2 Sum of all injuries reported by players (both games) 114
16.3 Number of injuries reported by players (both games) 115
17.1 Distribution of the veteran players according to their
age group and gender 119
17.2 Distribution of the injuries in veterans according to
their age group 120
18.1 Frequency of minor injuries to body parts 126
18.2 Frequency of treatments sought for minor injuries 127
18.3 Frequency of severe or chronic injuries to body parts 128
18.4 Frequency of treatments sought for a severe or
chronic injury 129
19.1 Relation between the age of the players and the
injuries sustained 135
19.2 Relation between the morpho-structural alterations
established and the most frequent injuries 135
19.3 Relation of the orthopaedic elements of the support
with the different dynamic alterations 136
20.1 Numbers in each category for distances (cm) of the
COG to the proximal end of the racket 141
20.2 Numbers in each category for percentage distance
(cm) of the COG to the proximal end of the racket relative
to racket length 141
23.1 Temporal structure of the experimental procedure 164
24.1 The correlation coefficients of the tested factors with
sporting results for the examined groups 174
27.1 Basic statistics of the investigation 198
27.2 Strokes per rally 199
28.1 Descriptive parameters and confidence intervals for
mean playing time 206
28.2 Differences between mean playing time 207
31.1 Percentage of strokes executed by top world players
and top Slovenian players by court segment 223
31.2 Results by discriminant analysis in terms of
percentage of strokes 223
31.3 Standardized correlation coefficients 224
32.1 Summary of the winning and losing performances 229
xiv Tables
32.2 The results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test 229
33.1 Skewness and kurtosis of percentage net points 234
33.2 Percentage of points where four players went to the net 236
35.1 Research areas suggested for scientific research in tennis 251
39.1 Numbers of 1987- and 1988-born tennis players
achieving ITF junior ranking points in different years 276
39.2 Half year of birth of 1987- and 1988-born players
with junior ranking points in each year 277
39.3 Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players
achieving ranking points in 2003 and 2004 278
39.4 Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players
achieving ranking points in 2004 and 2005 278
39.5 World rankings of male and female players born in
the first and second halves of the year who had achieved
ranking points in all three years 279
40.1 Alcohol consumption of tennis coaches 283
40.2 Smoking habits of tennis coaches 284
40.3 Nutrition habits questionnaire 285
41.1 List of quantitative evaluation 293
42.1 Racket sports participation in Spain 297
42.2 Change in participation (% of population) in racket
sports in Spain 297
42.3 Motivation for racket sports practice 297
42.4 Racket sports practice according to sex 298
42.5 Racket sports practice according to age 298
42.6 Racket sports practice according to the highest
education attainment 298
42.7 Racket sports practice according to employment status 299
List of contributors
Alcaraz, P.E. Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Physical Activity and

Sport Sciences, Saint Antonio Catholic University of Murcia, Spain.
Álvarez , M. F. Sevilla F.C., Spain.
Alvero Cruz, J.R. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physi-
ology and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Málaga, Spain.
Baca, A. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria.
Barrera Expósito, J. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physi-
ology and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Málaga, Spain.
Behan, H. Badminton Association of England, Milton Keynes, UK.
Bernales, O. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Edu-
cation, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Blasco, C. Department of Physical Education, University of Valencia,
Valencia.
Cabello, D. Faculty of Education, University of Granada, Spain.
Calbet, J.A.L. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical
Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Carrasco, L. Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sevilla, Sevilla,
Spain.
Charland, T. French Table Tennis Association, Paris, France.
Chevalier, R. CREOPP, Faculty of Sport Sciences, France.
Choi, H. J. Centre for Performance Analysis, School of Sport, University of
Wales Institute, Cardiff, UK.
Ciliga, D. Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
xvi List of contributors
Crespo, M. Coaching and Development Department, International Tennis
Federation, Roehampton, UK.
Dez̄man, B. Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Dorado, C. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Educa-
tion, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Faude, O. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saar-
land, Saarbrücken, Germany and the Olympic Training Center Rheinland-
Pfalz/Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Farrow, D. Australian Institute of Sport.
Fayt, V. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France.
Fries, M. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saar-
land, Saarbrücken, Germany and the Olympic Training Center Rheinland-
Pfalz/Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Furjan-Mandić, G. University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia.
Garrido, R.P. General Hospital of Alicante, Alicante, Spain.
Garsztka, T. Department of Kinesiology, University of Physical Education,
Poznań, Poland, and the Polish Tennis Federation Warszawa, Poland.
Gijón Noguerón, G.A. Health Science School, University of Malaga, Spain.
Gijón Noguerón, M. Podiatric Clinic Hnos, Granada, Spain.
Girard, O. UPRES - EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of
Montpellier 1, France.
Gómez Píriz, P.T. University of Sevilla, Spain.
Grivas, N. University Sports Centre, National University of Athens, Greece.
Guadalupe-Grau, A. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Phys-
ical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Guerra, S. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Educa-
tion, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Horiuchi, S. Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Japan.
Hornery, D.J. Australian Institute of Sport, University of Ballarat, Australia
and Tennis Australia.
de Hoyo, M. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y
Corporal, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain.
Hughes, M.D. CPA, UWIC, Cyncoed, Cardiff, UK.
List of contributors xvii
Hughes, M.G. Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute,
Cardiff. Cardiff, UK and Badminton England, National Badminton Club,
Milton Keynes, UK.
Hughes, M.T. English Institute of Sport, North West Region, Manchester,
UK.
Igawa, S. Faculty of Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan.
Jospin, L. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France.
Kahn, J.-F. Laboratory of Physiology, University of Paris 6, France and
ITTF, Renens, Switzerland.
Kindermann, W. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of
Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Kodama, M. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
Kondrič, M. Faculty of Sport,University in Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Kornfeind, P. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Wien,
Austria.
Kovačič, S. Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia.
Kurata, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
Lapszo, J. Academy of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland.
Lazzari, S. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France.
Lees, A. Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences. Liverpool John
Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
Lenartowicz , M. Department of Sociology, The Józef Piłsudski University
of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland.
Leser, R. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Austria.
Leveque, F. UPRES - EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of
Llopis Goig, D. Altorendimiento.net, Spain.
Llopis Goig, R. Departament of Sociology, University of Valencia, Spain.
López de Subijana, C. Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Alcala
de Henares University, Spain.
Maeda, A. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
Mantis, K. Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democri-
tus University of Thrace, Greece.
xviii List of contributors
Martínez, E. I.E.S. Cabo de la Huerta, Alicante, Spain.
Matković, B. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Matković, B. R. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Mesa Alonso, A. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physiology
and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Málaga, Spain.
Meyers, R.W. Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute Cardiff
(UWIC), Cardiff, UK.
Meyer, T. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saar-
land, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Micallef, J.-P. UPRES – EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of
Millet, G.P. ASPIRE, Academy for Sport Excellence, Doha, Qatar.
Miyazaki, M. Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Japan.
Mujika, I. Department of Research and Development, Athletic Club Bilbao,
Spain.
Navarro, E. Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Polytechnic
University of Madrid, Spain.
Nishizono, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
O’Donoghue, P. G. School of Sport, University of Wales Institute Cardiff,
Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff, UK.
Olmedillas, H. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical
Oswald, E. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Auf der
Schmelz 6A, A-1150 Wien, Austria.
Pain, M.D. Department of Sport and Recreation, Victoria University, Mel-
bourne, Australia.
París, F. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y Cor-
poral, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain.
Pearce, A. J. Centre for Aging, Rehabilitation, Exercise and Sport (CARES),
Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
Pedišić, Ž. Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
Perš, J. Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Petrinović-Zekan, L. Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb,
Croatia.
Pradas, F. Faculty of Health and Sport Science, University of Zaragoza,
Huesca, Spain.
List of contributors xix
Rivas, F. Spanish Badminton Federation, Madrid, Spain.
Ruz̄ić, L. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Ruiz, A. Badminton Spanish Federation and University of Alicante, Ali-
cante, Spain.
Rymarczyk, P. Department of Sociology, The Józef Piłsudski University of
Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland.
Sanchís-Moysi, J. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical
Sañudo, B. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y
Corporal, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain.
Sato, T. Faculty of Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan.
Savelsbergh, G.J.P. Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Move-
ment Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands and theIn-
stitute for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement,
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.
Seki, K. Faculty of Sport Science, Waseda University, Japan.
Takahashi, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
Torres Luque, Gema, Catholic University of Murcia, Spain.
Tudor-Barbaros, P. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Unierzyski, P. University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland.
Van der Kamp, J. Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement
Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands and the Institute
of Human Performance, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Vučković, G. Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Wada, T. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan.
Watanabe, E. Faculty of Human Health Science, Hachinohe University,
Aomori, Japan.
Williams, A.M. Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool
John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
Young, W. University of Ballarat, Australia.
Young, J. A. Department of Sport and Recreation, Victoria University, Mel-
bourne, Australia.
Ziemann, E. Department of Physiology, Academy of Physical Education and
Sport, Gdańsk, Poland, and the Polish Tennis Federation Warszawa,
Poland.
Preface
The meeting of the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports was
held at the Spanish Olympic Centre, Madrid, 21–23 September 2006 and was
hosted by the Spanish Badminton Association. The Congress was held in
parallel with the World Badminton Championships which together with the
presence of many coaches from the badminton world, provided a strong
applied flavour to the Congress.
The World Congress of Science and Racket Sports series began in 1993
with the first Congress being held at Runcorn, UK. The second was held at
the National Sports Centre, Lilleshall, UK in 1997, and the third in Paris in
2003. They are a part of the academic programmes initiated by the World
Commission of Science and Sports which, over the last three decades, has
promoted applied sports science congresses on swimming, football, golf, cyc-
ling, cricket and winter sports. The broad aim of these congresses is to bring
together scientists whose research work is concerned with particular sports,
and practitioners in these sports who are interested in obtaining current
information about scientific aspects.
The aims of each congress are thus broadly similar and so when the
opportunity arose to hold the congress in conjunction with a major World
Championship this was welcomed. The scientific programme consisted of a
series of keynote lectures, podium communications and poster presentations.
The result was a well-attended congress with participants from every contin-
ent who were able to interact across the scientific disciplines and across the
various racket sports.
The organizers are indebted to the Spanish Badminton Federation and
Madrid Town Hall whose sponsorship of the event ensured its success. The
organizers are also grateful for the co-operation and support given by the
following organizations and institutions:
Spanish Sport Council – Ministry of Education

Community of Madrid
Spanish Olympic Committee
University of Granada
National Institute of Physical Education – University of Madrid
xxii Preface
Catholic University of Murcia
World Badminton Federation
Spanish Tennis Federation
Spanish Tennis Table Federation
Spanish Paddle Federation
Spanish Squash Federation
High Performance Publisher.
Introduction
This volume is the fourth in the Science and Racket Sport series and contains
papers presented at the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket
Sports which was held at the Spanish Olympic Centre, Madrid, Spain, from
21–23 September 2006.
Each manuscript has been subject to peer review by at least two expert
referees and editorial judgement before being accepted for publication. This
review process has ensured that there is consistency and a high level of
scientific quality across all papers. We are particularly indebted to those
anonymous reviewers without whose help this volume could never have been
completed on time.
The volume contains 42 papers covering all four racket sports, although
several address issues which have application across all racket disciplines.
The papers are organized into five scientific parts, each part representing a
theme of the Congress and in most cases introduced by one of the keynote
lectures. The choice of location of papers in a section was at the discretion
of the editors and it is acknowledged that some papers could fit happily
into more than one section. A choice had to be made and it should be
remembered that this choice was an attempt to aid the reader rather than to
categorize work, which in many cases represents the best of interdisciplinary
research.
The sections and papers indicate current research in the racket sports
and provide markers for the topics that researchers are currently addressing.
Less than half of the papers presented at the Congress are included due to
non-submission or rejection due to lateness or inadequate scientific merit.
Nevertheless those contained within are a reasonable reflection of the topics
covered within the Congress programme.
The editors are grateful to the contributors for their painstaking prepar-
ation of the manuscript and their willingness to comply with the publisher’s
guidelines and deadlines. We are also indebted to them for rapid and helpful
responses to queries raised in the editing process.
It is our aim that the papers in this volume should function as an up-to-
date reference for researchers in the racket sports and yield important current
information for racket sport practitioners. The material may motivate others
2 Introduction
to embark on research programmes prior to the Fifth World Congress of
Science and Racket Sports.
Adrian Lees
David Cabello
Gema Torres
Part 1
Physiology of racket sports

1 Physiological testing
in badminton
O. Faude, T. Meyer, M. Fries and W. Kindermann
Introduction
Badminton is a racket sport that involves intermittent, high-intensity exercise.
Professional badminton requires a high level of technical skill, tactical com-
petence and physical capacity. From a physiological point of view it is of
primary interest to know the cardiovascular and metabolic demands of bad-
minton. The aim of this report is to give an overview of characteristics and
physiological demands of badminton match-play. In addition, consequences
for physiological testing in badminton are presented and implications for the
design of training programmes are outlined.
Characteristics of badminton match-play
Match characteristics
The size of a badminton court is 6.70 × 5.18 m (single) or 6.70 × 6.10 m
(double), respectively. Since the rally point scoring system has been intro-
duced, a match usually lasts between 20 min and an hour. Average match
duration in the World Championship 2006 in Madrid was 33.6 min for
womens’ and mens’ singles, respectively (www.internationalbadminton.org/
results.asp). Liddle et al. (1996) analysed ten elite male badminton players
during competition and observed that they covered a total distance of 1862 m
during singles and 1108 m during doubles matches. These distances are
covered with frequent changes in speed and direction including distinct
accelerations and decelerations. During one rally, professional players reach
maximal velocities of about 4 m.s−1 over a maximal distance of 8 m (Kollath
et al., 1987).
In racket sports, there may be considerable differences in the temporal
structure of the game (Docherty, 1982; Glaister, 2005). Mean rally times in
squash, badminton, and tennis range from 5 to 10 s, the work to rest ratios
are reported to vary between 1:1 (squash) and 1:5 (tennis). Average rally and
rest time intervals in badminton during international tournament matches
were reported to be 6.4 s and 12.9 s, respectively, with an average of 6.1 shots
played per rally (Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003). More than 80 per cent
6 O. Faude et al.
of all rallies are shorter than 10 s (Liddle et al., 1996; Cabello and Gonzalez-
Badillo, 2003). Stroke frequency (SF) and effective playing time (EPT) seem
to be slightly higher in badminton (SF = 0.93 shots per second, EPT = 33 per
cent, Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003) compared to tennis (SF = 0.75
shots per second, EPT = 25 per cent, Smekal et al., 2001).
Physiological characteristics
Knowledge about cardiovascular, metabolic and respiratory demands in cer-
tain types of sports provides the basis for adequate performance assessment
and evidence-based design of training regimens. There are only a few pub-
lished studies of physiological characteristics in badminton. Most of these
studies were focused on heart rate data and blood lactate measurements
during badminton competition.
Docherty (1982) reported heart rate (HR) values of 80–85 per cent of the
predicted maximal heart rate (HRmax) during badminton competition. More
recent studies observed average values of 86 per cent (Majumdar et al., 1997),
91 per cent (Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003) and 93 per cent
HRmax (Liddle et al., 1996) during singles matches. These values demonstrate
a high average intensity during badminton match-play. Blood lactate concen-
trations during high-level badminton matches were recorded between 3.8
and 4.7 mmol*l−1 (Majumdar et al., 1997; Weiler et al., 1997; Cabello and
Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003). Weiler et al. (1997) analysed catecholamine concen-
trations during badminton training and high level competition. Although
blood lactate concentrations were higher during the analysed training pro-
gramme the relation between catecholamine and lactate concentrations was
higher during real competition. This finding may reflect the greater psycho-
logical stress of the subjects during match-play.
In addition to heart rate monitoring and blood lactate determinations,
ambulatory gas exchange measurements offer the opportunity to evaluate the
physiological profile of discipline-specific performance directly (Meyer et al.,
2005a). Majumdar et al. (1997) estimated oxygen uptake (VO2) during bad-
minton matches using heart rate data as well as the HR–VO2 relationship
obtained during treadmill running and arrived at the conclusion that mean
VO2 was about 57 per cent of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Faccini and
Dal Monte (1996) observed an average VO2 during badminton match-play of
35.7 ml.min−1 .kg−1 corresponding to 60.4 per cent VO2max in seven nationally
ranked male Italian players. These values are higher than those observed
during singles tennis match-play in six male players who reached an average
VO2 of 25.6 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (~54 per cent VO2max, Ferrauti et al., 2001). Simi-
lar average VO2 values with considerable interindividual differences (VO2
ranging between 20 and 87 per cent VO2max) were reported by Smekal et al.
(2001) in 20 male tennis players of the two highest leagues in Austria. These
studies, however, reported average and maximal physiological values but no
measures reflecting the sport-specific exercise dynamics.
Physiological testing in badminton 7
In our own approach, 12 internationally ranked badminton players (eight
women, four men, VO2max = 50.3 ± 4.1 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (women) and 61.8 ±
5.9 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (men), respectively) were studied during a simulated bad-
minton match of 2 × 15 min with ambulatory gas exchange (breath-by-
breath) and heart rate measurements as well as the determination of blood
lactate concentrations before, after 15 min and at the end of the match. Match
characteristics were similar to those obtained by Cabello and Gonzalez-
Badillo (2003) and, therefore, it is tenable that the observed data may
adequately reflect real badminton conditions. Mean VO2, HR and blood
lactate concentrations during the matches was 39.6 ± 5.7 ml.min−1 .kg−1
(73.3 per cent VO2max), 169 ± 9 beats.min−1 (89.0 per cent HRmax) and 1.9 ±
0.7 mmol.l−1, respectively. In one single subject, VO2 and HR during match-
play varied between 45 and 100 per cent VO2max and 78 and 100 per cent
HRmax (unpublished data).
The results of this descriptive study revealed a high average intensity of
badminton match-play. Considerable fluctuations in several physiological
variables represent the intermittent nature of the game. The findings demon-
strate the importance of alactacid as well as aerobic energy production in
badminton. A well-developed aerobic endurance capacity seems to be neces-
sary for a fast recovery between rallies or intensive training workouts. In
contrast, anaerobic/lactacid capacity seems to be of minor importance.
Physiological testing
The characteristics of badminton match-play suggest that a well-developed
endurance capacity as well as the ability to generate high velocities over
short distances (Kollath et al., 1987) are probably decisive in competititve
high-level badminton. Therefore, important parameters may be endurance
performance and speed abilities.
Endurance and speed testing

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is probably the most widely accepted single
parameter for the estimation of endurance capacity in healthy subjects
(Shephard et al., 1968). The VO2max values of competitive badminton players
were reported to be in a range from 45 to 53.3 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (female subjects,
Miao and Wang, 1988; Gosh et al., 1993;) and 55.7 to 63.4 ml.min−1 .kg−1
(male players, Faccini and Dal Monte, 1996; Majumdar et al., 1997; Miao
and Wang, 1988), respectively. These values are comparable to male tennis
players (57.3 ml.min−1 .kg−1, Smekal et al., 2001) and slightly lower than those
of professional soccer players (50–75 ml.min−1 .kg−1, Stolen et al., 2005).
Although VO2max is a generally accepted criterion for endurance capacity,
there are several concerns with regard to the use of VO2max in the diagnosis of
endurance performance. For instance, there are some methodological aspects
which should be critically considered when using VO2max (Meyer et al., 2005b).
8 O. Faude et al.
In addition to the mode of exercise (e.g. running or cycling) and the protocol
used to reach VO2max, it is important that subjects spend a sufficient degree
of maximal effort. This should be proven by objective parameters (e.g. VO2
plateau, maximal heart rate, and maximal blood lactate concentrations).
Furthermore, it is questionable if VO2max is sensitive enough to detect slight
but relevant differences or changes in endurance capacity in high-level athletes
(Coyle et al., 1991).
There is evidence that submaximal (lactate or ventilatory) thresholds give
more exact information about the endurance capacity of different individuals
in homogenous groups (Coyle et al., 1991). Unfortunately, a review of the
scientific literature on lactate and ventilatory thresholds will result in a var-
iety of different ‘threshold concepts’. In our working group the model of the
individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) (Stegmann et al., 1981) has been
developed. Several studies have shown that it estimates the maximal lactate
steady state well (McLellan and Jacobs, 1993; Urhausen et al., 1993). It has
been established for testing endurance capacity in various sports, mainly
endurance and different team sports. The German national badminton team
in the mid-1990s reached average IAT values of 14.7 km.h−1 (Weiler et al.,
1997; Weiler et al., 1996). German national squad soccer players at the same
time had slightly lower values (~14.3 km.h−1, Meyer et al., 2000).
In addition to endurance performance, Weiler et al. (1997) compared speed
abilities of elite badminton players of different nations using a 5 × 30 m
sprint test, as it is often used in various game sports (e.g. soccer, Kindermann
et al., 1998; Stolen et al., 2005). It was observed that elite Indonesian players
(N = 7, top 15) were faster than the German team squad players, particularly
over the first 10 m. Because sprinting distance in one direction is never more
than 8 m during badminton match-play (Kollath et al., 1987), Weiler et al.
(1997) compared the 5 × 30 m sprint test with 10 × 10 m maximal sprinting.
The authors did not find any relevant differences between groups for the
5-m and 10-m split times. Therefore, a 10 × 10 m test may be similarily
appropriate for testing straight sprint abilities of badminton players.
Badminton-specific testing of endurance and agility

Badminton players do not run in a straight direction for long distances. They
play on a small-sided court with frequent changes in running direction. A
limitation of testing general endurance capacity and ‘straight speed abilities’
might be that the specific musculature and movement patterns are not engaged
sufficiently. Therefore, it seems justified to use more discipline-specific
approaches to assess endurance and speed abilities in badminton players.
Chin et al. (1995) as well as Coen et al. (1998) employed an incremental
‘on-court’ test to evaluate badminton-specific endurance. A similar test
protocol recently has been used in elite squash players (Girard et al., 2005).
The test is designed as a stepwise increasing exercise test as it is common in
routine sports medical context. Speed and direction are given by computerized
flashing light signals placed on a board (six lights for four corners and two
sides). The lights flash up in a randomized order with a regulated frequency.
Intensity is controlled by the frequency of the lights flashing. From the
lactate-workload plot it is possible to determine an individual anaerobic
threshold.
Chin et al. (1995) compared the rank order (based on objectice physio-
logical assessment on the field and on subjective impressions of the trainers)
of 12 Hong Kong national team players with the results of this specific
endurance test (4 mmol.l−1 anaerobic threshold). They found a significant
correlation of r = 0.65 and, therefore, concluded that this field test allows a
reasonable estimate of players’ discipline-specific fitness levels and should be
included as a means of on-court conditioning. A similar conclusion was
obtained by Coen et al. (1998) who compared IAT determined from a graded
running test and from the incremental ‘on-court’ test. A significant correl-
ation (r = 0.58) between IAT determined from both tests was observed
although considerable inter-individual deviations were present. Therefore, it
was concluded that the badminton-specific test gives detailed information on
badminton-specific endurance capacity. This information allows assessors to
monitor badminton-specific endurance training on the court. Because spe-
cific and general endurance capacity do not inevitably give intra-individually
consistent results, complementary testing seems reasonable.
Speed abilities with quick turns, decelerations and accelerations usually are
determined by agility tests. Up to now, there are no published data on agility
testing in high-level badminton players. Gabbett et al. (2006) described a so-
called ‘T-Test’ for testing agility in 26 young, talented volleyball players.
Players must run as quickly as possible along the agility course, which con-
sists of four cones placed 5 m apart in the shape of an inverted T. This test
seems appropriate for badminton, too (sprints of 5 to 10 m with quick turns).
However, there are some concerns regarding the term ‘agility’. In a current
review Sheppard and Young (2006) stated that there is no general agreement
on a precise definition of agility within the sport science community. The
authors proposed to define agility as ‘a rapid whole-body movement with
change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus’. Additionally, it is
unclear which trainable components may enhance agility. From a theoretical
point of view, the ability to accelerate, decelerate, and change direction rap-
idly might be an important prerequisite in badminton. Therefore, it seems
appropriate to establish standardized and scientifically validated agility tests
for badminton. Future research should evaluate adequate test procedures to
obtain valid and reliable test results as well as reference values for high-level
badminton players.
Implications for badminton training

As it can be deduced from the characteristics of badminton match-play, aer-
obic and alactacid energy production form the dominant metabolic pathways
10 O. Faude et al.
during badminton match-play. Therefore, a fast resynthesis of phosphocreat-
ine (PCr) stores between rallies seems to be an important factor for optimal
physical performance. Tomlin and Wenger (2001) suggested that a well-
developed aerobic fitness enhances recovery from high-intensity intermittent
exercise, particularly through an increased aerobic response during exercise as
well as an enhanced PCr regeneration during breaks. Therefore, it can be
assumed that an appropriate endurance capacity is necessary to allow for a
fast recovery between rallies or intensive training workouts. Furthermore, it
might be appropriate to reproduce the intermittent nature of badminton
match-play in training sessions to improve alactacid pathways.
Up to now, there is only one study of a training period with regard to
improvements in physical fitness in badminton players. Gosh et al. (1993)
followed five female badminton players (age: 13–14 years) over a three-week
training camp, which was dominated by specific on-court training at inten-
sities in the range of 78 to 90 per cent of maximal heart rate. After the
training camp they observed a 6 per cent and a 9 per cent increase in VO2max
and ventilatory anaerobic threshold, respectively. As sample size was quite
small and subjects were very young, the generalizability of these results to
high-level athletes will have to be further evaluated.
In our own study, we followed 40 international badminton players (mean
age: 21.5 years) during a two months’ period of intensified training at the
Badminton World Training Centre in Saarbrücken (unpublished data). The
training programme focused on athletic and fitness training. Athletes
trained six days per week, twice each day for a total of 21.5 hours per week
on average. About 32 per cent of this training consisted of technique and
coordination training, for instance low-intensity multifeeding and footwork.
About half of the total training amount was specific conditioning, includ-
ing high-intensity multifeeding, footwork and matches. About 20 per cent
of the total time was spent for general conditioning as well as weight and
power training. A total of 17 female and 23 male players completed a
graded running test at the onset as well as at the end of the training camp.
Within this two months’ period subjects improved their IAT up to values
comparable to those found in national squad members in badminton and
soccer (females: +0.7 km.h−1, males: +0.6 km.h−1). It can be concluded that
intensive badminton training with an emphasis on athletics and fitness con-
siderably improves endurance capacity of badminton players within two
months.
Some studies also evaluated the blood lactate responses during different
badminton-specific training programmes. For instance, Gosh et al. (1993)
observed lactate levels during badminton training between 3.2 and
6.2 mmol.l−1. The highest lactate values were found during training without a
shuttlecock (‘shadow play’). Weiler et al. (1997) reported individual lactate
values between 3.4 and 10.5 mmol.l−1 (mean: 6.7 mmol*l−1) at the end of an
intensive on-court training programme (1 vs. 2, 2 × 5 min with 10 min rest).
Similarly, Majumdar et al. (1997) recorded lactate levels between 8.0 and
10.5 mmol.l−1 during five different on-court training programmes (‘shadow
play’ and ‘multishuttle’ with various work-to-rest ratios). These results suggest
that energetic requirements of typical intensive on-court training programmes
are met with considerable contribution of lactacid pathways. Therefore, it
seems obvious that metabolic pathways are trained even though they may be
of minor importance in badminton match-play.
Conclusions and perspectives

In summary, badminton match-play is characterized by high intensity, inter-
mittent actions separated by short rest periods. The average intensity is about
70 per cent VO2max. Energy requirements are mainly met by aerobic and
alactacid metabolic pathways. Therefore, a well-developed endurance cap-
acity as well as good speed abilities over short distances with quick turns may
be the most important performance prerequisites for badminton.
The use of scientifically validated physiological tests is the basis for an
evidence-based fitness assessment and for rational training recommenda-
tions. Future research should focus on the evaluation of test procedures for
badminton-specific endurance capacity and speed abilities.
Badminton training regimens should be designed to induce the develop-
ment of a sufficient endurance capacity. Additionally, it may be advisable to
reproduce the intermittent nature of the sport, particularly with regard to
alactacid energy production to improve badminton specific metabolic path-
ways. Future perspectives might be seen in ambulatory gas exchange meas-
urements during typical training sessions to describe metabolic processes in
more detail (Meyer et al., 2005a).
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2 Core temperature and
hydration status in professional
tennis players measured in live
tournament conditions
A.J. Pearce
Introduction
The physiological demands of tennis are well published (see reviews by
Kovacs, 2006 and Fernandez et al., 2006) and vary between standard of
player (Bernardi et al., 1998), surfaces played on (Hughes and Clarke, 1995)
and playing styles/strategies (Hughes and Moore, 1998). In addition to the
physically demanding aspects of tennis, another major challenge presented to
players is the environment. Heat, and dehydration in particular, present
major obstacles to performance (Marks et al., 2004). Dawson et al. (1985)
observed that professional tennis players, competing in year-round tourna-
ment calendars, participate in a wide variety of climatic conditions from cool
and dry conditions to hot and/or humid conditions.
For many players, life on the professional circuit is difficult. Unlike major
tournaments, such as the Grand Slams, where players may have a day’s rest
in-between to recover from their matches (if they are only playing singles), for
players participating in lower tiered events run by the International Tennis
Federation (ITF) which includes Satellite, Challenger and Futures events, it
is common to be playing on a daily basis. Adding further difficulty, timing of
matches is unpredictable and in some cases a player may have to compete
in several matches a day. For these players, issues of heat adaptation and
hydration practices are important.
The ITF and a number of National Tennis Federations have adopted pol-
icies for hot conditions whereby play will be suspended when the dry bulb
globe temperature (ambient temperature) and wet bulb globe temperature
(heat stress) reach a particular limit. These heat policies have been developed
from generic sports medicine and military research data (Sparling and Millard-
Stafford, 1999; Bricknell, 1996). Given that these heat policies are based on
generic data, and with recent cases of players suffering from heat stress dur-
ing professional tournament play, the need to develop tennis-specific guide-
lines has been raised by the ITF Medical Commission. To date, research in
thermoregulation and hydration practices specific to tennis has only been
conducted under simulated tennis conditions (Dawson et al., 1985; Bergeron
et al., 1991; Kavasis, 1995; Therminarias et al., 1995; McCarthy et al., 1998).
Core temperature and hydration status 15
Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine core temperature
responses and hydration status measured in professional touring players dur-
ing live tournament conditions.
Methods
Participants
All professional tennis players who entered ITF and Tennis Australia sanc-
tioned professional tournaments in South Australia and Victoria, Australia,
in 2004 and 2005 were invited to participate in the study. Eleven players (three
male, eight female; aged between 19 and 30 years of age) participated. All
methods were approved by Victoria University Human Ethics Committee and
the ITF Medical Commission. Data were collected over three tournaments
played on hard courts.
Testing
Measurement of environmental conditions (ambient temperature as meas-
ured by dry globe bulb temperature (DBGT); relative humidity (RH); and
heat stress as measured by wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT)) were
conducted using an environmental measurement monitor (Kestrel 3000,
Nielsen-Kellerman, USA). For regional tournaments where continuous on-
court measurements were not taken, measurements were obtained from the
Melbourne and Adelaide Bureau of Meteorology at the weather station clos-
est to the tournament site.
Hydration status was measured using a hand-held refractometer (Atago
Co., Japan) presenting a measure of the player’s urine specific gravity
(g.ml−1). Players provided a ‘clean-catch’ (mid-stream) sample pre- and post-
match. Body mass before and after the match were measured to the nearest
100 g using scales which were calibrated daily during the events.
Each player’s internal core temperature was measured via ingestion of a
CorTemp176 core body temperature sensor pill (Figure 2.1). The sensor pill
transmitted the player’s core temperature and measured by CorTemp176
wireless telemetry system during the 90-s change of ends when players were
seated. The measure of progressive core temperature was taken without dis-
turbing the players during their rest time (Figure 2.2). Due to small numbers
of subjects participating in the study, descriptive statistics are presented as
means and standard deviations.
Results
The time duration of matches recorded during the tournaments ranged
from 50 min to 160 min. No players experienced any form of heat illness
during the tournaments nor adverse affects from swallowing the temperature
16 A.J. Pearce
Figure 2.1 Core body temperature sensor pill.
sensor. Of the 11 players participating, five progressed past the first round,
with three of these players participating in three or more consecutive rounds.
Environmental conditions
The environmental conditions varied throughout the three tournaments.
On-court ambient temperature DBGT recorded during all tournaments
ranged between 17 and 38°C. However, only one of the days, in all three
tournaments, saw ambient temperature exceed 35°C. Heat stress, measured
by WBGT, ranged from 10.8 to 29.0°C with WBGT exceeding 28.0°C on the
same day as ambient temperature exceeded 35°C. Relative humidity ranged
between 14 and 93 per cent.
Hydration status: urine specific gravity and body mass

Pre-match hydration measures ranged between 1.003 to 1.024 g.ml−1 (mean
1.014 ± 0.008 g.ml−1) with post-match measures ranging between 1.004 to
1.025 g.ml−1 (mean 1.012 ± 0.010 g.ml−1). Table 2.1 presents individual
pre-match and post-match hydration levels. In five of the matches players
presented with decreased hydration status post-match (range 0.004 to
0.013 g.ml−1), however, in four matches players presented with an increased
hydration status post-match (range 0.005 to 0.017 g.ml−1). Three matches
showed no change in hydration status.
The change in body mass (Table 2.2) from before to after matches ranged
Figure 2.2 Measurement of a player in-match during change of ends.
from 2.9 per cent deficit to 2.0 per cent increase pre- and post-match (mean
0.09 ± 1.28 per cent deficit). Analysis of individual matches showed that
in five matches, players lost weight (range 0.27 per cent to 2.9 per cent of
body weight). In eight matches players showed increased weight post-match
(range 0.15 per cent to 2 per cent), and in two matches no change was
observed.
Core temperature measures

All players experienced an increase in core temperature during the match
ranging between 0.1 to 2.3°C (Table 2.3). Individual analysis showed little
correlation between the ambient temperature and a player’s mean core tem-
perature (r = −0.28).
Four of the five players showed an overall trend of increased mean core
18 A.J. Pearce
Table 2.1 Hydration status as measured by specific gravity (g.ml−1)
Subject Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
1 1.014 N/A Out of tournament

2 1.015 1.028 Out of tournament
3 1.014 1.020 1.020 1.025 Out of tournament
6 1.020 1.025 1.015* N/A 1.015 1.005 1.015* N/A
7 1.024 1.007 1.003 1.007 1.017 1.007 Out of
tournament
9 N/A N/A Out of tournament
10 N/A Out of tournament
11 N/A 1.025* N/A 1.025 1.020 1.025* N/A
Notes: N/A refers to players unable to provide a urine sample

* Rain delay affected post-match hydration status results
Table 2.2 Hydration status as measured by changes in athlete body mass (kg). A
negative number represents a loss in body mass; a positive number represents a gain in
body weight
Subject Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4
1 N/A* Out of tournament

2 0.0 Out of tournament
4 −0.2 Out of tournament
6 −0.3 N/A* 1.35 N/A*
7 1.0 0.0 0.5 Out of tournament
9 −1.4 −0.8 Out of tournament
10 −2.6 Out of tournament
11 N/A* N/A* 0.5 N/A*
Notes: N/A refers to players did not provide body mass sample
* Rain delay affected post-match body weight results
Table 2.3 Core temperature at match start, peak and mean core temperature during
player’s first match across three tournaments
Subject Core temperature – Core temperature – Core temperature –

match start (°C) peak (°C) mean (°C)
1 37.2 39.5 38.5

2 38.1 38.6 38.4
3 37.9 38.5 38.0
4 37.6 37.8 37.7
5 38.3 39.1 38.8
6 37.1 37.8 37.3
7 38.4 38.5 38.4
8 37.7 37.8 37.7
9 37.3 38.7 38.0
10 36.4 37.4 36.6
11 37.3 39.6 38.1
Table 2.4 Mean core temperature responses in five players who progressed past the
first round
Subject Round 1 (°C) Round 2 (°C) Round 3 (°C) Round 4 (°C)

6 36.82 38.00 38.22 38.68
7 38.44 38.57 39.68 Out of tournament
11 N/A 38.15 36.44 38.59
Note: N/A – not available.
temperature in the preceding day’s matches (Table 2.4). Of the nine matches
where core temperature was recorded, seven caused an increase in mean core
temperature compared to the previous day’s match.
Discussion
This study is the first to present core temperature and hydration status data
from professional tennis players under live competitive tournament playing
conditions. All players who participated in the study were provided with a
personalized report of their hydration status and core temperature results
from the matches) played.
The results suggest that despite inadequate pre-match and during-match
hydration status in some players, players involved in ‘singular’ matches
(where players are playing in their first match and/or only play one round)
20 A.J. Pearce
did not present with extremely elevated core body temperatures. Players
who progressed through several rounds showed an increased mean core
temperature compared to their previous match (in all but two matches) not-
withstanding on-court environmental conditions.
Given the nature of professional tennis tournaments where players are not
fully aware of when they are playing (organizers schedule matches in order of
play on each court rather than to time), standardization issues such as provid-
ing a urine sample, and the ingestion of the temperature sensor contributed
to missed data points. Further, several athletes who initially volunteered for
the study withdrew prior to the tournament or in the initial stages of their
first match due to injury.
Studies simulating tennis play (Dawson et al., 1985; Bergeron et al., 1995;
McCarthy et al., 1998) have shown decreases in body weight that suggest
dehydration. However, in this study an increase in body mass and improve-
ment in hydration status was observed in a number of players. Four players
started their matches in a dehydrated state, defined by Stuempfle and Drury
(2003) as urine specific gravity >1.020, and hydratied during changeovers in
the match. Despite numerous articles on athlete hydration in the coaching and
sports science literature (Groppel, 2002; Mannie, 2004; Armstrong, 2006),
eight of the eleven players participating in the study admitted they were
unaware of their hydration status or admitted they did not prepare properly.
Core temperature results from single and/or first round matches were simi-
lar (or slightly lower) to those reported by Dawson et al. (1985) and Thermi-
narias et al. (1995), being 38.4°C in college and intermediate level players
respectively. The trend of increasing mean core temperatures in players in
progressive matches needs to be further explored.
Further study and data collection of players’ core temperature and hydra-
tion status needs to be conducted under live tournament conditions where
valuable ranking points and prize money are at stake. More importantly
research must continue with a view to obtaining thermoregulatory data on
days of extreme and stressful heat as the current study was limited in the
actual temperature range in which data were collected. This would allow for
meaningful and specific evidence-based data to assist the ITF, WTA/ATP and
tennis federations in determining and regulating player heat stress, and the
development of appropriate and tennis-specific heat policies.
Acknowledgments
Funding for the study was provided by the International Tennis Federation
and Smartplay (Sports Medicine Australia, Victoria Branch).
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3 Anaerobic performance during
intermittent exercise and body
composition in tennis players of
different biological and
chronological ages
E. Ziemann and T. Garsztka
Introduction
Tennis is a sport characterized by a variety of demands on the human body,
all depending on the level of play. Tennis requires coordination, agility, speed,
quickness, cardio-respiratory endurance, local muscle endurance, strength
and power. Each aspect becomes more important at higher levels of play. The
somatic characteristics of body size, structure and composition are substan-
tial determinants of athletic success. The training process of a tennis player
should develop each fitness component and metabolic pathway, especially
the anaerobic lactic and alactic system. Furthermore the training load
may be modified by age and game style. A player’s game style and physical
characteristics will have an impact on the type of conditioning the player
should perform. At 14 years, girls can start an individualized physical con-
ditioning programme according to their game style and physical character-
istics recommended by the International Tennis Federation. Boys may begin
such a programme soon thereafter. The question is whether biological or
chronological age is more important for performance and training.
The focus of this study was to assess the influence of body size and com-
position on anaerobic performance of tennis players from different age
groups during intermittent workloads. We have investigated the relationship
between anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity and body composition (fat
mass, fat-free mass). Anaerobic capacity and power are usually tested in the
laboratory using advanced equipment. On the court it is possible to control
several features of physical ability (coordination, agility, speed and so on) but
a correlation between laboratory results and the athlete’s tennis stroke rating
have been shown to be poor (Kovacs, 2006). The purpose of our study was to
investigate the relationship between selected physiological responses during
laboratory and on-court test.
Anaerobic performance 23
Methods
Participants
Eighteen male tennis players, all members of the Polish Tennis Federation,
took part in this study. They were ranked among the highest in their age
categories. The subjects were separated into four groups depending on their
chronological age.
Preliminary testing
Body composition was estimated by bio-electrical impedance using Tanita
Body Fat Monitor/Scale Analyser TBF-300 on the first testing day. Then
subjects performed supra-maximal 15-s Wingate tests on a cycle ergometer
(Monark Sprint Bike 884E) following the procedure of Bar Or (Bar Or, 1978,
1987). This exercise was completed four times with 45-s rest between tests.
Before the first Wingate test the participant performed a warm-up lasting
3 min. Then the subject pedalled as rapidly as possible for 15-s and against
resistance of 0.74 N⭈kg−1 body mass. During the test we measured the
following values: total work, maximal power output, fatigue index, time to
peak power and time of sustained peak power.
Experimental testing
Two days later a tennis-specific drill (Figure 3.1) was performed. The drill was
labelled ‘PUST’, an acronym derived from the Polish language words describ-
ing the movements performed. These movements were similar to those made
during a tennis match (run, forehand, backhand, volley and smash). This
exercise was performed with a tennis racket in hand but without a tennis ball.
The elapsed time was measured by timing gates. This tennis drill was repeated
six times with a 30-s break after each drill (Garsztka, 2003).
Environmental conditions
The laboratory test was performed in ambient conditions of 20–22 °C, and
60 per cent humidity. The field test was performed in ambient conditions of
19–21 °C and 65 per cent humidity.
Statistics
Statistical analysis was performed by using Statistica 6.0 for Windows. Data
are presented as mean values ± standard deviation (SD). Differences between
groups and between each test was evaluated by RIR Tukey test. Significance
was set at P < 0.05 Correlations were computed by the Pearson Product
Moment.
24 E. Ziemann and T. Garsztka
Figure 3.1 Directions of movement during the ‘PUST’ tennis-specific drill.
Results
Body composition
The anthropometric data of subjects are shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Fat
mass ranged from 10 to 18 per cent. The group of 17 year olds had the highest
per cent fat mass and total amount of fat (kg). There was significant differ-
ence in fat mass observed between the 17 and 15 year olds.
Anaerobic performance
The anaerobic performance results tests are presented in Table 3.3. The
smallest difference between first and last anaerobic test was observed in the
group of 16-year-old tennis players. The anaerobic capacity and anaerobic
power during the last trial were 11 per cent and 9.5 per cent lower respectively
than in the first test.
A significant negative correlation between lean body mass and values of
total work J⭈kg−1 was noticed only for the 15 year olds during the second and
third tests (r = −0.92, r = −0.92) respectively. There were no other significant
correlations between anaerobic performance measures and body composition
in the other groups. Body mass for the 18 and 16 year olds was correlated
Table 3.1 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects (chronological age)
Subjects Mass Height Fat (%) FM (kg) FFM FFM/ BMI

(kg) (m) (kg) FM
Age 18 77.0±4.4 1.84±0.067 14.2±4.7 11.3±3.9 63.6±3.5* 6.4±2.9 22.1±0.6

N=4
Age 17 76.5±12 1.80±0.068 18.4±5.4 14.5±5.0* 61.9±8.0 5.1±3.3 23.4±2.8
N=5
Age 16 64.8±9.4 1.77±0.061 14.3±4.1 9.4±4.0 53.3±5.5* 6.0±2.8 20.6±2.1
N=4
Age 15 63.3±3.5 1.76±0.051 11.0±1.6 7.0±1.2* 56.1±3.1 8.2±0.8 20.2±1.4
N=5
Notes: Values are mean range ± SD, N – number of subjects, BMI – Body Mass Index, FM – fat
mass, FFM – free fat mass
* 17–15 P<0.05 Values significantly different
Table 3.2 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects (biological age)
Subjects Mass (kg) Height (m) Fat (%) FM (kg) FFM (kg))
Age 18 77.7±8.2 1.83±0.050 16.9±4.2* 13.4±4.3* 63.6±5.3

N=9
Age 17 66.5±5.2 1.79±0.056 13.5±2.1N 9.05±1.8N 54.7±0.4
N=2
Age 16 66.2±2.8 1.75±0.007 12.5±2.1 8.3±0.8 57.8±3.7
N=2
Age 15 60.1±5.1 1.72±0.027 10.0±1.7*N 5.9±1.3*N 53.9±4.2
N=5
Notes: * 18–15 P < 0.03 N 17–15 P < 0.02
with the fatigue index during the third and fourth test. In these groups there
were positive correlations r = 0. 9 and r = 0.97 between those results.
The biological age (Cieslik and Kaczmarek, 1994) of these tennis players
was determined for comparison with chronological age. The chronological
age was not the same as the biological age in every case. Many tennis players
had a higher biological age compared to their chronological age. In players
whose biological age was 18, a positive correlation between body mass and
total anaerobic work J⭈kg−1 (r = 0.76 r = 0.75) and anaerobic power W⭈kg−1
(r = 0.75, r = 0.77) was observed in the first and the second tests. A similar
correlation was also noticed in 15-year-old boys but only during the first test.
PUST performance
Table 3.4 shows the elapsed time for the specific tennis drill by repetition.
There were no significant differences between biological age groups. The
Table 3.3 Physiological characteristics in anaerobic capacity and anaerobic power in biological groups (total work expressed in (J⭈kg−1) and
power expressed in (W⭈kg−1))
No. of test 18-year-old group 17-year-old group 16-year-old group 15-year-old group
(J⭈kg−1) (W⭈kg−1) (J⭈kg−1) (W⭈kg−1) (J⭈kg−1) (W⭈kg−1) (J⭈kg−1) (W⭈kg−1)
Test 1 150±7.3* 11.2±0.6⭈ ⭈ 141±2.3* 10.5±1.6 145±9.2* 10.5±0.5⭈ ⭈ 138±5.6 11.0±0.3⭈ ⭈

Test 2 141±8.3 10.6±0.9 136±8.5 10.1±0.7 137±5.9 10.0±0.4 132±7.5 10.0±0.3⭈ ⭈
Test 3 128±6.7* 9.6±0.7⭈ ⭈ 122±6.6 9.3±0.7 133±2.1 9.8±0.1 125±3.5 9.4±0.3⭈ ⭈
Test 4 121±7.0* 9.2±0.7⭈ ⭈ 116±12* 8.72±0.9 128±5.1* 9.5±0.2⭈ ⭈ 117±8.4 9.0±0.4⭈ ⭈
Notes:
18 years Values significantly different determined by Tukey test *1–3 P < 0.005, *1–4 P < 0.0007, ⭈ ⭈1–3 P < 0.03, ⭈ ⭈1–4 P < 0.008, ⭈1–4 P < 0.04
17 years *1–4 P < 0.003
16 years *1–4 p < 0.007, ⭈ ⭈1–4 P < 0.007,
15 years ⭈ ⭈1–2 P < 0.001, ⭈ ⭈1–3 P < 0.0001, ⭈ ⭈1–4 p < 0.0001, ⭈ ⭈2–3 P < 0.03, ⭈ ⭈2–4 P < 0.0009
Table 3.4 Time of ‘PUST’ tennis drills in relation to biological age
Time 1 (s) Time 2 (s) Time 3 (s) Time 4 (s) Time 5 (s) Time 6 (s) Time
(average)
Age 18 9.122±0.2 9.234±0.6 9.162±0.2 9.332±0.3 9.457±0.4 9.377±0.6 9.283±0.3

Age 17 9.346±0.5 9.427±0.6 9.393±0.4 9.265±0.6 9.431±0.7 9.375±0.4 9.416±0.9
Age 16 9.228±0.4 9.102±0.4 9.229±0.4 9.227±0.4 9.147±0.4 9.158±0.4 9.175±0.4
Age 15 9.226±0.4 9.111±0.3 9.231±0.4 9.225±0.5 7.358±0.3 9.185±0.5 9.204±0.4
PUST scores were regressed against anaerobic power and capacity variables
(Wingate test). The correlation was strongest for the biological 18 year olds
for anaerobic power at every repetition (r = −0.85, r = −0.60, r = −0.62,
r = −0.74, Figure 3.1). Similar correlations were observed between anaerobic
capacity expressed in total work and average time of PUST (r = −0.92,
r = −0.76, r = −0.64, r = −0.82).
Discussion and conclusion

The testing of physical abilities related to performance and competition
should indicate the effectiveness of training. Tennis match-play is primarily
characterized by variety of short duration intermittent workloads of the
body’s muscular system with extensive and intensive work phases. Earlier
analyses by Kovacs (2004) have shown that mean duration of work and rest
periods during a tennis match are 5–10-s and 10–20-s respectively. The energy
requirements for a tennis match depend on the length and intensity of the
rally. International Tennis Federation investigators determined that the
anaerobic (alactic) system provides 70 per cent and lactic 20 per cent of all
energy expenditure (Crespo and Miley, 1998). The restoration of the phos-
phagen compounds from one performance to another is thus of obvious
importance. The replenishment of the muscle phosphagen store is rapid
(75 per cent of PCr used during exercise was restored within 1 minute of rest)
after maximal effort. The rest time during a game lasts approximately 20-s
between points and 90-s between changeovers. This time is too short for
complete whole phosphagen store replenishment leading to a surge in
demand for anaerobic metabolism.
In our study, anaerobic power and capacity were measured during the
Wingate test. Fox and Matthews (1974) suggested a training interval for
improving the ATP/PC energy system using a work–rest ratio of 1:3. That is
the reason for using the 15-s followed by 45-s rest in the Wingate test. We
investigated the correlation between these anaerobic performances and a spe-
cific tennis drill (PUST). We evaluated anaerobic power (ATP-CP system)
through power, power relative to body mass and time to sustain and approach
maximum power output; and anaerobic capacity (glycolitic energy system)
through total work, work relative to body mass and fatigue index. We
observed significant and strong correlation between the Wingate and PUST
tests for only one group whose biological age was 18 years.
We observed that body composition influenced anaerobic performance. In
young players this correlation was negative. The higher the body mass, the
lower the anaerobic capacity during repeated exercise. This relationship
may lead to undesirable performance results in a tennis match. Nevertheless,
players with lower technical ability may favourably compensate their per-
formance through a high level of anaerobic capacity. Some authors (Hout-
kooper and Going, 1994) associated the higher values of FFM/FM [Free Fat
Mass/Fat Mass] with the better performance of men. In our investigation this
28 E. Ziemann and T. Garsztka
relationship was confirmed only in groups with the highest amount of fat.
Body mass can be influenced by regular training for sport, resulting in
changes in body composition. Training is associated with a decrease in fatness
and with an increase in fat-free mass. We observed these changes in body
composition in all biological age groups, with the exception of the oldest
group, but correlation between anaerobic performance during lab test and
specific tennis drill was the strongest in each repetition. High levels of body
mass in 18-year-old tennis players increased the fatigue index.
The issue of correlation between training, biological and chronological age
and anaerobic performance is current and insufficiently explained (Maffulli
et al., 2001). Although early studies suggested that regular exercise increases
the rate of growth and in particular height and mass, the results are limited
(Malina, 1994). Physical activity is not the same as regular training. Training
programmes are ordinarily specific. In our research, tennis player groups
trained from 14 to 18 hours per week. The results of the training process
was that 10 boys out of the whole research group had a higher biological age
than chronological. In summary, we concluded that training enhanced the
biological age of teenage tennis players.
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4 Comparison of laboratory and
on-court testing of aerobic
fitness in tennis players
R.W. Meyers
Introduction
The modern game of tennis is characterized by 200–600 explosive efforts over
a match that may last up to six hours (Richers, 1995), utilizing specific move-
ment patterns which differ depending on the tactical situation and court
surface. It is clear that the player must be conditioned to meet the specific
aerobic, strength and power demands of these matches in order to maintain
the required work rate over such an extended period. Davey et al. (2003) has
also indicated that in conditions of fatigue, hitting accuracy decreases by
as much as 81 per cent, further illustrating the importance of the physical
requirements of the game on the potential match outcome.
Bergeron et al. (1991) suggested that despite the repeated explosive efforts,
the overall metabolic response to tennis match-play was comparable to
continuous exercise at moderate intensity. Furthermore, literature has sug-
gested that during singles match-play plasma lactate values range from
2.3–5.9 mmol.l−1 and VO2 ranges between 53–73 per cent VO2max (Bergeron
et al., 1991; Christmass et al., 1995; Reilly and Palmer, 1995). This finding
was further supported by Dansou et al. (2001) who suggested that approxi-
mately 60 per cent of VO2max was achieved for 80 per cent of the match, and
that in spite of the intermittent nature of activity during the sport, the game
of tennis induces moderate aerobic energy expenditure. In light of these find-
ings, it would seem the evaluation of aerobic fitness is important for tennis
players. Coyle (1995) further suggested that performance in prolonged, con-
tinuous aerobic activity was highly related to measurements of blood lactate
threshold, although VO2max did provide an upper limit of aerobic capacity.
Therefore, it could be suggested that measurements of ‘aerobic endurance’
(i.e. anaerobic/blood lactate threshold) may be more suitable than measure-
ments of ‘aerobic power (i.e. VO2max) for sports such as tennis where VO2max
is rarely reached, and efficiency and economy of movement may be more
important.
Studies in tennis have entailed comparisons of various physiological meas-
ures during on-court activities and laboratory testing protocols (Girard et al.,
2006; Smekal et al., 2000); however these authors used on-court maximal,
30 R.W. Meyers
incremental exercise, rather than intermittent, sustained exercise evident in
tennis match-play. Furthermore, the measurement of the lactate threshold has
traditionally been assessed through maximal, incremental performance tests,
which lacks specificity to tennis performance in match-play. Hence, the use of
sustained lactate threshold tests to evaluate maximal lactate steady state
(Billat et al., 2003) could be more specific to tennis due to the sub-maximal
nature of the sport.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to produce an intermittent test for
aerobic fitness that was specific to tennis and would allow the comparison
of sub-maximal physiological responses between laboratory and on-court
conditions.
Method
Eight male university level tennis players (age 20.9±1.6 yrs, height 1.78±0.1 m,
mass 76.7±7.2 kg, VO2max 59.5±6.1 ml.kg.min−1) volunteered to participate
in four separate testing protocols. Each subject was required to complete
a maximal laboratory test and a maximal on-court test which were used to
inform the intensities for the sub-maximal laboratory test and sub-maximal
on-court test. The order of these tests was kept the same for all participants,
and each was separated by a minimum of 24 hours. Stature and mass were
measured during the first laboratory visit via a pre-calibrated fixed stadiometer
(Holtain, UK) and digital weighing scales (Seca 770, Germany) in minimal
clothing.
The maximal laboratory test required the participants to complete an incre-
mental test to exhaustion on a motorized treadmill (H/P/Cosmos, Quasar,
Germany), whilst connected to a breath-by-breath gas analysis system
(Oxycon Pro, Jaeger, Germany) set at a 5-s sampling rate. Following a stand-
ardized 3-min warm up, the test began at 7 km.h−1 at a 4 per cent gradient
for a period of 2 min 45 s, followed by a 15-s blood sampling period. After
each 3-min stage, the treadmill speed was increased by 1.5 km.h−1 until vol-
itional exhaustion. Heart rate response was monitored (Polar S610i, Kempele,
Finland) at a 5-s sampling rate throughout the protocol.
Blood lactate concentration was determined using a blood analysis system
(Biosen C-Line, EFK Diagnostics, Netherlands). The results were used to
form a lactate profile and anaerobic threshold was determined using the
methods laid out by Cheng et al. (1992).
Results from the maximal laboratory test were utilized to establish three
exercise intensities for the sub-maximal laboratory test, as illustrated in
Figure 4.1. These corresponded to the anaerobic threshold (Tan) calculated
via D-max (Cheng et al., 1992), a value equivalent to 50 per cent of the
difference between the AT and the final lactate value added to Tan (Tan +50
per cent ∆), and a value equivalent to 100 per cent of the difference between
Tan and the final lactate value deducted from Tan (Tan −100 per cent ∆). These
three intensities were used to determine the exercise intensity for three, 8-min
Comparison of laboratory and on-court testing 31
Figure 4.1 Illustration of the calculation for the three intensities used during the sub-
maximal laboratory test and sub-maximal on-court test from the maximal
laboratory test and maximal on-court test lactate profile.
stages on a motorized treadmill at a constant 4 per cent gradient. Heart rate

was monitored throughout the protocol and blood samples were taken at
4-min intervals throughout each 8-min stage.
The participants were then required to complete a maximal on-court test.
The test comprised of up to 23 levels, each of which was divided into three
stages. Each of these stages comprised of nine specific movements around the
court including eight lateral movements across the baseline and one towards
the net. Each movement had to be completed in time with a computer gener-
ated tone (Test Tone Generator, Timo Esser, Germany) that was played via a
CD stereo (JVC RVNB10, UK). At the end of each movement, the partici-
pant was instructed to have one foot placed in a specific area in time with the
tone, and an appropriate stroke was shadowed. The exact nature of the stroke
was not specified, and each participant was instructed to perform a stroke as
if in a match-play situation, according to the position on the court and the
time permitted by the test. Each stage of nine movements was separated by
a 10-s rest period. Each level (comprising three stages) was separated by an
additional 5-s rest period with each level being incrementally faster until
volitional exhaustion. Similar test principles have been used in an aerobic test
for badminton players designed by Hughes et al. (2002). Blood samples were
taken at the end of each odd numbered level, and heart rate was recorded
throughout.
Following the same process as the laboratory testing, the results from the
32 R.W. Meyers
maximal on-court test were used to calculate Tan via D-max, Tan +50%∆, and
Tan −100%∆ as the three sub-maximal intensities. These intensities were
used to determine the movement speed for the three, 8-min stages of the
sub-maximal on-court test. This test followed the same format as the max-
imal on-court test with respect to the rest periods, except the intensities were
kept the same throughout each of the 8-min stages.
For both the sub-maximal laboratory test and sub-maximal on-court test,
the movement speed (Vmax), heart rate (HR) and percentage maximum heart
rate (per cent HRmax) were calculated at Tan. This was achieved by plotting the
lactate levels from 4-min and 8-min blood samples. This provided a point at
which the two lines crossed, which is representative of a maximal lactate
steady state (MLSS) measurement (Billat et al., 2003) modified for the specific
demands of tennis, as illustrated in Figure 4.2. An analysis of the relationships
and differences between the MLSS data achieved during the maximal and
sub-maximal laboratory and on-court tests was then made using Pearson’s
correlation and paired t-tests, respectively. P values are reported with all
statistical analyses with a significance level set at 0.05.
Results
The maximal laboratory test elicited significantly higher (P=0.0001) max-
imum heart rate than the maximal on-court test (206±8 beats⭈min−1 vs.
197±6 beats⭈min−1, respectively). This trend was also demonstrated with the
mean heart rate at the Tan assessed via D-max, with significantly higher
(P=0.003) values shown during maximal laboratory test (179±6 beats⭈min−1
vs. 172±7 beats⭈min−1, respectively). The per cent maximum heart rate at
Tan was not significantly different between the maximal laboratory test and
Figure 4.2 Representation of the Tan determination during the sub-maximal labora-
tory test and sub-maximal on-court test.
maximal on-court test (86.9±3.1 per cent vs. 87.4±2.5 per cent, P=0.613,
respectively).
The results also indicated no significant correlation (r=0.497, P=0.210)
between movement speeds at the Tan assessed via D-max in the maximal
laboratory test and maximal on-court test. A significant relationship was
shown between HR D-max in both conditions (r=0.817, P=0.013). There was
a significant correlation (r=0.712, P=0.048) between VO2max and time to
exhaustion in the maximal laboratory test, yet the correlation only approached
significance between VO2max and time to exhaustion in the maximal on-court
test (r=0.673, P=0.067). Furthermore, no significant correlation existed
between the time to exhaustion during maximal laboratory test and maximal
on-court test (r=0.573, P=0.138).
The sub-maximal on-court test elicited significantly higher mean heart
rate at Tan (174±11 beats⭈min−1 vs. 156±9 beats⭈min−1, P=0.005) and per cent
maximum heart rate at Tan (88.3±4.5 per cent vs. 76.1±5.2 per cent,
P=0.0004). Lactate levels at Tan were not significantly (2.57±0.74 mMol.l−1
vs. 3.03±0.91 mMol.l−1, P=0.329) different between the two sub-maximal test
conditions. Table 4.1 reports that Blood (lac) at Tan was found to be not
significantly correlated between the sub-maximal laboratory test, and sub-
maximal on-court test. This trend was evident with heart rate at the anaer-
obic threshold, percentage maximum heart rate at the anaerobic threshold
and speed at the anaerobic threshold with no significant correlation between
sub-maximal laboratory and on-court testing conditions.
Discussion
These data suggest that none of the variables assessed during sub-maximal
testing were significantly correlated between the laboratory and on-court con-
ditions. Furthermore, many variables were shown to be significantly different
between laboratory and on-court test protocols.
The maximal laboratory test and maximal on-court test were primarily
used to determine appropriate exercise intensities for the sub-maximal
laboratory test and sub-maximal on-court test. However, some of the results
from these tests are of interest. The VO2max was found to be significantly
Table 4.1 Mean and correlation data for the variables assessed during the sub-
maximal laboratory test and sub-maximal on-court test, including blood lactate con-
centration (Blood (lac)), heart rate at Tan (HR), maximum heart rate at Tan (%HRmax)
and movement speed at Tan (V)
Sub-maximal laboratory test Sub-maximal on-court test r value P value
Blood (lac) 2.57±0.74 mMol.l−1 3.03±0.91 mMol.l−1 −0.004 0.993

HR 156±9 beats⭈min−1 174±11 beats⭈min−1 0.372 0.364
%HRmax 76.1±5.2% 88.3±4.5% 0.444 0.270
V 8.3±0.8 km.h−1 0.896±0.117 move.s−1 0.162 0.701
34 R.W. Meyers
correlated with time to exhaustion during maximal laboratory test, yet not
significantly correlated to time to exhaustion during maximal on-court test.
This may suggest that factors other than VO2max may have more of an influence
on performance capability during a maximal on-court testing.
The heart rates at the anaerobic threshold from the sub-maximal on-court
test are comparable to those reported by Christmass et al. (1995) during play.
They reported an average of 82.8 per cent maximal heart rate (excluding
change of ends) during a 90-min game of singles, compared to 88.3 per cent
reported in the current study. This finding suggests Tan assessed during the sub-
maximal on-court test may also produce a physiological response comparable
to singles match-play.
The comparison of laboratory and on-court sub-maximal testing elicited
significantly different heart rates and percentage maximum heart rates at the
anaerobic threshold, with both values being significantly higher during the
sub-maximal on-court test. There was also no significant correlation between
heart rate and percentage maximum heart rate in the different sub-maximal
testing conditions. Movement speed at Tan was also found to be not signifi-
cantly correlated between the two sub-maximal conditions.
The results from this study may be explained by a combination of factors,
including the intermittent nature of the maximal on-court test which facili-
tates recovery during the non-active periods, and the additional physiological
loading experienced with the on-court activity that requires multiple changes
of direction accompanied with repeated acceleration and deceleration and
the eccentric/concentric muscular loading patterns. Furthermore the eco-
logical validity of the on-court protocol to movement in a tennis match-play
environment may result in the participants eliciting a different movement
efficiency and economy than during laboratory testing.
These results highlight the different physiological responses arising from
laboratory and on-court testing protocols presented in this paper. The results
from the sub-maximal on-court testing are of particular importance due to
the specificity of the testing protocol to tennis performance.
Conclusion
The implications of these findings are that the sub-maximal on-court test
could provide physiological loading which is similar to that reported in the
literature regarding tennis match-play, yet equivalent laboratory and on-court
tests give different and unrelated results in terms of performance and physio-
logical responses. Therefore it could be suggested that laboratory testing
should not necessarily be used to infer tennis related performance, and that
the sub-maximal on-court testing presented in this paper may be a viable way
to assess tennis specific aerobic fitness. However, it is suggested that both
laboratory and on-court testing protocols could be used as valuable elements
of an aerobic fitness testing battery in order that measures of general and
tennis specific physiological responses may be obtained.
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5 A specific incremental test
in tennis
O. Girard, R. Chevalier, F. Leveque, J.-P. Micallef
and G.P. Millet
Introduction
Aerobic fitness is important for tennis players which enables them to generate
power repeatedly for explosive stroke production and rapid court movements
during extended matches (Lees, 2003). Currently a variety of test procedures
are used to evaluate the exercise capacity of tennis players and prescribe the
appropriate on-court training intensity. This evaluation involves laboratory
and field tests.
The standard test for assessing aerobic fitness is the direct measurement of
the player’s maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) while running to exhaustion on
a treadmill in a laboratory environment. In addition, two specific ventilatory
changes that correspond to the ventilatory threshold (Tvent) and the respira-
tory compensation point (RCP) have been widely used in the sport science
literature (Santos and Giannella-Neto, 2004). These reproducible ventilatory
breakpoints appear to provide useful markers to characterize training effects,
evaluate physical fitness and identify training intensity zones that are dis-
tinguished by meaningful differences in sympathetic stress load, motor unit
involvement and duration of fatigue (Foster and Cotter, 2006). However,
during treadmill testing, the modes of exercise tests (continuous activity)
often cannot simulate the specific demands of tennis (intermittent activity)
and do not reflect the specific muscular involvement of both lower and upper
limbs with respect to the stop, start and change of direction in movement
patterns (Fernandez, 2005).
Recent efforts have been made to develop field tests in tennis in order to
determine the exercise capacity or technical performance of players with an
acceptable accuracy under standardized conditions (Vergauwen et al., 1998;
Smekal et al., 2000; Davey et al., 2002). However, because these tests require
expensive equipment – that is a ball machine, video, radar – (Vergauwen et
al., 1998; Smekal et al., 2000; Davey et al., 2002), or only simulate rallies from
the baseline (Smekal et al., 2000) or do not reflect precisely time intervals of
tennis play (Davey et al., 2002), they cannot be routinely used to evaluate an
individual player’s fitness level accurately in a context close to the game.
Accordingly, the aims of this study were to: (a) develop a tennis-specific
A specific incremental test in tennis 37
incremental fitness test including some elements of tennis play; (b) compare
physiological responses recorded during this field test with those observed
during an incremental treadmill test. We hypothesized that the physiological
responses differ because of the different movement patterns between the ten-
nis specific (combined use of arms and legs) and treadmill (forward running
only) tests.
Methods
Subjects
Nine male junior competitive tennis players (mean ± SD, age 16.0 ± 1.6 years;
height 1.798 ± 0.094 m; body mass 65.3 ± 11.9 kg; training frequency 8.2 ±
3.1 hour.week−1) of regional to national level volunteered and gave written
informed consent to participate in this study, which had local ethics committee
approval.
Study protocol
All subjects carried out two incremental protocols to exhaustion in a random-
ized order: a treadmill test (non-specific) and a tennis fitness test (sport-
specific). Each test was conducted under standard environmental conditions
(temperature ~20 °C, relative humidity ~50 per cent) at the same time of day.
Experimental procedures
Treadmill testing
The incremental treadmill test (TT) to exhaustion was performed on a motor-
ized treadmill (S 2500, Medical development, France) and consisted of an
initial 3-min continuous workload of 9 km.h−1 followed by increases of
0.5 km.h−1 every minute (0 per cent incline). Each stage was composed of a 45-s
running period followed by 15 s of active recovery during which subjects had
to walk at 5 km.h−1. The test ended with voluntary exhaustion of the subjects.
Field testing
A tennis specific incremental field test (FT) was developed in which subjects
repeated displacements replicating the tennis game at an increasing speed on
the court. Each stage consisted of seven shuttle runs, performed from a cen-
tral basis to one of the six targets located around the court, alternated with
15-s of active recovery (Figure 5.1). Sets of seven rallies included two forward
(offensive), three lateral (neutral) and two backward (defensive) courses per-
formed randomly. When a subject arrived at the target, he was instructed to
mime a powerful stroke as in official competition before moving back to
38 O. Girard et al.
Figure 5.1 Set-up of the specific incremental fitness test for tennis players. The pos-
ition of forward (black cones), lateral (grey cones) and backward (white
cones) targets are indicated. See Methods for further details.
baseline after each drive. Movement velocities and directions were controlled
by visual and sound feed-backs from a PC computer. Briefly, a specific-
software was used in order to sound simultaneously a tune and project a
picture of a player moving around the target to reach. These velocities and
sequences of movement were calculated from data collected during official
competitions (unpublished data). Test reliability of the FT was determined in
four subjects performing two fitness tests within one week.
Physiological measurements
During the TT (CPX/D; MedGraphics, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA) and FT
(K4b2; Cosmed, Rome, Italy), the following gas exchange data were measured
using breath-by-breath gas analysers which were calibrated prior to each test
using the manufacturers’ recommendations: VO2, carbon dioxide production
(VCO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER = VCO2/VO2), minute ventilation
(VE), breathing frequency, and tidal volume. Heart rate (HR) values were
recorded for 5 s by a HR monitor with the athletes wearing a chest belt (S810,
Polar, Kempele, Finland). Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded
using the Borg 6–20 scale and 25-µl capillary blood samples were taken from
the fingertip and analysed for blood lactate concentrations ([La]) by using
the Lactate Pro (LT-1710, Arkray, Japan) portable analyser at the point of
volitional fatigue.
In both tests, the gas samples were averaged every 15 s. The highest values
for VO2 and HR over 15 s were regarded as VO2max and heart rate (HRmax).
Four criteria were used to determine maximal efforts :
1 a plateau or levelling off in VO2, defined as an increase of less than

1.5 ml.min−1 .kg−1 despite progressive increases in exercise intensity
2 a final RER of 1.1 or above
3 a final HR above 95 per cent of the age-related maximum
4 a final [La] above 8 mmol.l−1.
Time to exhaustion (Te, s) was recorded in each test.
Determination of Tvent and RCP

Ventilatory threshold was determined using the criteria of an increase in VE/
VO2 with no increase in VE/VCO2 and the departure from linearity of VE,
whereas RCP corresponded to an increase in both VE/VO2 and VE/VCO2
(Santos and Giannella-Neto, 2004). Each physiological variable correspond-
ing to Tvent, RCP, and maximal load was expressed in absolute terms and
relative to VO2max and HRmax.
Statistics
Data obtained at Tvent, RCP and maximal load were compared between FT
and TT, using paired sample t-tests. P < 0.05 was determined as statistically
significant.
Results
Reproducibility
No difference was found in Te (1479 ± 68 v 1454 ± 103 s; CV = 1.2 per cent),
VO2 (57.4 ± 6.4 v 58.2 ± 6.5 ml.min−1 .kg−1; CV = 1.0 per cent), HR (194.3 ±
6.7 v 187.3 ± 1.2 beats.min−1; CV = 2.6 per cent), [La] (8.0 ± 2.8 v 7.4 ±
2.1 mmol.l−1; CV = 5.2 per cent) and RPE (17.3 ± 1.2 v 16.7 ± 1.5 points; CV
= 2.8) between the two FTs performed within four days (n = 4).
Comparisons of Te , [La] and RPE

Values of Te (1666 ± 188 v 1491 ± 64 s; 10.5 per cent) were higher (P < 0.05) in
TT than in FT. Mean values of [La] (2.2 ± 0.5 v 2.2 ± 0.6 and 10.6 ± 4.3 v 10.7
± 3.0 mmol.l−1) and RPE (9.0 ± 2.1 v 8.6 ± 2.1 and 17.7 ± 1.0 v 18.5 ± 0.9
points) measured before and after exercise did not differ between TT and FT,
respectively.
40 O. Girard et al.
Physiological variables at Tvent , RCP and maximal load
At Tvent and RCP, VCO2 and RER, values were significantly higher in FT than
in TT (Table 5.1). It is of interest to note that per cent HRmax and per cent
VO2max at VT and RCP were not different between FT and TT. Again, VO2,
VCO2 and RER values measured at maximal loads were significantly higher
in FT than in TT.
Discussion
The physiological demands in racket games such as tennis are highly influ-
enced by the fact that players have to accelerate, decelerate, change direction,
move quickly, maintain balance and generate optimum stroke production
repeatedly (Lees, 2003). In these activities, exercise testing on a treadmill (i.e.
running) is not specific for muscles involved and therefore inadequate to
evaluate the specific demands of the sport (Smekal et al., 2000; Fernandez,
2005). As a consequence, we designed a specific incremental fitness test for
tennis players including some technical characteristics (i.e. performed on a
tennis court; similar displacement technique to that of competition; incerti-
tude of the motion direction; mime of ball strokes) and compared the
physiological-perceptual responses with an incremental treadmill test. The
FT had a high reproducibility illustrating that this test is sensitive and valid to
detect differences between players as well as seasonal changes in ‘tennis
fitness’.
Submaximal intensities
The lack of difference in physiological variables (per cent HRmax and per cent
VO2max) at Tvent and RCP between the two tests lead us to suggest that tread-
mill testing remains the ‘gold method’ to detect ventilatory breakpoints in
order to define intensity areas for tennis on-court aerobic exercises. Surpris-
ingly, only limited data are available regarding Tvent and RCP values in tennis
players since VO2max has traditionally been considered as the ‘gold standard’.
There is increasing evidence that the ventilatory breakpoints may be a better
predictor of submaximal endurance performance. This is especially true in
tennis where the performance is multifaceted, involving technical, tactical,
psychological and physiological factors (Lees, 2003). The intensity at Tvent
and RCP found in the present study for junior competitive tennis players is
higher than that generally reported for physically active subjects (80 v 90 per
cent of HRmax and 50 v 80 per cent of VO2max at Tvent and RCP, respectively)
(Foster and Cotter, 2006). According to König et al. (2001), the high Tvent and
RCP values could reflect the ability to tolerate high intensity exercise during
tennis competitions. These values of ventilatory breakpoints are, however,
lower than the values (88 v 95 and 85 v 91 per cent of the HRmax and VO2max
for Tvent and RCP, respectively) reported recently in elite squash players tested
Table 5.1 Physiological values in tennis players corresponding to the ventilatory threshold (VT), respiratory compensation point (RCP) and
maximum work load (Max) in tennis field (FT) and treadmill (TT) tests (n = 9)
Variables VT RCP Max
FT TT FT TT FT TT
VO2 (ml.min−1 .kg−1) 44.2 ± 5.5 43.4 ± 5.8 53.8 ± 5.5 50.5 ± 7.6 63.8 ± 5.7 58.9 ± 5.3*
VCO2 (ml.min−1 .kg−1) 42.8 ± 6.3 38.6 ± 4.9* 56.0 ± 7.4 47.9 ± 7.0** 74.5 ± 7.5 58.7 ± 5.5***
RER 0.96 ± 0.04 0.89 ± 0.02*** 1.04 ± 0.04 0.95 ± 0.04** 1.18 ± 0.07 1.03 ± 0.04***
VE (litres.min−1) 58.0 ± 10.9 64.2 ± 8.4 78.6 ± 14.0 87.3 ± 14.5* 117.1 ± 17.4 115.1 ± 14.5
HR (beats.min−1) 158.8 ± 9.3 161.1 ± 9.2 174.9 ± 5.4 179.3 ± 9.3 190.0 ± 5.2 194.1 ± 7.7
Bf (breaths.min−1) 38.1 ± 10.2 40.5 ± 9.0 43.8 ± 8.7 53.3 ± 13.7** 62.5 ± 8.7 67.4 ± 11.4
Vt (litres) 1.62 ± 0.56 1.74 ± 0.52 1.88 ± 0.63 1.85 ± 0.56 2.24 ± 0.6 2.07 ± 0.5
% VO2max 69.4 ± 8.1 73.5 ± 6.1 84.4 ± 6.5 85.5 ± 8.7 – –
% HRmax 83.6 ± 5.1 83.0 ± 2.8 92.1 ± 2.1 92.3 ± 2.1 – –
Notes: * P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001 for differences between FT and TT
42 O. Girard et al.
similarly to that of the present test but with time intervals specific to the
squash game (shorter resting periods between stages: 10 s; longer stage dur-
ations: 9 simulations of ball hitting) (Girard et al., 2005). The discrepancies
between these studies are mainly the result of the training status of the
subjects.
Maximal loads
At maximal loads [La] and RPE responses were similar in both tests, which
differs from previous findings reporting higher [La] values following treadmill
than field testing (Smekal et al., 2000). A possible explanation could be the
intermittent design of the present treadmill test contrasting with previous
protocols with a continuous load profile. Indeed, it is well established that
lactate can be oxidized locally or transported from production sites to oxida-
tive muscle fibres for subsequent oxidation during recovery periods (Brooks,
1986).
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) values measured in the FT or the TT
are in a similar range or slightly higher than those reported previously
(50–60 ml.min−1 .kg−1) in players of similar standard (König et al., 2001).
This confirms that a high aerobic power is a pre-requisite in tennis to sustain
an elevated level of technical, tactical, physiological and psychological cap-
acity for several hours. Of interest also is the fact that the VO2, VCO2 and
RER values were significantly higher in the FT than in the TT at maximal
loads, suggesting that VO2max values derived from laboratory testing were not
relevant for an accurate estimate of fitness in tennis players. Although the
design of the two tests was intermittent in nature, it is noteworthy that during
the FT, players were asked to perform repeated specific displacements in all
directions with changing pace. These specific patterns included accelerations,
decelerations, changeovers as well as upper arm involvement in holding the
racket and miming stroke actions. On the contrary, running on a treadmill
was characterized by a steady pace and little or no lateral movement. As
suggested by Smekal et al. (2000), one may therefore assume that greater
muscle mass was involved during the FT and that muscles were recruited at a
higher rate than during the TT which may have in turn increased VO2 in
the FT.
Practical applications
The potential benefits of the proposed field test are important. First, it places
a specific demand upon the player and would therefore be an appropriate test
to be included into a training routine. Second, it involves movement patterns
that are more specific to training and competition and therefore has the
potential to increase players’ motivation when they have to hit the ball.
Again, the progressive increase in load profile appears to be a strong point.
This test may also be beneficial when the weekly training time is limited.
Finally, this test can be combined with the training of sport-specific technical
elements and easily administrated to players of various standards as it
requires limited equipment (six cones, a meter and portable PC including the
software of the test). Therefore, it can be routinely used to indicate an alter-
ation or improvement in the player’s physical performance with maintaining
a simple design. Furthermore, it can be easily performed at different periods
of the season wherever the player may be. It may be also used to judge the
efficiency of different training regimens or to analyse the effects of factors
that could affect tennis performance (i.e. supplementation, drinking
regimens).
Conclusions
To conclude, field and laboratory tests appear to be complementary and have
different uses in tracking fitness changes in tennis players. Coaches and con-
ditioning experts should use the present specific fitness test for tennis players
as an additional item for training purposes. This test, which is reproducible
and specific to tennis play, provides information on a player’s individual
fitness level and can be easily administrated.
References
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Science in Sports and Exercise, 18, 360–368.
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6 Muscle fibre type distribution
and fibre size of triceps
brachialis in elite tennis players
J. Sanchís-Moysi, A. Guadalupe-Grau, S. Guerra,
H. Olmedillas, O. Bernales, C. Dorado
and J.A.L. Calbet
Introduction
Tennis is an excellent exercise model to study muscle plasticity in response to
chronic exercise. Tennis players submit their dominant-arm to a huge amount
of physical activity compared to their contralateral arm (Pirnay et al., 1987;
Tsuji et al., 1995). In consequence, the muscle mass of the dominant arm is
about 20 per cent higher than that of the non-dominant arm in elite tennis
players (Sanchis Moysi et al., 1998). Although it is reasonable to assume
variations in the relative contribution of the muscle groups to the overall
muscle hypertrophy of the dominant arm, to our knowledge, the relative
contribution of the size of individual muscles has not been investigated in
tennis. Studies using electromyography have shown that triceps brachialis
plays an important role in power generation in the different tennis strokes
(Chow et al., 1999; Miyashita et al., 1980; Van Gheluwe and Hebbelinck,
1986). The knowledge of the morphological adaptations of triceps brachialis
in elite tennis players could be useful for designing more specific and efficient
strength-training programmes for tennis players.
The aim of this study was to assess the effect of tennis participation on
the fibre size of triceps brachialis muscle of the dominant compared to that
of the non-dominant arm and its relationship with the overall muscle mass of
the dominant arm.
Methods
Participants
Four elite tennis players (23.0 ± 1.0 year, mean ± SEM) from the Canary
Islands volunteered and gave written informed consent to participate in this
study, which had local ethics committee approval. All the tennis players had
been training and participating in professional tennis competitions during, at
least, the previous four years (24 ± 9 hours per week). Three players were
right-handed and one left-handed. One of the right-handed players played a
‘two hands’ backhand while the other three players played the ‘one hand’
Muscle fibre type distribution and fibre size 45
backhand stroke. Table 6.1 summarizes the general characteristics of these
tennis players.
Materials
Muscle biopsies were taken from lateral aspect of the triceps brachialis (short
head) of both arms. A section of the muscle samples was cut off, mounted in
embedding medium, and frozen in isopentane cooled to its freezing point in
liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 °C until further analysis. In serial transverse
muscle sections, fibre types were stained for myofibrillar ATPase as described
previously (Brooke and Kaiser, 1970). In addition, the lean mass of the dom-
inant and non-dominant arm was determined using dual-energy x-ray
absorptiometry (DXA) (QDR-1500, Hologic Corp., Waltham, MA), as pre-
viously described (Sanchis-Moysi et al., 2004). The lean mass of the arm was
assumed to be equivalent to the muscle mass of the arm (Calbet et al., 1998).
From the whole body scans the percentage of body fat was also determined
(Sanchis Moysi et al., 1998). Table 6.1 summarizes the main characteristics of
the subjects.
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using the SPSS mainframe statistical program. Side-to-
side comparisons were carried out using a one-tailed Student’s t-test. Stat-
istical significance was set at P < 0.05 level. Results are presented as means
± standard error of the mean.
Results and discussion

Marked differences existed between the dominant and the contralateral arm
for muscle mass (3606 ± 76 versus 3154 ± 268 g, P < 0.001). This result is in
concordance with previous studies carried out in our laboratory that showed
a 10–20 per cent more muscle mass in the dominant compared with the
contralateral arm in elite tennis players (Calbet et al., 1998; Sanchis Moysi
et al., 1998). The increased lean mass of the dominant arm and particularly
the relative higher hypertrophy of the triceps brachialis can only be explained
as a consequence of the mechanical demand sustained by this muscle, since
Table 6.1 General subject characteristics (mean

± SD)
Age (years) 23.0 ± 1.0

Total body mass (kg) 74.1 ± 8.8
Height (m) 1.839 ± 0.06
Total body fat (%) 11.8 ± 10.3
46 J. Sanchís-Moysi et al.
any other genetic, nutritional or hormonal mechanism is also acting on the
contralateral arm which has smaller fibres.
Compared to the non-dominant arm the type 1, 2a and 2x muscle fibres
were hypertrophied in the dominant arm by 36 per cent (4018 ± 457 and 5472
± 556 µm2), 31 per cent (6185 ± 1015 and 8109 ± 1542 µm2) and 39 per cent
(5333 ± 1389 and 7430 ± 1370 µm2), respectively. The mean area of all muscle
fibres was 33 per cent higher in the dominant than in the non-dominant arm
(P < 0.05). Although we cannot compare our results with other studies, since
there are no published data on muscle fibre type and cross-sectional areas of
lateral aspect of the triceps brachialis in either tennis players or other ath-
letes, the values obtained in this study for cross-sectional areas are similar
to that reported, for example, in the long head of the triceps brachialis in
cross-country skiers (Calbet et al., 2005).
The inter-arm difference in lean mass (14 per cent) was smaller than the
difference in cross-sectional area of the triceps brachialis (33 per cent),
emphasizing the relative importance of this muscle in tennis players. In the
last three decades, studies using cinematography and electromyography have
shown that an elbow extension movement, with participation of triceps bra-
chialis occurs in most tennis strokes. For example, during the service stroke
the triceps brachialis muscle contributes to the active acceleration of the
racket prior to ball impact (Van Gheluwe and Hebbelink, 1986). In the fore-
hand stroke, the triceps display strong activity during ball impact in order to
counteract the maximal contraction of biceps brachialis and brachioradialis
(Van Gheluwe and Hebbelinck, 1986). The backhand stroke demands the
extension of the elbow joint approximately 40° from the backswing position
to impact as a means of generating racket speed (Elliott et al., 1989), this
movement implies the participation of triceps brachialis in both the one-hand
and the two-hands backhand stroke (Roetert and Ellenbecker, 1998). The
triceps muscle also shows a high electrical activity during the forward swing
phase of the forehand and the backhand volleys, being greater during the
backhand volley (Chow et al., 1999). In this study we provided direct mor-
phological evidence showing the importance that this muscle has for racket
actions in tennis players. The fact that the magnitude of hypertrophy of
the muscle fibres of the lateral aspect of the triceps brachialis is more than
twice the mean increase in muscle mass also suggests that this muscle is
submitted to an overload likely higher than that supported by other muscles
of the arm.
The muscle cross-sectional area and the fibre type determines the power
production of a muscle (Aagaard and Andersen, 1998). It seems reasonable
to assume a relationship between the triceps brachialis hypertrophy and
morphology of the dominant arm and the increased maximal strength of
elbow extension movement found on the dominant arm of tennis players
(Cohen et al., 1994; Kibler and Chandler, 1989). As a consequence, this
muscle hypertrophy could also contribute to impel higher ball velocities dur-
ing the tennis serve (Bencke et al., 2002; Pugh et al., 2003). However, the
influence of muscle strength on ball speed in tennis has generated some
controversy, since it may depend on more factors than just the strength of the
musculature recruited in each specific action (Ellenbecker, 1991; Elliott et al.,
1990). It has been reported that tennis practice is not associated with a signifi-
cant increment in total lean mass in professional tennis players compared to a
non active population of the same age (Calbet et al., 1998). Nevertheless,
tennis players have a greater chance of satisfactorily meeting tennis require-
ments if they increase their maximal dynamic strength (MDS) as a way to
enhance the peak force developed during ball strokes (König et al., 2001;
Sanchis Moysi, 2004). Supporting this idea several studies show that strength
training can improve racket and ball speed (Kraemer et al., 2000, 2003).
In agreement, a recent study has focused on the influence of triceps bra-
chialis morphology on shot-put performance (Terzis et al., 2003). This
showed that despite the fact that it is commonly accepted that shot-put per-
formance is mainly determined by the ability of the lower body to produce
power, isokinetic torque of the elbow extensors, type II fibre area of triceps
brachialis and estimated arm cross-sectional area of the arm significantly
correlated with shot-put performance.
Tennis actions may generate several stimuli known to elicit muscle hyper-
trophy. For example to maintain the position of the racket a strong grip is
needed in many instances. This strong grip is likely supported by an isometric
contraction of elbow and flexor and extensor muscles. It is well established
that isometric contractions can elicit muscle hypertrophy (Kanehisa et al.,
2002). Tennis practice increases the maximum grip strength (Kibler et al.,
1988) and the maximal strength during the elbow extension movement in the
dominant arm (Bencke et al., 2002; Cohen et al., 1994; Kibler and Chandler,
1989). A maximum grip strength of 600 N has been reported in the dominant
arm in elite tennis players (Kibler and Chandler, 1989). The inter-arm differ-
ence in grip strength is around 30 per cent in female and 40 per cent in male
competitive adult tennis players (Kibler et al., 1988; Kraemer et al., 2003).
Moreover, differences between upper limb sides have been found in elite ten-
nis players during an isometric maximal voluntary contraction in the elbow
extension movement (Bencke et al., 2002). In addition to this strength gain,
moderate but significant correlations have been observed between ball speed
in the tennis serve and both the grip strength (Cohen et al., 1994; Elliott,
1982) and the isokinetic extension torque measured at the elbow in elite
tennis players (Pugh et al., 2003). It seems reasonable to contend that forceful
muscle contractions during service and forehand strokes may also elicit force-
ful eccentric and concentric muscle actions which are also known to stimulate
muscle hypertrophy (Seger et al., 1998).
Overall, these studies support the view that swinging a tennis racket many
times during training sessions and competition can be considered as a power-
ful stimulus for muscle hypertrophy in the dominant arm (Bencke et al.,
2002). Our findings suggest that a moderate muscle hypertrophy of the dom-
inant arm could also contribute to the strength gains of the dominant arm
and the increase in ball velocity. Future studies will be needed to verify this
hypothesis. In addition, other mechanisms could also contribute to the
greater strength of the dominant arm of tennis players. It has been suggested
that higher coordination of the neuromuscular system and increased muscle
activation of specific muscles of the dominant arm involved in tennis strokes
could also contribute to the impressive asymmetry in arm muscle strength in
tennis players (Sanchis Moysi, 2004).
The impact forces sustained by the dominant arm of the tennis players
combined with the elevated tensions generated by the muscles that attach in
the bones of the upper extremity also stimulate osteogenesis as a protective
mechanism for the osseous structure. It is well documented that tennis prac-
tice increases the bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD) of the
dominant arm (Sanchis Moysi et al., 1998; Sanchis-Moysi et al., 2004). The
high BMC and BMD in the dominant arm of the tennis players is related to
the arm muscle mass (Calbet et al. 1998) and several studies have reported
that regional lean mass correlates with both regional BMC and regional
BMD (Baumgartner et al., 1996; Nichols et al., 1995). Moreover, it has been
shown recently that the myostatin-deficient mice, which show increased
muscle mass, also have a more pronounced osteotrophic response to exercise
(Hamrick et al., 2006). Together these studies support the idea that both
impact loading and muscle hypertrophy contribute to the enhancement of
BMC and BMD in tennis players.
Conclusions
We report for the first time the effect of long-lasting tennis participation on
the structure of the lateral aspect of the muscle triceps brachialis in elite
tennis players. Long-term participation in tennis is associated with marked
muscle hypertrophy of all fibre types in the lateral portion of the muscle
triceps brachialis. The inter-arm difference in muscle mass was smaller than
the difference in cross-sectional area of the triceps brachialis, emphasizing
the relative importance of this muscle in tennis players.
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Kanehisa, H., Nagareda, H., Kawakami, Y., Akima, H., Masani, K., Kouzaki, M.
and Fukunaga, T. (2002). Effects of equivolume isometric training programs
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7 Development of a tennis-specific
fatigue-inducing protocol
and the effects of caffeine
on performance
D.J. Hornery, D. Farrow, I. Mujika and W. Young
Introduction
Tennis performance is multi-faceted, characterized by an intricate integration
of physical attributes, perceptual skill and technical proficiency. The dynam-
ics of the sport and the various styles adopted by players (e.g. baseline or
serve and volley), ensures that there is no predetermined match intensity or
duration. Similarly, variable environmental conditions challenge sustained
performance excellence. Success at the elite level is often determined by one’s
ability to resist fatigue.
While subjective links between fatigue and the impairment of skill pro-
ficiency are common, there is a lack of uniform empirical support. The
prevailing view of those investigators that have examined the effects of
fatigue on tennis skill and performance (Davey et al., 2002; Vergauwen
et al., 1998) is that fatigue manifests itself in a number of forms, either
centrally or through other homeostatic perturbations, for example hypo-
glycaemia, hyperthermia and dehydration. Several investigators have used
experimental strategies, such as caffeine and carbohydrate supplementation,
to offset the development of fatigue and performance impairment, but meth-
odological shortcomings (methods to induce fatigue, sensitivity of perform-
ance measures and measuring only performance outcomes) limit the weight
of the findings (Burke and Ekblom, 1982; Struder et al., 1999; Vergauwen
et al., 1998).
Caffeine is a practical and legal supplement and has proven perceptual
and motor stimulatory effects (Lorist and Snel, 1997). With the intended
purpose of preventing fatigue and affording a competitive edge, caffeine
usage by elite athletes (including professional tennis players) has recently
increased. Little explorative research (specific to tennis) has been conducted
to support implementation of caffeine to mitigate fatigue and enhance per-
formance. Consequently, tennis players currently employ the supplement
without evidence-based support for its usage.
The purpose of this investigation was to build upon previous research
(Davey et al., 2002; Ferrauti and Weber, 1998; Struder et al., 1999; Vergauwen
et al., 1998) and examine the ergogenic potential of caffeine, using an
52 D.J. Hornery et al.
ecologically valid fatigue protocol and a multifaceted approach to tennis
performance assessment.
Methods
Participants
Twelve highly trained male tennis players (mean ± SD: age 18.3 ± 3.0 years,
height 1.788 ± 0.085 m, body mass 73.95 ± 12.3 kg, sum of seven (Norton
et al., 1996) skinfolds 62.3 ± 20.9 mm) participated in the investigation.
Participants trained at least 15–20 hours per week and had at least five years
of competitive tournament experience. Participants (and parents) received
explicit details of the experimental protocol before voluntarily providing
written informed consent. The study was reviewed and approved by the
Australian Institute of Sport Ethics Committee and the University of Ballarat
Ethics Committee.
Testing protocol
Participants performed a prolonged simulated tennis match, four sets (~2
hours 40 min), on four occasions. The four trials (1 × placebo-control and
3 × interventions), were performed in a single-blinded and counterbalanced
manner. Trials were separated by 48 hours to 7 days. Dietary and exercise
standardization was applied for 24 hours prior to each trial. Matches were
conducted on an indoor hard court (Synthetic category 2, Rebound Ace,
A.V. Syntec Pty. Ltd. Queensland, Australia).
Thirty minutes prior to protocol commencement participants ingested a
gelatine capsule containing caffeine, 3 mg.kg−1 of body mass (No-Doz®
Awakeners, Key Pharmaceuticals Pty Ltd, Rhodes, Australia) or the placebo
supplement (Polycose®, Ross Nutrition, Abbott Laboratories, Ohio, USA).
Venous blood samples (10 ml) were extracted from a superficial vein from the
cubital fossa of the (non-playing) forearm. Samples were later centrifuged
and the supernatant was analysed for prolactin (PRL) concentration using an
Immulite (Diagnostic Products Corporation, Los Angeles, California, USA).
Blood lactate (BLa), blood glucose and creatine kinase (CK) were analysed
from capillary samples using a Lactate Pro (Arkray Factory Inc. Shiga,
Japan), HemoCue (Angelholm, Sweden) and Reflotron (Roche Diagnostics,
Indianapolis, Indiana, USA), respectively. Core body temperature (TC) was
measured via short range telemetry, from a single use capsule, ingested at
least three hours prior to testing, to a data logger BCTM3 (Fitsense
Technology, USA). Heart rate (HR) was monitored using a Polar S610 (Polar
Electro Oy, Finland) unit.
The protocol commenced with the ball machine (SAM Millennium II,
Maximum Sports, Victoria) projecting 17 tennis balls in a pre-programmed
random sequence over a duration of 40 s. The balls landed approximately
Tennis-specific fatigue and effects of caffeine 53
1.5 m to the left and right of the centre mark of the baseline, and at a depth
approximating the midpoint between the baseline and service line. The parti-
cipants’ role was to return the balls to designated areas at the opposite end of
the court. Participants were given a different hitting sequence prior to each
game (e.g. cross court only, one shot to the left two shots to the right, and so
on). On completion of the rally, participants rested at the baseline for 20 s,
after which the next 40-s rally immediately commenced. This process con-
tinued until 10 rallies were completed (10 min). Thereafter, players served six
first serves then sat and recovered courtside for 90–120 s. During this time
participants performed a computer-based return of serve test to examine per-
ceptual skill and physiological variables were recorded (TC, HR, ratings of
perceived exertion (RPE) and thermal sensation (Young et al., 1987)). Blood
lactate and blood glucose was measured during set breaks only (every third
break in play). Once all variables were recorded, participants were informed of
the next hitting sequence then walked to the baseline and commenced the
subsequent 10-min ground stroke assessment. Therefore, one ‘game’ (~ 13-min
block) comprised groundstroke performance assessment (~ 10-min: 40-s rally,
20-s rest), first serve analysis (~ 1-min) and perceptual skill test (~ 90–120-s,
also recovery). Three completed games constituted one ‘set’ and four sets
constituted the simulated match. The successive sets replicated the format of
the first set, with the only variation being the instructions to players regarding
the direction balls were to be returned. Participants were instructed to attempt
to maintain an intensity equivalent to that during match-play. Participants
consumed Gatorade® Lemon Lime Placebo (Pepsico Australia Holdings Pty
Ltd., Sydney, Australia) (approximately 14 ml.kg−1 .h−1) during each trial.
Performance assessment
Serve and groundstroke velocity and accuracy

Two radar guns (Stalker Professional Sports Radar, Radar Sales, Plymouth,
MN) were used to measure first serve and forehand groundstroke velocity.
The radar recording serve velocity was positioned on the centre of the base-
line at the opposite end of the court to the server, aligned with the approxi-
mate height of ball contact (~ 2.2 m), and pointing down the centre of the
court. The radar recording forehand groundstroke velocity was positioned on
the forehand side of the court, behind the participant pointed at net height
down the singles sideline. Accuracy scores were determined, using a 3, 2, 1, 0
scoring system, by counting the number of times the ball landed within the
target areas at the intersection of the service line and centre line (serve) and
the baseline and singles sidelines (groundstrokes). A total score, expressed as
a percentage of the maximum, was recorded for each game.
Serve kinematics
First serve service actions were captured using a high-speed (100 frames per
second) digital video camera (Phantom, USA), downloaded and converted to
video files. The files were viewed using a sport analysis tool (Swinger Plus,
Webbsoft Solutions) and divided into five distinct temporal phases (Phase 1:
preparation to ball release; Phase 2: ball release to maximum height of the
ball toss; Phase 3: maximum height of the ball toss to racket–ball impact;
Phase 4: racket–ball impact to follow-through; Phase 5: entire serve sequence
– preparation to follow-through). The duration of each phase was deter-
mined by counting the number of frames.
Perceptual skill
Participants viewed 12 clips, displayed on a laptop computer screen, of a
professional player serving. The footage was captured from the perspective of
a player attempting to return the serve. The participant was instructed to
assume the role of a receiving player and attempt to anticipate the direction
of a serve from the footage shown. Two temporal occlusion conditions were
presented to manipulate the time available to the participant to predict the
direction of the serve. One condition presented the complete service action,
including ball flight (T2), while the other condition occluded the vision at the
point of racket–ball contact (T1). Participants used the computer mouse to
click on the side of the service box they believed was the intended service
direction. A response accuracy percentage was then generated from the
12 trials presented (six randomly ordered trials of each occlusion condition).
Statistical analyses
The experiment used a repeated measures design (with each participant
undertaking one trial under each condition), with longitudinal data collected
throughout each trial. The data were analysed using linear mixed modelling,
with provision for fixed effects of trials and time, random effects for partici-
pants, and either constant correlation or autoregressive correlation between
the random errors within each trial. Where overall significant differences
were detected, subsequent Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analyses were con-
ducted to determine the pattern of significance. Results are reported as
mean ± standard deviation (SD), unless stated otherwise, and significance
was identified where P < 0.05.
Results
Protocol effects
Significant effects of time (P < 0.05) were revealed for increasing levels of TC,
HR, RPE, thermal sensation, CK, and decreasing blood glucose over the
duration of the simulated match. Table 7.1 illustrates some selected physio-
logical responses and comparisons between conditions. The velocity of first
serves (P < 0.05) and groundstrokes (P < 0.05) and groundstroke accuracy
(P < 0.05) significantly deteriorated over time. The racket-arm acceleration
phase of the serve (Phase 3) slowed significantly (P < 0.05) over the duration
of the protocol.
Condition effects
Caffeine supplementation did not elicit any significant physiological responses,
but there was a trend for reduced RPE towards the later stages of the proto-
col. Participants served significantly (P < 0.01) faster in the fourth set under
the caffeine condition (165 ± 15 km.h−1) compared to the placebo (159 ±
15 km.h−1). Figure 7.1 illustrates the reduction in serve velocity over time
(placebo condition) and the significant difference between conditions during
the fourth set. The temporal analysis of the serve revealed trends for caffeine
to facilitate racket-arm acceleration phases (Phase 2, P=0.052; Phase 3,
P<0.05 condition by time interaction). No other performance measure dif-
fered significantly between the experimental conditions, i.e. perceptual skill,
serve and groundstroke accuracy and groundstroke velocity.
Discussion
This investigation built on previous attempts and confirmed that the pro-
ficiency of outcome and process performance skills, integral to tennis success,
is compromised during prolonged match-specific exercise. The prolonged
simulated match elicited physiological and performance responses equivalent
to those observed during tennis competition and simulated scenarios. In this
instance, only moderate physiological strain was experienced, relative to the
duress that has been reported under more challenging playing conditions
(Bergeron, 2003; Therminarias et al., 1994). The more commonly reported
Table 7.1 Comparative physiological responses between conditions. Values presented

are mean ± SD. Core temperature, HR, thermal sensation and blood glucose were
averaged over the duration of the protocol
Placebo Caffeine
Core temperature (°C) 37.6 ± 0.5 37.7 ± 0.4

Heart rate (beats⭈min−1) 154 ± 14 156 ± 14
Thermal sensation 5.5 ± 0.7 5.4 ± 0.7
Blood glucose (mmol⭈l−1) 5.5 ± 1.5 5.3 ± 0.7
Creatine kinase Pre (u⭈l−1) 220.6 ± 135.5 214.1 ± 121.5
Creatine kinase Post (u⭈l−1) 314.5 ± 120.3 347.2 ± 174.4
Prolactin Pre (u⭈l−1) 254.8 ± 90.9 243.6 ± 56.5
Prolactin Post (u⭈l−1) 258.2 ± 108.8 313.1 ± 189.4
Figure 7.1 Serve velocity and RPE over the duration of the protocol. A significant
difference between conditions appeared in the fourth set for serve velocity
only. Values presented are mean ± SE.
homeostatic disruptions (dehydration, thermal strain, hypoglycaemia or car-

diovascular stress) were not induced in this investigation. Instead, it is sug-
gested that the production of creatine kinase and prolactin underscored
performance impairment. These findings implicate both muscle trauma and
central fatigue as mechanisms challenging sustained performance proficiency
and encourage further exploration of the area.
Another key finding to emerge was that caffeine played a facilitative role in
execution of the serve, specifically, increased serve velocity and augmented
kinematics. These responses became more pronounced towards the latter
stages of the prolonged simulated match where fatigue-associated perform-
ance deficits are most likely to occur. Consistent with previous literature
none of the other performance variables were enhanced through caffeine
supplementation. Nor did caffeine lead to any physiological benefits (Ferrauti
and Weber, 1998; Vergauwen et al., 1998).
Previous investigators have reported fatigue resistance and enhanced cog-
nition with caffeine supplementation (Lorist and Snel, 1997). This investiga-
tion examined this issue through the application of a computer-based
sport-specific perceptual skill test and did not reveal enhanced perceptual
skill for the players. It was reasoned that the simulated match scenarios may
not have elicited equivalent central demands to that experienced in real game
situations (Royal et al., 2006). Additionally, the high ecological validity of the
test setting may have reduced the sensitivity of the test to pick up any changes
in perceptual skill.
In conclusion, caffeine supplementation appears to offer ergogenic proper-
ties to some skills imperative to tennis performance; however, further investi-
gation is warranted (Ferrauti and Weber, 1998; Vergauwen et al., 1998).
Difficulties associated with the conduct of field-based testing such as the lack
of attentional resource demands associated with simulated match conditions
and measurement sensitivity need to be overcome before a true indication of
the effects of caffeine on tennis performance can be elucidated. Future
researchers are encouraged to persist with the incorporation of both process
and outcome measures of tennis performance.
References
Bergeron, M.F. (2003). Heat cramps: fluid and electrolyte challenges during tennis in
the heat. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6, 19–27.
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precision and endurance performance in tennis. Athletic Trainer, 17, 275–277.
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(1994). Cramps, heat stroke and abnormal biological responses during a strenuous
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Journal of Applied Physiology, 63, 1218–1223.
8 Nutrition knowledge and
nutrition habits of
tennis coaches
B.R. Matković, B. Matković and
P. Tudor-Barbaros
Introduction
The nutrition of athletes has been of interest to scientists for decades and
since the origins of sports competitions questions about what to eat and
what to drink in order to improve performance have been raised. Today
there is scientific evidence that adequate dietary habits influence to a large
extent an athlete’s health, body composition, and energetic pathways during
training as well as during competition and recovery (Barr, 1999; American
Dietetic Association, 2000; Bernardot, 2000; Wilmore and Costill, 2004;
www.ais.org.au/ nutrition, 2005; www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/
vitamins.html, 2005). Athletes should be well informed about the food groups,
energy intake and daily meal schedules. As previous investigations have
shown, athletes obtain most of their knowledge about nutrition from their
coaches, especially physical conditioning coaches (Angel and Gillespie, 1990;
Conkle and Tishler, 1992; Burns et al., 2004).
The major aim of this study is to determine the level of knowledge about
nutrition and dietary habits in tennis coaches. A further aim of this paper is
to establish the relation between knowledge of nutrition and dietary habits.
Methods
The sample consisted of 49 tennis coaches from Croatia. Knowledge about
sports nutrition and dietary habits was assessed by means of questionnaires.
The questionnaires were constructed based on the results of previous studies
conducted at the Faculty of Kinesiology (Matković et al., 2006) and the
results from international studies (Conkle and Tishler, 1992; Paugh, 2005).
The questionnaire that provided information about knowledge in sports
nutrition consisted of items determining the general knowledge about nutri-
tion, nutritional ingredients needed for providing adequate energy levels
in sports, items about supplements, meal schedule before training and com-
petition and recovery, and items testing knowledge about the importance
of liquids, dehydration and rehydration during and after training and
competition.
Nutrition knowledge of tennis coaches 59
Dietary habits of the subjects were determined by items regarding the
number of meals per day, skipping meals, intake of particular food sub-
groups based on the food pyramid, liquid intake and vitamin and mineral
supplements intake, specially those used usually in sports.
Surveys were anonymous and the data obtained were analysed by statistical
software STATISTICA for WINDOWS. The correlations between nutri-
tional knowledge and dietary habits were examined by means of Pearson’s
correlation coefficient.

The questionnaire and the number of correct and incorrect answers are pre-
sented in Table 8.1. According to the results obtained, it can be concluded
that the level of knowledge about nutrition is not satisfactory. From the total
of 1078 correct answers, the tennis coaches obtained 814 or 75.5 per cent
accuracy, with a range of 5 to 49 correct answers. There were only seven
statements on which the whole sample gave a correct answer.
A closer look at the different statements in the questionnaire suggest there
is a deficit in coaches’ knowledge. This lack can probably be connected to
the fact that no single coach attended all of the nutrition courses and that
the sources of information for nutritional facts that they use are not always
scientifically justified. Most of their knowledge comes from different popular
magazines. Although in recent years there is a significant growth in the litera-
ture relating to different aspects of sports nutrition, it seems that tennis
coaches are not interested in this type of source.
It seems that proteins are the nutrient about which tennis coaches have the
least knowledge. This finding is in accordance with the previous investigation
conducted on Croatian basketball and alpine skiing coaches (Matković et al.,
2006). Almost half of them take proteins for their main energy source and
believe that athletes, compared to sedentary people, need as much as triple
the amount of this nutrient even though they know very little about protein
metabolism. They do know that amino acids are among the most used sup-
plements (Lacey and Pritchett, 2003; Lombardo, 2004), frequently from the
recommendation of their coaches. It would be expected that persons who are
advocating the use of this supplementation know about the possible problems
or side effects that could endanger the health of the player.
Vitamins and minerals are also frequently used as supplements (Burns et al.,
2004). The statements on these nutrients had just a few incorrect answers.
It is surprising that 40 per cent of coaches consider vitamins and minerals as
sources of energy. With regard to supplementation, 40 per cent of tennis
coaches think that there is no success in sport without dietary supplements.
There are very few false answers about weight loss. This is surprising
because tennis is not a sport where players and coaches have problems with
keeping their weight within certain limits as in some other sports, like gym-
nastics or wrestling (American Dietetic Association, 2000; Ray and Fowler,
60 B.R. Matković, B. Matković and P. Tudor-Barbaros
Table 8.1 Questionnaire with the marked true (T) or false (F) answers and the number
of correct and incorrect answers
Answers
Correct Not correct
1. Proteins are the main energents F 25 24

2. Muscle glykogen depots can affect exercise available T 44 5
energy
3. Excess protein intake overload kidney and liver T 30 19
4. Athletes need three times more proteins than F 4 45
sedentary persons
5. Athletes need more carbohydrates than sedentary T 39 10
persons
6. Thirst is not an adequate indicator of water needed T 25 24
during exercise
7. Fluids should be ingested before, during and after T 34 15
exercise
8. Skipping meals is justified when it is necessary to F 49 0
promote a fast weight loss
9. Very fast weight loss associated to very restrictive T 49 0
diets can negatively affect exercise performance
10. Weight loss with a very restricitve diet is mostly due T 34 15
to water loss
11. Calcium deficiency can lead to bone fractures and T 49 0
osteoporosis
12. Intake of mixtures of specific amino acids can cause T 8 41
a nutritional disbalance (one amino acid could
compete with another)
13. Citric fruits are the only sources of vitamin C in food F 49 0
14. To eat after a competition is only important if the F 39 10
athlete is hungry
15. Balanced diet is necessary only before the F 43 6
competition
16. The last main solid meal should be taken with a 3–4 T 49 0
hour interval before the competition
17. Hydration and carbohydrate repletion should begin T 43 6
as soon as possible after the competition
18. It is impossible to win without supplements F 29 20
19. Fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins T 49 0
and minerals
20. Excess vitamin and mineral consumption can be T 49 0
toxic
21. Vitamin D could be produced by the body T 45 4
22. Vitamins and minerals are sources of energy F 29 20
2004). Probably this is a consequence of the fact that the problem of control-
ling body mass is present in everyday life and it is not only a question of sport
nutrition but is connected with the quality of life.
The coaches showed that they knew how to deal with meal schedules
related to training/competitions. In contrast, understanding recovery and
rehydration was not so good. Recovery is a very complex process in which
nutrition and rehydration have a very important role. It is necessary to restore
glycogen deposits in muscles and in the liver, replenish water and minerals
lost by sweating and synthesize muscle proteins.
Consumption of a carbohydrate-rich meal as soon as possible after exer-
cise is recommended, providing at least one gram of carbohydrate per kilo-
gram of an athlete’s body weight (Ivy et al., 1988; Inge, 2001; Welsh et al.,
2002; Jentjens and Jeukendrup, 2003). Tennis players should consume fluid
at every opportunity they have, but recovery is a period to replenish the loss
of water and electrolyte (Maughan et al., 1996; Shirreffs et al., 1996) and not
to overconsume fluids (Noakes, 2003). At this stage it is very important
to take into consideration that thirst is not a good measure of dehydration
and, unfortunately, almost half of the coaches surveyed were not familiar
with this.
The dietary habits questionnaire consisted of 18 questions (Paugh, 2005).
These questions included food intake, dieting, skipping meals, consumption
of different beverages and vitamin and mineral supplementation. Answers
ranged from always (4) to never (1) and the possible range for scores was
from 18 to 72. Coaches obtained 48.6 points on average. It seems that
coaches, like athletes, have very busy schedules so they skip some meals in
their daily routine, but breakfast is not the one usually skipped. Coaches
are rarely dieting and they do not seek much nutritional information nor are
they recording what they eat.
A positive relationship was found between dietary habits and nutritional
knowledge. Coaches who had a better understanding of nutrition had also
better nutrition habits. This fact was also established in some previous
investigations (Paugh, 2005; Matković et al., 2006).
Conclusion
It was concluded that despite relatively good nutritional knowledge, there
is some incompleteness about very important nutrition facts. This is the
reason why sport nutritionists should be included in coaching teams. Such
a person would be the one to help in the education of coaches, athletes
and parents, to diagnose dietary habits and to suggest necessary changes, all
for the purpose of better sport results and preserving health (Lacey and
Pritchett, 2003). A good level of knowledge could contribute to good dietary
habits.
62 B.R. Matković, B. Matković and P. Tudor-Barbaros
References
American Dietetic Association. (2000). Position of the American Dietetic Associ-
ation, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine:
nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,
100:1543–1556.
Angel, J.B. and Gillespie, C. (1990). Nutritional knowledge of athletic trainers.
Alabama State Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
(ASAHPERD) Journal, 13, 18–20.
Barr, S.I. (1999). Effects of dehydration on exercise performance. Canadian Journal of
Applied Physiology, 24, 164–172.
Benardot, D. (2000). Nutrition For Serious Athletes: An Advanced Guide to Foods,
Fluids, and Supplements for Training and Performance. Champaign IL: Human
Kinetics.
Burns, R.D., Schiller, R., Merrick, M.A. and Wolf, K.N. (2004). Intercollegiate stu-
dent athlete use of nutritional supplements and the role of athletic trainers and
dietitians in nutrition counseling. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,
104, 246–249.
Conkle, T.H. and Tishler, A.G. (1992). Sports nutrition knowledge assessment of phys-
ical educators and coaches. Annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational
Research Association, 11–13 November 1992, Knoxville, Tennessee.
Inge, K. (2001). Nutrition: the competitive edge. In Tennis Medicine for Tennis
Coaches (edited by M. Crespo, B. Pluim and M. Reid), London: ITF Ltd,
pp: 111–112.
Ivy, J.L., Katz, A.L., Cutler, C.L., Sherman, W.M. and Coyle, E.F. (1988). Muscle
glycogen resynthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. Jour-
nal of Applied Physiology, 64, 1480–1485.
Jentjens, R. and Jeukendrup, A.E. (2003). Determinants of post-exercise glycogen
synthesitss during short-term recovery. Sports Medicine, 33, 117–144.
Lacey, K. and Pritchett, E. (2003). Nutrition care process and model: ADA adopts
road map to quality care and outcomes management. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 103, 1061–1072.
Lombardo, J.A. (2004). Supplements and athletes. Southern Medical Journal, 97,
877–879.
Matković, B., Knjaz, D. and Cigrovski, V. (2006). Znanje trenera o sportskoj prehrani.
[Sport nutrition knowledge of coaches]. Hrvatski športsko medicinski vjesnik, 21,
3–8.
Maughan, R.J., Leiper, J.B. and Shirreffs, S.M. (1996). Rehydation and recovery after
exercise. Sport Science Exchange, 9, 1–5.
Noakes, T.D. (2003). Overconsumption of fluids by athletes. British Medical Journal,
327, 113–4.
Paugh, S.L. (2005). Dietary habits and nutritional knowledge of college athletes.
Unpublished PhD Thesis. California University of Pennsylvania.
Ray, T.R. and Fowler, R. (2004). Current issues in sports nutrition in athletes. Southern
Medical Journal, 97, 863–866.
Shirreffs, S.M., Taylor, A.J., Leiper, J.B. and Maughan, R.J. (1996). Post-exercise
rehydration in man: effects of volume consumed and drink sodium content.
Welsh, R.S., Davis, J.M., Burke, J.R. and Williams, H.G. (2002). Carbohydrates and
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Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L. (2004). Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign,
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2005).
9 Correlations of physiological
responses in squash players
during competition
J.R. Alvero Cruz, J. Barrera Expósito,
A. Mesa Alonso and D. Cabello
Introduction
Physiological and perceptual responses to playing in squash competition are
not well-known. Laboratory testing is commonly used to determine meta-
bolic profile of players, to evaluate physiological training-induced changes
and/or determine appropriate training intensities. In racket sports such as
squash, success is largely dependent on technical, tactical and motor skills
(Lees, 2003). Squash is a moderate-to-high intensity intermittent exercise.
Players are active 50 to 70 per cent of the playing time and 80 per cent of
the time the ball is in play 10 s or less. The rest intervals fit a normal distribu-
tion with an average duration of 8 s. Heart rate increases rapidly in the
first minutes of play and remains stable at approximately 160 beats.min−1
for the whole match regardless of players’ competitive levels (Montpetit,
1990).
In sports with intermittent activity such as squash, physiological demands
imposed on the players during competition cannot be simulated in controlled
laboratory settings and it is important to consider the physiological charac-
teristics of the game, including the many dynamic leg movements (repeated
accelerations, decelerations, turns and jumps), arm (shoulder internal rota-
tion, forearm pronation, wrist flexion) and other movements made during
real match-play. Only limited data on squash play performance exists in lit-
erature. Some studies have monitored cardio-respiratory responses in incre-
mental treadmill test versus specific incremental test (Girard et al., 2005) and
physiological characteristics (VO2max, anaerobic thresholds, running speed) of
squash players (Chin et al., 1995; Steininger and Wodick, 1987). The maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2max), anaerobic threshold (ventilatory thresholds,
VT), and respiratory compensation point, are not able to explain the per-
formance in competition and these are not sufficient for a valid estimate of
competition fitness (Steininger and Wodick, 1987; Girard et al., 2005).
The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between several
physiological variables (anthropometric, mean heart rate, lactate levels, ratings
of perceived exertion (RPE) and training variables) considered important in
the course of several matches in squash players.
Physiological responses in squash players 65
Methods
Participants
Thirteen healthy experienced male squash players volunteered for this investi-
gation and written informed consent was obtained from each participant.
The protocol was approved by the University of Malaga Ethical Committee
(Spain).
Preliminary testing
Anthropometric variables used to estimate body composition included the
sum of four skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, ileospinal and abdominal), body
fat and the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype (Carter and Heath,
1990), which was derived according to ISAK’s methodology (Norton and
Olds, 1996).
Experimental testing
Measurements of heart rate were continuously recorded (Polar 610i, 710i,
Polar Electro Oy, Finland), lactate levels (Dr Lange LP20 Miniphotometer,
Berlin, Germany) were determined from 20 µl of a hyperhemized blood
drawn from the earlobe in the first minute after the end of the match. Ratings
of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded by modified Borg scale of 0–10
(Chen et al., 2002), the total game time (s) and the loser (L = 0) or winner
(W = 1) in a total of 25 matches.
Statistics
Statistical analyses were conducted using a SPSS version 14.0 and a MedCalc
Statistical Software. The results are expressed as mean (SD). Paired t-tests
were used to determine significant differences between variables. Pearson
product moment correlations were used to examine the relationships among
variables (anthropometric, mean heart rate, lactate levels, RPE and training
variables), and P < 0.05 was considered significant.
Results
Table 9.1 shows descriptive data for age, height, weight, percentage of body
fat, Heath-Carter somatotype components, BMI and training characteristics
Significant differences were found between winner (W) and loser (L) on the
Borg Scale and for lactate levels (Table 9.2). No significant differences were
found between HR mean for W and L or in variables like percentage of fat,
BMI, somatotype components, age, mass, height, training years and week
training unit sessions. Significant correlations (Table 9.3) were found between
66 J.R. Alvero Cruz et al.
Table 9.1 General data (n = 13) age, height, mass, percentage

of fat, BMI, somatotype components and training data
Mean SD
Age (years) 31.93 11.21

Height (cm) 173.61 7.02
Mass (kg) 75 5.88
% fat mass 15.05 2.76
BMI (kg/m2) 25.19 2.06
Endomorphy 3.58 1.3
Mesomorphy 5.75 1
Ectomorphy 1.23 0.97
Training sessions (week) 5.98 4.36
Training (years) 9.59 9.18
Table 9.2 Values are mean (SD) of lactate concentration (mMol.l−1), RPE Borg Scale
and mean heart rate (bpm) between winners and losers
Variables Winner Loser diff 95% CI t df P<
Lactate 3.41 6.54 0.1309 to –

(mM.l−1) (1.58) (2.86) 3.13 4.099 3.34 23 0.0028
Borg Scale 5.5 7.6 1.1971 to –
(0–10) (2.3) (2.43) 2.11 5.069 2.20 23 0.037
HRmean 167 175
(beats.min−1) (12) (9.6) – – – – ns
Table 9.3 Correlation between variables
P< / r = Borg Scale (RPE) Winner–Loser Mean HR Play time
Lactate 0.65** −0.57** 0.44*

Borg Scale −0.418** 0.727** 0.479*
Winner–Loser −0.356 0.00
Mean HR 0.33
Play time
Notes: * P < 0.05

** P < 0.001
lactate concentrations and the Borg Scale, W or L and mean HR. Other
correlations were found: weak training sessions were inversely related with
percentage of fat (r = −0.423; P < 0.035) and endomorphy (r = −0.54;
P < 0.005) and directly with ectomorphy (r = 0.42; P < 0.034), and regional
ranking was related to percentage of fat (r = −0.48; P < 0.01) and endo-
morphy (r = 0.47; P < 0.018).
Discussion
In squash, maximal oxygen uptake has traditionally been considered the key
factor in aerobic performance, and this sport is largely dependent on some
technical motor abilities. Limited data are available in relation to competition
parameters, and only a few publications are available on sport specific fitness
tests, and other sports (Green et al., 2006; Seiler and Sjursen, 2004). The
results of the present study show a tight relationship between variables that
are related with fitness as mean heart rate, lactate levels, competition time and
the ratings of perceived exertion.
The basic anthropometric variables of our players are in agreement with
Chin (Chin et al., 1995) and Girard (Girard et al., 2005) in relation to mass,
height and percentage of body fat. The total amount of training is related
to a smaller percentage of fat and endomorphy. Somatotype components
and percentage of fat mass do not present significant relationships with
performance.
The relationship between lactate and RPE, lactate and mean heart rate
are direct (r = 0.44 and r = 0.65) and this suggests that RPE is a sensitive
variable of acute exercise and dependent on intensity. High values of per-
ceived exertion (Borg Scale) and lactate levels are inversely related to a win or
loss. We can confirm that lower RPE level, lactate and mean heart rate are
associated with a win and it is an expression of a lower relative intensity.
Finally, RPE is a sensitive variable to training-induced threshold changes
(Hetzler et al., 1991). In our study this relationship could be due to the fact that
the collection of RPE was after exercise and is associated with the perception
of overall effort, that finally picks up a sensation of a maintained steady-state
exercise. In other studies significant increases in RPE occurring concurrently
with significant decreases in blood lactate have been found during later stages
of exercise, revealing a divergence in relationships indicating that lactate
does not serve as a strong RPE mediator during 60-min of workload cycling
(Green et al., 2006). These results show that physiological and competition
responses can be a decisive factor that may make a difference between success
and failure in squash tournaments. So we should consider them in order to
plan training.
Blood lactate levels between winners and losers suggest different grades
of metabolic contribution over the course of repeated short and intense
workouts. (Montpetit, 1990). The blood lactate concentration remains stable
despite a continued lactate production and elimination, due to a steady work-
load although there are short rest intervals. The change of blood lactate
concentrations from the middle to the end of the match is nearly constant,
suggesting that lactate production and elimination are balanced. Other exer-
cise circumstances such as longer duration, steady workload and repeated
exercise bouts may alter these associations (Green et al., 2006; Weltman et al.,
1998; Seiler and Sjursen, 2004). The use of blood lactate measurements for
prediction of exercise performance, training control and their changes is
68 J.R. Alvero Cruz et al.
recommended (Billat, 1996) and proposed as a physiological marker that is
valuable for intensity regulation (Weltman, 1995; Weltman et al., 1998)
The changes in mean heart rate and lactate levels during competitive squash
are important and may be regulated for duration and intensity of match and
competitor level. The rating of perceived exertion is a dependent variable of
heart rate and lactate concentration. Also, the lactate levels and mean heart
rate are dependent variables of a RPE and these responses are in agreement
with Green (Green et al., 2006). Garcin and Billat (2001) showed that RPE
responses attest to intensity as well as duration of exercise. Although the
perception of effort remains a critical tool, the good relation with heart rate
and lactate suggest other ways to control perceived intensity.
More investigations are necessary to demonstrate the relationship between
these parameters and their changes with the specific training and their effect
in the competition results. Future studies aim to investigate the physiological
and perceptual responses to competition after training intervention in differ-
ent aerobic–anaerobic zones. We consider that interval-training methods
are important to improve squash performance and the convenience of the
use of RPE, lactate and heart rate levels to quantify training and competition
intensity.
The key findings of this study are the close relationships between lactate,
mean heart rate and rating scale of perceived exertion in response to competi-
tion and their possible modification of these variables by means of specific
training. These training sessions have to be designed on the basis of physio-
logical data recorded during response to competition and training.
Conclusions
This study indicates that the performance level of squash matches seems to
have a strong association between variables such as the mean heart rate,
lactate level and rating of perceived exertion. These variables should be util-
ized in the planning of training in order to design exercises with a similar
response. These results also seem to demonstrate that the relative intensity of
the game of squash in winners is characterized by aerobic lactate and mean
heart rate levels. These physiological variables of competition are possibly
modified by specific training.
References
Billat, V.L. (1996). The use of blood lactate measurements for prediction of exercise
performance an control of training. Sports Medicine, 22, 157–175.
Carter, J.E.L. and Heath, B.H. (1990). Somatotyping: Development and Applications.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chen, M.J., Fan, X. and Moe, S.T. (2002). Criterion related validity of the Borg
ratings of perceived exertion scale in healthy individuals: a meta-analysis. Journal
of Sports Science, 20, 873–899.
Chin, M.K., Wong, A.S., So, R.C., Siu, O.T., Steininger, K. and Lo, D.T. (1995). Sport
specific fitness testing of elite badminton players. British Journal of Sports Medicine,
29, 153–157.
Garcin, M. and Billat, V. (2001) Perceived exertion scales attest to both intensity and
duration. Perceptual Motor Skills, 93, 661–667.
Specific incremental test in squash players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39,
921–926.
Green, J.M., McLester, J.R., Crews, T.R., Wickwire, P.J., Pritchett, R.C. and Lomax,
R.G. (2006). RPE association with lactate and heart rate during high intensity
interval cycling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38, 167–172.
Hetzler, R.K., Seip, R.L., Boutcher, S.R., Pierce, E., Snead, D. and Weltman, A.
(1991). Effect of exercise modality on ratings of perceived exertion at various
lactate concentrations Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 88–92.
Science, 21, 707–73.
Montpetit, R.R. (1990). Applied physiology of squash. Sports Medicine, 10, 31–41.
Norton, K. and Olds, T. (1996). Anthropometrica. Sidney: Southwood Press.
Seiler, S. and Sjursen, J.E. (2004). Effect of work duration on physiological and rating
scale of perceived exertion responses during self-paced interval training. Scandina-
vian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 14, 318–325.
Steininger, K. and Wodick, R.E. (1987). Sports-specific fitness testing in squash.
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 23–26.
Weltman, A. (1995). The Blood Lactate Response to Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics,
Weltman, A., Weltman, J.Y., Kanaley, J.A., Rogol, A.D. and Veldhuis, J.D. (1998).
Repeated bouts of exercise alter the blood lactate-RPE relation. Medicine and
10 Field-based assessment of
speed and power in junior
badminton players
M.G. Hughes
Introduction
Badminton is a sport where fast, explosive movements and high levels of
agility are essential for competitive success at the elite level. The assessment
of fitness for badminton should therefore include tests which reflect these
performance demands. Badminton England’s programme of fitness assess-
ment for elite junior players was established in 2001 and has required players
to perform field tests for speed, agility, power and aerobic fitness (Hughes,
2006). Although there are examples of aerobic field tests for Badminton
players in the scientific literature (Chin et al., 1995; Hughes and Fullerton,
1995; Hughes et al., 2002; Wonisch et al., 2003) no such test procedures have
been reported for power, agility or speed.
For the fitness assessment of players, it is often desirable to assess for
general, as well as sport-specific, physical abilities. The Badminton England
fitness test batteries include a combination of general tests for speed and power
as well as a sport-specific, speed (‘agility’) test. Due to the lack of established
field tests for power in badminton players, the lower-body power tests involves
assessment of jump performance, as used in many other sports (Gore, 2000).
The speed and agility tests both require repeated movements within a bad-
minton court but only the agility test required a badminton-specific movement
pattern.
Previous analysis of data from senior, elite players performing the same
tests (Hughes and Bopf, 2005) showed that performance in the agility test was
not related to performance in the jump tests for groups of either male or
female players. Similarly, performance in the general speed test was only
related to performance in the agility test for female, but not male, players.
Hughes and Bopf (2005) concluded that the jump tests should not be used to
make inferences about badminton-specific movement speed in senior players.
The present study addressed the same issue but the analysis was performed on
junior players where developmental considerations may show that different
conclusions should be drawn.
For the junior programme of testing, where high numbers of players are
routinely assessed, it is important to know whether there are associations
Field-based assessment of speed and power 71
between test types. For example, if a jump test was a predictor of speed or
agility, rationalization of the test programme could be appropriate. Add-
itionally, establishing the relationships between these variables may be useful
in advising about future training for the optimization of speed, power or
agility for individual players.
Therefore the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relation-
ships between results for field tests for lower body power, speed and agility in
a group of junior, elite badminton players.
Methods
Participants
At the time of testing all subjects were part of the England World Class
Potential squad. There were 43 male subjects (mean ± SD, age and body
mass: 16.9 ± 1.1 years, 70.5 ± 7.3 kg, respectively) and 49 female subjects
(mean ± SD, age and body mass: 16.8 ± 1.3 years, 61.8 ± 7.8 kg, respectively).
Test procedures
Jump tests
Jump tests were performed using vertical jump and standing long jump pro-
cedures. Vertical jump was measured using Vertec (JumpUSA, CA, USA)
apparatus. Preparatory counter-movement was allowed and the dominant
hand was raised in execution of the test jump. The standing long jump was
measured from the front of the feet (taken as zero point) to the back of the
foot which travelled the least distance upon landing. The best performance
from at least four attempts was recorded as the test result.
General speed test

For the performance of this test, players stood astride the central line of a
court and were required to make ten lateral movements at maximum speed
across the court. Five shuttlecocks were placed, feathers downwards, on the
outside line of each side of the court (i.e. ten shuttles in total). Each set of five
shuttlecocks were spread out over a distance of around 50 cm. Players were
instructed to knock one shuttle from its position with their racket for
each lateral movement. They thus moved from forehand to backhand side
knocking one shuttle for every movement made. Once the tenth shuttle had
been hit, the test time was taken when the player crossed the central line for
the last time. The best time from at least two attempts was taken as the test
result.
72 M.G. Hughes
Badminton-specific speed (‘agility’) test
This test required a total of eight movements in an ordered sequence in all
directions around the court (see Figure 10.1; from points 1 to 4, twice in
succession). This test used badminton-specific ‘shadow play’ movements
around the court, starting from a central base. For position 1, players were
required to replicate an overhead forehand shot while placing a foot in the
box marked on Figure 10.1. At position 2, players had to touch a post
(around 1.2 m high) positioned on the inner tramline, 1.5 m back from the
front service line. At position 3, players had to hit a shuttle that was resting
on the net tape, 0.5 m in from the inner tramline. Finally, at position 4,
players had to hit a shuttle that was placed on the inner tramline 1.5 m back
from the front service line before returning to their central base. Once this
sequence had been performed twice, the test-time was taken when the player
returned to the central base. The best time from at least two attempts was
taken as the test result.
Body composition
Body composition was predicted from the measurement of four skinfold sites
using the procedures of Durnin and Wormesley (1974).
Figure 10.1 Layout of the badminton half-court for the specific speed test. (See
text for details; set-up shown is for right-handed player only).
Data analysis
The most recent, complete set of data for each player was taken for ana-
lysis. Separate Pearson’s product moment correlations were established for
the results of male and female players. Statistical significance was accepted at
P < 0.05.
Results
The mean results for the fitness tests are given in Table 10.1.
Correlation analyses
The correlation matrices for these data are shown in Tables 10.2 (female data)
and 10.3 (male data). These data show that for female players, all of the
physical test results were highly correlated. Similarly, body fat results were
related to jump test performances and general speed test results, but not to
performance in the agility test. For the male players, the jump tests were inter-
related and the jump test results were also correlated to general speed test
performance. The agility test results were only related to performance in the
general speed test.
Table 10.1 Mean ± standard deviation results for fitness test data
Males (n = 43) Females (n = 49)
Predicted body fat (%) 10.9 ± 3.4 23.9 ± 3.5

Vertical jump height (m) 0.63 ± 0.06 0.49 ± 0.05
Standing long jump (m) 2.42 ± 0.14 1.96 ± 0.18
General speed test (s) 14.9 ± 0.7 16.4 ± 0.9
Agility test (s) 11.7 ± 0.8 13.3 ± 1.0
Table 10.2 Correlation matrix for female subjects
Age Body % Fat Vertical Long General

mass jump jump speed
Body mass 0.36*

% Fat 0.21 0.70**
Vertical jump 0.13 −0.21 −0.50**
Long jump 0.20 −0.16 −0.37** 0.74**
General speed −0.31* 0.34* 0.48** −0.70** −0.64**
Agility −0.39** 0.01 0.10 −0.49** −0.60** 0.67**
Notes: * denotes significant correlation (P < 0.05)

** denotes significant correlation (P < 0.01)
74 M.G. Hughes
Table 10.3 Correlation matrix for male subjects
Age Body % Fat Vertical Long General

mass jump jump speed
Body mass 0.42**

% Fat 0.16 0.69**
Vertical jump 0.29 0.06 −0.05
Long jump 0.51** 0.34* −0.08 0.62**
General speed −0.46** −0.13 0.07 −0.44** −0.41**
Agility −0.39** −0.19 −0.02 −0.29 −0.23 0.65**
Notes: * denotes significant correlation (P < 0.05)

** denotes significant correlation (P < 0.01)
Discussion
The key findings of this study were that, like senior players, the jump test
results of juniors were related closely to general speed test performance, but
not always to speed in a badminton-specific agility test. For female players,
the badminton agility test performance was related to performance in the
other speed and jump tests. In contrast, for male players, agility-test perform-
ance was not significantly correlated to jump test performance.
The performance level of the players assessed in this study was very high.
The mean results for all tests with these junior players are within 5 per cent of
equivalent data for the senior players whose data were analysed by Hughes
and Bopf (2005). Bearing in mind the age of these players, and the fact that
they were well habituated to the test procedures in these tests, it would seem
Figure 10.2 Scatter plot (and linear trend lines) for vertical jump height and agility
test results in male and female players.
that these data were representative of the players’ limits of performance in
these tests of fitness.
A number of factors ought to be considered about the nature of this study
and its analysis before conclusions can be made about its findings. First, the
findings of this study should not be generalized to a wider population as the
sample whose data are analysed here were the product of a national squad
selection process. For example, the fact that the trends within the data for
males were slightly different to those of the female group could be a product of
preferential selection of different charactermbistics for the two genders. In this
case, it could be that the strong relationships between the speed, agility and
power results are attributed to a selection policy that favours females who were
generally athletic. Similarly, the weaker correlation between agility scores for
the males and the speed and jump tests could be attributable to selection
based on badminton movement speed, as opposed to more general attributes.
Second, limitations of the statistical analysis could also help to explain these
findings. Correlation is always strengthened when a population is relatively
heterogeneous for the variables being analysed. The standard deviation of
agility scores for females was slightly higher than for the males, but this was
roughly proportional to the magnitude of the values, suggesting that the data
for the males and females were not contrasting in terms of heterogeneity.
The outcomes of this study may have implications for the preparation,
identification and fitness assessment of junior badminton players. In terms
of fitness assessment, these data support the findings from senior players
(Hughes and Bopf, 2005) that performance in the jump test, although thought
to reflect lower body power, is not necessarily predictive of badminton spe-
cific speed-agility. In junior females, however, performance in the jump test
and speed tests may be predictive of badminton speed-agility. Caution should
be exercised in using results from the jump tests to make inferences about
more dynamic badminton activities. It should be acknowledged that jumping
is an integral activity in elite badminton and, irrespective of any lack of
association with specific movement speed, very high levels of leg power are
essential for success in the sport. On the evidence gathered with the English
players analysed, jump test performance is not always correlated to speed on
court. For these junior players, results from the general speed test correlated
strongly with the agility task: a finding that was not seen with senior male
players. With reference to the preparation of players, these findings highlight
the importance of the movement technique that is required for this sport.
Male players with good jump test performances were not necessarily the
fastest on the agility task. These findings are consistent with the outcomes of
the similar analysis with senior male and female players (Hughes and Bopf,
2005). Finally, in terms of identification of talented players, a balance needs
to be drawn between desirable sport-specific and general characteristics.
Particularly with reference to young players, appropriate training should be
devised which compensates for the relative deficiencies in a player’s fitness
profile that are identified by a programme of fitness testing such as this.
76 M.G. Hughes
Conclusion
In summary, performance in a jump test is not necessarily predictive of on-
court speed in junior badminton players. While performance in a general
speed test seems to relate to a badminton speed-agility task in these junior
players, the same trend may not be present once the male players reach senior
level. The present data suggest that the factors that correlate with on-court
movement speed may differ between male and female junior players.
References
Chin, M.-K., Wong, A.S.K., So, R.C.H., Siu, O., Steiniger, K. and Lo, D.T.L. (1995).
Sport specific fitness testing of elite badminton players. British Journal of Sports
Medicine, 29, 153–157.
Durnin, J.V. and Wormesley, J. (1974). Body fat assessed from total body density and
its estimation from skinfold thicknesses. British Journal of Nutrition, 32, 77–97.
Gore, C.J. (2000). Physiological Tests for Elite Athletes: Australian sports commission.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Hughes, M.G. (2006). Fitness Testing Procedures. Milton Keynes, UK: Badminton
England.
Hughes, M.G. and Bopf, G. (2005). Relationships between performance in jump tests
and speed tests in elite Badminton players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 194–195.
Hughes, M.G. and Fullerton, F.M. (1995). Development of an on-court aerobic test
for elite badminton players. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M.
Hughes and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 51–54.
Hughes, M.G., Andrew, M. and Ramsay, R. (2002). A sport-specific, endurance per-
formance test for elite badminton players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 277–278.
Wonisch, M., Hofmann, P., Schwaberger, G., von Duvillard, S.P. and Klein, W. (2003).
Validation of a field test for the non-invasive determination of badminton-specific
aerobic performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 115–118.
11 Energy expenditure
measurement in badminton
players during a training camp
using doubly-labelled water
E. Watanabe, S. Igawa, T. Sato, M. Miyazaki,
S. Horiuchi and K. Seki
Introduction
The quantity of physical activity and energy expenditure of badminton play-
ers have been studied in general using heart rate monitoring. There are many
research reports concerning the physical activity of a game of badminton
(Seki et al., 1982; Araragi et al., 1999; Cabello et al., 2003). In order to obtain
good results in an international match, it is necessary to prepare for the target
game. For that purpose, we need to understand the habitual energy consump-
tion (in training camp, on tour, during competition games and so on) that a
player expends.
Energy expenditure can be measured under field conditions using the
doubly-labelled water method (DLW). The DLW method has been validated
with respiratory gas analysis in several animals species and recently in
humans. The technique has the advantage that total energy expenditure
(TEE) can be measured in free-living subjects with minimal interference with
only the periodic sampling of urine or saliva. Subjects can take part freely in
their daily activities, even during an experimental period. It has been stand-
ardized in a workshop where all users in the field of human energy metabol-
ism were represented (Prentice, 1990). In recent years studies for not only
general populations, but also athletes have increased (Hunter et al., 2000;
Naoyuki et al., 2000; Hyong-Ryul et al., 2003).
The purpose of this study is to examine the total energy expenditure for
badminton players. In this study, the doubly-labelled water method was used
to estimate energy expenditure of the badminton players in a training camp.
Simultaneously, a nutrition investigation was also conducted.
Methods
Subjects were 17 badminton players (seven men, ten women) who partici-
pated in the six-day training camp of the Thomas and Uber cup at the Japan
Institute for Sports Sciences (JISS) in 2004. Before the training camp, we
explained the purpose of this study to both players and coaches. Subjects
gave informed consent to participate in this institutionally approved study.
78 E. Watanabe et al.
Measurements were performed without changing their practice schedule so
that it did not become a burden to players and staff. Practice was performed
as usual. Each player was asked for one urine sample every morning. Their
activity, including the urine sampling time, was recorded in the questionnaire
by the players. Food intake was recorded using the nutritional administration
system ‘I-dietitian’. When a training camp was over, we collected all the
samples, results of meal contents and questionnaires. Urine samples were
analysed using the DLW method. With regard to energy intake, the I-dietitian
output record data were summed to give the amount of energy, protein, lipid,
carbohydrates, calcium, iron and vitamins A, B1, B2 and C.
Results
Physical characteristics and the results using DLW

Physical characteristics of subjects are shown in Table 11.1. As a result of the
analysis of DLW, in men the water turnover was 5.94 l.day−1, TEE was
4685.5 kcal.day−1, and the percentage of fat was 11.9 per cent. In women, the
water turnover was 4.12 l.day−1, energy expenditure was 3238.7 kcal.day−1,
and the percentage of fat was 20.09 per cent (Tables 11.2 and 11.3).
Results of dietary intake

The energy intake in men was 3326.2 kcal/day, in women it was 2450.2 kcal/
day. The PFC ratio in men was 16.3:25.7:58.0, in women it was 18.0:30.8:51.1
(Tables 11.4 and 11.5).

The mean data presented excluded the data that needed retesting due to
unusually high values. Generally, the result of energy expenditure measure-
ment using the DLW method tended to be higher than the energy intake. The
results of this study also showed large values of about 1300 kcal in men,
800 kcal in women. Because it was not possible in this study to investigate
Table 11.1 Physical characteristics of subjects
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
Age (yr) 23.6 1.9 24.5 3.8

Height (cm) 171.3 3.6 163.7 4.4
Weight (kg) 66.1 5.1 56.1 4.4
BMI (kg/m2) 22.5 1.2 20.9 0.9
Energy expenditure in badminton players 79
Table 11.2 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in men
Subject TBW rCO2 TEE % fat Water turnover

(kg) (mol/day) (kcak/day) (l/day)
1 46.2 37.0 4672 5.9 5.0

2 – – – – – *
3 41.3 44.9 5672 15.8 5.6
4 37.3 47.7 6026 12.1 7.4
5 41.9 107.1 13521 18.3 – *
6 49.8 26.1 3294 8.1 5.4
7 38.0 29.8 3758 17.6 6.3
Mean 42.50 37.11 4684.54 11.92 5.94 **
SD 5.375 9.35 1179.75 4.98 0.94
Notes: * Needing retest

** Except for retest value
Table 11.3 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in women
Subject TBW rCO2 TEE % fat Water turnover

(kg) (mol/day) (kcak/day) (l/day)
1 31.8 60.6 7654 18.0 3.1 *

2 30.2 20.8 2630 20.8 3.0
3 32.2 22.9 2889 18.5 4.6
4 30.9 28.5 3600 14.7 3.4
5 32.0 30.6 3857 20.6 4.6
6 35.9 390.7 49312 18.3 3.7 *
7 34.1 59.8 7547 19.6 5.8 *
8 34.6 32.2 4068 17.0 5.1 *
9 37.5 21.6 2731 22.4 5.3
10 32.1 29.5 3727 23.6 3.9
Mean 32.48 25.65 3238.69 20.09 4.12 **
SD 2.59 4.36 548.05 3.15 0.85
Notes: * Needing retest

** Except for retest value
snacks in enough detail, it is thought that the value may be lower than other
studies of energy intake due to under-estimation. The PFC ratio suggests the
necessity for dietary counselling, because the lipid ratio was over 30 per cent
in woman. There were no data to compare for men, but these data will act as a
baseline for future studies.
Because every player in this training camp had a different menu, it is
thought that an energy consumption between players differed greatly. In add-
ition, in order to compete for Olympic selection, players left the training
camp early to attend an international match. However, this method hardly
restricted a player’s schedule and was not a burden. Energy expenditure and
the information about lifestyle were acquired. This awareness can be expected
Table 11.4 Result of dietary intake in men
Subject E (kcal) Protein (g) Lipid (g) Carbohydrate (g) Ca (mg) Iron (mg) A (µ g) B1 (mg) B2 (mg) C (mg)
1 2864 151.6 84.1 362.5 1389 17 3862 2.56 3.34 301.8

2 – – – – – – – – – –
3 3047 130.3 78.0 448.6 907 17 5282 2.11 2.70 471.0
4 3680 132.1 111.8 531.2 1110 16 1872 2.17 2.39 611.0
5 3941 164.4 121.9 533.6 1020 16 1474 2.35 2.63 624.0
6 3090 128.6 91.0 431.7 1075 12 1722 1.84 2.19 465.7
7 3335 147.7 109.7 725.7 1320 16 2517 2.33 2.81 588.0
Mean 3326.15 142.44 99.40 505.55 1136.76 15.76 2788.24 2.22 2.68 510.23
SD 412.62 14.41 17.50 125.73 183.36 1.70 1493.20 0.24 0.40 123.40
Table 11.5 Result of dietary intake in women
Subject E (kcal) Protein (g) Lipid (g) Carbohydrate (g) Ca (mg) Iron (mg) A (µ g) B1 (mg) B2 (mg) C (mg)
1 2701 101.4 81.2 373.6 798 10 999 1.67 1.50 398.2

2 1684 84.5 49.4 224.6 635 12 2684 1.60 2.03 306.1
3 2423 96.1 73.8 335.5 584 10 1103 1.64 1.43 212.9
4 3118 133.0 118.9 372.7 933 14 3351 2.19 2.6 506.8
5 2801 138.9 98.1 337.4 1394 16 5474 2.03 3.44 367.5
6 2371 111.3 75.7 305.9 839 12 1671 1.68 2.10 333.2
7 2242 110.7 87.7 250.3 1063 14 1202 1.20 2.04 182.0
8 2544 115.1 94.7 306.3 890 13 3555 1.83 2.46 486.9
9 2500 110.7 86.8 309.2 802 12 1231 1.29 1.82 205.3
10 2118 92.9 66.4 288.9 867 14 4882 1.32 2.4 355.3
Mean 2450.23 109.46 83.25 310.43 880.35 12.72 2615.17 1.64 2.18 335.41
SD 393.14 17.00 18.95 47.97 226.73 1.84 1648.21 0.32 0.58 112.57
82 E. Watanabe et al.
to improve the self-management of the player. By improving speed and
accuracy of analysis, it would be considered to be one of the more effective
methods to use in the sports field.
Acknowledgements
We thank the 17 subjects, their coaches, JISS staff and students of Waseda
University, for cheerfully participating in this study. This study was supported
by a grant from JISS and Nippon Badminton Association. A scholarship
fund was offered by JISS and Nippon Badminton Association.
References
Araragi, K., Oomori, M. and Iwata, H. (1999). Measurement of energy consumption,
constituent of blood, and amount of nutrition in the high strength training period
of elite badminton players. Acta Scholae Medicinalis Universitatis in Gifu, 47,
215–227 (in Japanese).
Cabello, D. and González-Badillo, J.J. (2003). Analysis of the characteristics of com-
petitive badminton. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 62–66.
Hunter, G.R., Wetzstein, C.J., Fields, D.A., Brown, A. and Bamman, M.M. (2000).
Resistance training increases total energy expenditure and free-living physical
activity in older adults. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 977–984.
Hyong-Ryul, K., Sang-Jik, L., Jong Hoon, P., Naoyuki, E., Kunio, Y., Kouzou, T. and
Shinichi S. (2003). Measurement of total energy expenditure by the doubly labelled
water method during a competitive season in Korean professional football league
players. Japan Journal of Physical Education and Health Sport Science, 48, 717–723
(in Japanese).
Naoyuki, E., Jian-Ying, F., Miwako, H., Shinichi, S. and Jones, P.J.H. (2000). Total
energy expenditure of elite synchronized swimmers measured by the doubly labelled
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Prentice, A.M. (editor) (1990). The Doubly-Labelled Water Method for Measuring
Energy Expenditure: Technical Recommendations for Use in Humans. A consensus
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Seki, K., Onozawa, H. and Miyazaki, M. (1982). Variation of heart-rate playing a
game of badminton players in the all-Japan education staff meeting. Research of
Physical Education of Waseda University, 14, 35–43 (in Japanese).
12 Kinanthropometric profile,
body composition, somatotype
and grip strength dynamometry
in young high level tennis,
badminton and table
tennis players
F. Pradas, E. Martínez, P.E. Alcaraz
and L. Carrasco
Introduction
Kinanthropometric profile, body composition and somatotype have become
very popular terms among athletes and coaches in recent decades. The
body composition of elite athletes has also received a great deal of attention
from the scientific community due to its importance in competitions. In fact,
there are many studies which define the anthropometric profile and/or body
composition in different sports (Bloomlied and Sigererseth, 1965; Behnke
and Royce, 1966; Costill, 1967; Hanson, 1973; Burke, 1980; Haymes and
Dickenson, 1980; Baxter-Jones et al., 1995; Damsgaard et al., 2001; Pradas
et al., 2003; Carrasco et al., 2005). In addition, muscle strength has been
identified as other important element for fitness for the racket player
(Chandler, 1998). However, there are few comparisons of anthropometric
characteristics and body composition in young high-level tennis, badminton
and table tennis players. Neither are there many reports concerning grip
strength dynamometry. In fact, there are only a few comparisons of grip
strength between genders (Beenakker et al., 2001; Luna et al., 2005).
It is important to carry out a complete evaluation of racket sports players,
for comparative purposes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to define
anthropometric, body composition, somatotype and grip strength profiles in
high-level young tennis, badminton and table tennis players.
Methods
Twenty-eight male (age = 16 ± 1; body mass = 63.2 ± 10.9 kg; height = 1.74 ±
0.059 m) and 22 female (age = 16 ± 1; body mass = 56.2 ± 7.8; height = 1.636
± 0.054 m) players participated in the study. Experienced assessors used a
Holtain skinfold callipers (Holtain, Crymych, UK) to determine skinfold
values. All skinfolds were measured on the right side of the body and were
84 F. Pradas et al.
determined as described by the Spanish Anthropometric Group (Esparza,
1993). The equations of De Rose and Guimaraes (1980) were used in the
determination of body composition for both males and females. Grip force
was measured using a grip dynamometer (Grip-D, T.K.K. 5401, Japan) with
a grip span of 5.0 cm for all participants.
Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of means,
standard deviations (SD) and Pearson correlation coefficients (r). Multivari-
ate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with a post hoc Bonferroni test of hon-
estly significant differences (SPSS 13.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) was used to
compare the three racket sports. Significance was set at P < 0.05.
Results
Tables 12.1 to 12.6 represent biometric data, body composition, somatotype
and dynamometric strength concerning the sport performed. The relation-
ships between muscle mass, arm circumference and dynamometric strength
for both hands are also included. No significant differences were found
between the sports studied in any of the player’s biometric data (Table 12.1).
Significant increases were found in triceps skinfold between tennis and
badminton players (P = 0.04 and P = 0.009, respectively) compared with table
tennis players. Furthermore, significant increases were established in sub-
scapular and illiocristal skinfolds when badminton players were compared
with table tennis and tennis players. Likewise, there were significant differ-
ences in abdominal skinfold, sum of four and six skinfolds, fat mass, and
thigh perimeter (Tables 12.2 and 12.3).
When somatotype was analysed in terms of racket sports practised, signifi-
cant differences were found between table tennis and badminton players
in the endomorphic component and was higher in the badminton players
(Table 12.4).
Table 12.5 shows that there were no significant differences for dynamomet-
ric strength between the hands in terms of racket sports practised.
A high relationship was shown between muscle mass and grip strength in
Table 12.1 Biometric data in terms of racket sports practised (BMI = Body mass
index)
Body mass Height BMI

(kg) (m) (kg⭈m−2)
Table tennis 56.6 ± 6.1 1.672 ± 0.07 20.2 ± 1.5

n = 18
Tennis 60.9 ± 8.6 1.714 ± 0.083 20.8 ± 1.6
n = 15
Badminton 63.0 ± 13.7 1.700 ± 0.077 21.8 ± 3.7
n = 17
Table 12.2 Skinfolds in terms of racket sports practised
Skinfolds (mm)
Tr Su Il Sup Ab Th Sh Σ4 Σ6
T. Tennis 12.5 ± 4.3 9.3 ± 2.2 12.9 ± 4.8 14 ± 19.7 14.1 ± 5.5 23.3 ± 6.6 12.7 ± 4.6 48.2 ± 23 82.9 ± 28.2
n = 18
Tennis 15.3* ± 3.5 10.1 ± 1.9 17 ± 4.4 9.7 ± 3.8 18.1 ± 5.6 22.9 ± 6 13.4 ± 2.7 53.2 ± 12.6 89.1 ± 17.8
n = 15
Badminton 16* ± 6.7 13.6*† ± 5.5 21.8*† ± 10.5 12.3 ± 6.5 21.9* ± 12.3 22.2 ± 8.9 14 ± 6 63.8* ± 29.5 100* ± 42.7
n = 17
Notes: Tr = triceps; Su = subscapular; Il = illiocristal; Sup = suprailliac; Ab = abdominal; Σ4 = sum of four skinfolds (Tr, Su, Sup and Ab); Σ6 = sum of six
skinfolds (Tr, Su, Sup, Ab, thigh and shank)
Table 12.3 Body composition in terms of racket sports practised
FM OM MM RM Perimeters (cm) Diameters (cm)

(kg)
Ar Th Sh Bie Biep Bic
T. Tennis 7.9 ± 3.1 10.1 ± 1.5 25.5 ± 2.2 13 ± 1.7 27.8 ± 2 47.6 ± 3.1 34.1 ± 2.4 5.3 ± 0.4 6.4 ± 0.5 9.1 ± 0.6
n = 18
Tennis 8.5 ± 1.8 10.6 ± 1.4 27.3 ± 3.8 14.3 ± 2.4 27.5 ± 2.5 46.5 ± 4.9 35.6 ± 2.2 5.3 ± 0.3 6.4 ± 0.4 9.4 ± 0.5
n = 15
Badminton 10.2* ± 4.7 10.7 ± 1.7 27.7 ± 5.3 14.7 ± 3.4 27.8 ± 3.4 48.7 ± 6.6 36.6* ± 3.8 5.3 ± 0.4 6.3 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.9
n = 17
Notes: FM = fat mass; OM = osseous mass; MM = muscle mass; RM = residual mass; Bie = bistyloid diameter; Biep = biepicondylar diameter; Bic = bicondylar
diameter; * = significant differences from table tennis players
Kinanthropometric profile 87
Table 12.4 Somatotype in terms of racket sports practised
Endomorphic Mesomorphic Ectomorphic
Table tennis 3.1 ± 0.9 3.8 ± 0.8 3.3 ± 0.9

n = 18
Tennis 3.5 ± 0.7 3.5 ± 0.8 3.2 ± 0.7
n = 15
Badminton 4.1* ± 1.6 4.0 ± 1.2 2.9 ± 1.6
n = 17
Note: * = significant differences from table tennis players
Table 12.5 Grip strength in terms of racket sports

practised
Grip strength (N)
Right Left
Table tennis 342.0 ± 56.8 300.9 ± 56.8

n = 18
Tennis 363.6 ± 79.4 327.3 ± 76.4
n = 15
Badminton 349.9 ± 95.1 328.3 ± 85.3
n = 17
Table 12.6 Muscle mass, arm perimeter and grip strength
Muscle mass Grip strength (N) Arm perimeter

(kg) (cm)
Right Left
Total 26.8* ± 4.0 351.8* ± 76.4 318.5* ± 72.5 27.7* ± 2.7

n = 50
Note: * = Significant correlation between the three variables; P < 0.01
both right and left hands. In the same way, an elevated statistical significance
was noticed when these last variables were related to the circumference of the
arm (Table 12.6).
Discussion
The current study defines the kinanthropometric profile, body composition,
somatotype and grip strength dynamometry in young high-level tennis, bad-
minton and table tennis players.
88 F. Pradas et al.
Significant differences were shown between badminton and table tennis in
several players. Also, significantly higher values were evidenced in the
endomorphic component in badminton with respect to table tennis players.
Similar data were found by Baxter-Jones et al. (1995) in body fat percent-
ages. This last study indicated a significantly lower body fat percentage in
gymnasts (P < 0.05) compared with junior football and tennis players.
However, Baxter-Jones et al. (1995) did not show significant differences in
the anthropometric variables studied. These data are in contrast to other
works. Damsgaard et al. (2001) found significant differences in the sum of
skinfolds for female athletes in four sports (swimming, tennis, handball and
gymnastics). Furthermore, Leone et al. (2002) found significantly higher
values in female adolescent tennis players compared to female adolescent
artistic skaters in anthropometric variables. Fleck’s (1983) study of body
composition data of various groups of elite American athletes concluded
that extremely low percentage fat values were not a necessity for success in
many sports. In general, athletes involved in sports where their body weight
is supported in some manner tend to have higher percentage fat values than
athletes involved in extreme aerobic or extreme anaerobic type sports. It
seems that competitive badminton is less anaerobic than competitive table
tennis (Lees, 2003) which could explain the lower percentage fat in table
tennis players.
Grip strength is importance for holding and controlling the racket. Sharp
(1998) suggested that, in elite squash players, a range of 400–450 N for men
and 300–350 N for women is required to ensure that the racket is held firmly
during play. In the current study the mean grip strength of male and female
athletes was 351.8 ± 76.4 N, which led us to consider that these racket
players were strong enough to be resistant to fatigue. Actually, significant
differences were not found between tennis, badminton and table tennis play-
ers in grip strength dynamometry for this range of age. Finally, and as
expected, a significantly high relationship (P < 0.01) was found between
muscle mass, grip strength, and the circumference of the arm in the whole
sample studied.
Conclusions
For the athletes studied in this work, it is concluded that several of the skin-
fold (subscapular, ileocrestal and abdominal, sum of four and six skinfolds),
fat mass percentage, thigh circumference and endomorphic components were
significantly higher in badminton players compared to table tennis players. In
addition, no significant differences were found between tennis, badminton or
table tennis players in grip strength dynamometry for this age range.
Kinanthropometric profile 89
References
Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., Helms, P., Maffulli, N., Baines-Preece, J.C. and Preece, M.
(1995). Growth and development of male gymnasts, swimmers, soccer and tennis
players: a longitudinal study. Annals of Human Biology, 22, 381–394.
Beenakker, E.A.C., van der Hoeven, J.H., Fock, J.M. and Maurits, N.M. (2001).
Reference values of maximum isometric muscle force obtained in 270 child-
ren aged 4–16 years by hand-held dynamometry. Neuromuscular Disorders, 11,
441–446.
Behnke, A.R. and Royce, J. (1966). Body size, shape and composition of several types
of athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 6, 75–88.
Bloomlied, J. and Sigererseth, P.O. (1965). Anatomical and physiological differences
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Burke, E.R. (1980). Physiological characteristics of competitive cyclists. Physician and
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jugador de bádminton de élite juvenil [Anthropomteric study of badminton play-
ers aged below 17]. Archivos de Medicina del Deporte, 16, 115–119.
Chandler, T.J. (1998). Conditioning for tennis: preventing injury and enhancing per-
formance. In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard, M.
Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 77–85.
Costill, D.L. (1967). The relationship between selected physiological variables and
distance running performance. Journal of Sports Medicine, 7, 61–66.
Damsgaard, R., Bencke, J., Matthiesen, G., Petersen, J.H. and Müller, J. (2001). Body
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tive sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 11, 54–60.
De Rose, E.H. and Guimaraes, A.C. (1980). A model for optimization of somatotype
in young athletes. In Kinanthropometry II (edited by M. Ostin, G. Buenen, J.
Simons), Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. 177–188.
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pometric and biomotor variables among elite adolescent female athletes in four
sports. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 443–449.
Luna, E., Martín, G. and Ruiz, J. (2005). Handgrip dynamometry in healthy adults.
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13 Analysis of the somatotype,
body composition and
anthropometry in badminton
players between 12 and 16 years
M. de Hoyo, B. Sañudo and F. París
Introduction
The study of the dimensions and composition of the human body is one of the
criteria on which sports specialization is based. The analysis of the body com-
position is well established nowadays due to the fact that the percentage of
muscle tissue, bone tissue and adipose tissue which the human body contains
can be quantified. It has been used for accessibility, simplicity of application,
reproducibility and economy (Ramirez and Iglesias, 2006). With the somato-
type we can follow the changes that occur during the growth of children and
control the intensive training in children so that it produces normal and desir-
able effects for their correct and adequate development (Gómez et al., 2002).
The aim of this work was to determine the body composition and the
anthropometric profiles of the badminton players of the infant and cadet
categories of the Andalusian Community.
Material and method
Subjects
A total of 108 subjects were analysed (n1 = 54 boys; n2 = 54 girls), with ages
between 12 and 16 years, as a descriptive and cross-sectional study. The study
took place during the ‘Andalusian Championship’, celebrated in Punta
Umbría in April, 2006.
Procedure
The skinfolds (bicipital, subescapular, tricipital, pectoral, axial, supraspinal,
abdominal, thigh, leg and suprailiac) were measured in triplicate with a
Holtain Skinfold Caliper (Holtain Ltd., Dyfed, UK) with a range from 0
to 48 mm, graduation of 0.2 mm and constant pressure of 10 g.mm−2. A
calliper with a range of 140 mm was used to measure bone diameters. A
metric tape Harpenden Anthropometric Covers of Holtain Ltd. was used for
measuring muscular circumference.
92 M. de Hoyo, B. Sañudo and F. París
Measurements were conducted as recommended by the Manual de Cine-
antropometría (Esparza, 1993) and the manual of the International Society
for Anthropometry and Kinesiology (ISAK, 2001). Two experimenters took
each measurement separately. The technical error of measurement (TEM)
was calculated with a tolerance of 5 per cent for cutaneous skinfolds and
2 per cent for the rest of the measurements.
Body mass was measured using the SECA scale (SECA, Hamburg,
Germany) using the method described by Canda and Esparza (1999). Height
was obtained with a Holtain stadiometer (Holtain Ltd., Dyfed, UK), follow-
ing the protocol described by Marfell-Jones (1991).
Body composition was quantified following the protocol of De Rose and
Guimaraes (1980), referenced in Esparza (1993). The equation proposed
by Slaughter et al. (1988), validated in studies with children between 8 and
18 years, was used for the estimation of the percentage of adipose mass.
Finally, the somatotype of the badminton players was determined following
the model proposed by Carter (2002).
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed by SPSS 13.0 for Windows. Only values having a correl-
ation coefficient satisfying P < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Results
The average mass was 55.47 ± 12.42 kg (boys: 58.23 ± 14.15 kg; girls: 53.06 ±
9.87 kg). Average height was 1.62 ± 0.108 m (boys: 1.666 ± 0.119 m; girls:
1.596 ± 0.008 m). The differences between sexes were statistically significant
(P < 0.05)
With reference to the cutaneous tissue, the girls presented, with the excep-
tion of the pectoral fold, higher absolute values (Table 13.1) than the boys.
With reference to the summation of six skinfolds (Σ6p), the differences were
statistically significant between boys and girls (P < 0.001). Nevertheless, in
case of the summation of four skinfolds (Σ4p) it was found to be P < 0.10.
This result indicates that there exists certain differences between method of
calculation used.
Boys had larger muscular circumferences than the girls at the waist
(P < 0.001) and arm (P < 0.05). Differences found in the biepicondylar diam-
eters and bistyloid were significant (P < 0.001), but not significant in femoral
condyles (P < 0.10).
With reference to the somatotype, an average of 16.25 ± 8.30 per cent was
found for the endomorphic body, of 43,83 ± 6,90 per cent for the ectomorphic
and 17.41 ± 3.00 per cent for the mesomorphic, the residual percentage being
of 22.50 ± 1.61 per cent. The information relative to both genders is pre-
sented in Table 13.2.
Boys presented average values of mesomorphy and ectomorphy greater
Analysis of the somatotype 93
Table 13.1 Analysis of the skinfolds and Σ of the 4 and 6 folds
Triceps Subesc. Biceps Pectoral Axilar
Boys Media 12.53 9.23 6.51 6.48 7.84

SD 4.75 4.02 3.02 3.24 4.2
Girls Media 15.92 10.55 8.21 6.33 9.10
SD 4.97 3.55 3.15 5.84 3.80
Ileo Supra. Abdom. thigh Leg Σ6P Σ4P
Boys Media 14.65 11.24 16.59 16.01 15.32 80.78 49.38

SD 7.36 6.67 10 6.54 5.78 34.50 23.97
Girls Media 17.36 12.49 18.96 22.42 18.93 101.33 57.92
SD 6.53 5.52 7.87 7.87 5.2 29.21 20.58
Note: Σ6P (triceps, subscapular, supraspinal, abdominal, thigh and leg)

Σ4P (triceps, subscapular, supraspinal and abdominal)
Table 13.2 Information relative to the BMI and body composition
BMI % Fat % Lean % Bone % Residual
Boys Media 20.79 9.79 48.01 18.08 24.1

SD 3.39 5.27 5.23 3.15 0
Girls Media 20.7 22.08 4.13 16.75 20.9
SD 2.91 6.03 6.2 2.7 0
Note: BMI = Body Mass Index
Table 13.3 Information relative to the somatotype
Total Boys Girls
Endo Meso Ecto Endo Meso Ecto Endo Meso Ecto
Media 3.66 4.14 2.85 3.26 4.36 3.1 4 3.93 2.63

SD 1.33 2.56 1.41 1.43 2.39 1.49 1.14 2.70 1.29
Note: Endo. = endomorphy; Meso. = mesomorphy; Ecto. = ectomorphy
than those of the girls, but in endomorphy, it was lower than for the girls
(Table 13.3). A statistically significant difference between the genders was
found (P < 0.05).
Discussion and conclusions

This study defines the anthropometric and body composition profiles of
young Andalusian badminton players according to gender. Both for adults
and children, a BMI equal or greater than 25 kg.m−2 is considered as
94 M. de Hoyo, B. Sañudo and F. París
overweight, whereas a value greater than 30 kg.m−2 implies obesity (Dietz
and Billizzini, 1999). Using this criterion, 13 per cent of the boys and 11 per
cent of the girls were overweight. With reference to the girls an adipose tissue
percentage above 22.5 per cent represents overweight (Hoeger, 1989) and a
value greater than 27.5 per cent indicates obesity. In accordance with this,
44 per cent of the girls were overweight or obese.
The results of this study for BMI were similar to that obtained by other
investigators and has shown that the BMI does not seem to be a parameter
that differentiates teenagers of different genders.
There are few kinanthropometry studies that have been performed on
badminton players and even fewer for the ages considered in this paper. How-
ever, the authors have found some publications which have been carried out
for people of similar age but for other specialities and also for sedentary
populations. In this sense, a study in which a wide group of students of five
Spanish provinces was analysed, the percentages of fat found in 13- and
14-year-old girls were greater than those corresponding to boys of the same
age. These results are quite consistent with those found in the present study.
With reference to the somatotype, it can be stated that the results
follow a direct relation with the typical features of boys and girls for these
ages. According to Gómez et al. (2002) the boys reached a more endo-
mesomorphic model in early maturity, whereas the girls had a major trend to
endomorphy in adolescence, this trend appearing in the male closer to the
adult age, though both men and women tend toward endomorphy with age.
When the somatotype profiling is compared with that of other authors
(Gómez et al., 2002; Michels, 1996; Rubio and Franco, 1995; Rubio et al.,
1993; Téllez et al., 2002) a very similar profile is found, both in girls and boys.
References
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ación del deportista: aspectos biomédicos y funcionales, Pamplona, Spain:
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Carter, J.E.L. (2002). The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype. Instruction
Manual. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.
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in young athletes. In Kinanthropometry II (edited by M. Ostin, G. Buene and
J. Simona), Baltimore: University Park Press.
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física de escolares integrados en programas deportivos de iniciación [Descriptive
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grammes]. Apunts, 32, 33–40.
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test de banco de Astrand en los niños integrados en programas de deportes de
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Loan, M.D. and Bemben, D.A. (1988). Skinfold equations for estimation of body
fatness in children and youth. Human Biology, 60, 709–23.
Téllez, A., Martí, A., Martínez, J., Parra, J.C., Villodres, M.C. and Fernández, C.F.
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Part 2
Biomechanical and medical

aspects of racket sports
14 Biomechanics of racket sports
Developments and current status
A. Lees
Introduction
The goal of sports biomechanics is to study the mechanical functioning
of the human system within a sports context in order to understand how
to enhance performance and reduce injury. When applied to racket sports
(badminton, squash, table tennis and tennis) the topics which have been most
frequently addressed in the literature are the analysis of technique, the kin-
ematic (motion) and kinetic (force) analysis of racket skills. The scope of
these applications have been influenced by the availability and development
of technology and associated computer related analysis methods.
A brief historical survey of technological developments illustrates how
important they have been to the understanding of the biomechanics of per-
formance. The earliest application of motion analysis technology to racket
sports occurred in the 1960s when cine cameras became available for common
use and were used to provide film clips of racket skills for observation. The
1970s saw the development of methods for making measurements from film
images. This process of ‘digitization’ enabled simple calculations to be made
of variables such as joint and racket head speed. In the 1980s multi-camera
systems were used to get images from two or more views and analytical
procedures (developed in the aerial surveying field a decade earlier) were
applied by sports biomechanists to obtain three dimensional (3D) data from
sports skills. Application to racket sports occurred in the 1990s, which also
saw the development of methodology for calculating 3D kinetics of skills
such as the tennis serve. The cine camera has subsequently declined in popu-
larity due to the advent of two other systems. The first was the video camera
which during this time became cheaply available and was, and still is, used for
observation and simple 2D analyses. In recent years, integrated observation
systems have been developed which have provided valuable tools for the
practising coach. The second, opto-electronic systems developed in the last
decade, have been used by sports biomechanists to rapidly capture 3D motion
data and perform 3D kinematic and kinetic analyses. This technology is
now beginning to be applied to the racket sports. It appears that we have
experienced a period of rapid development and are on the edge of a period of
100 A. Lees
extensive application. A review of past and present applications is timely to
prepare us for that future.
Observation of technique
High speed cinematography and video have enabled clear descriptions of the
sequence of joint actions used in the performance of skills. In racket sports
the most popular skill analysed is the fast overhead shot or serve in tennis.
These actions require the generation of high racket head speed and is achieved
by a sequence of trunk and upper limb motions. The trunk rotates initially
away from the direction of the stroke (retraction phase) and then towards the
direction of the stroke (action phase). During retraction, the upper arm at the
shoulder is abducted and externally rotated, the lower arm at the elbow flexed
and supinated, and the hand at the wrist extended and radially flexed. During
the action phase the shoulder continues to abduct and to horizontally adduct,
the upper arm internally rotates, the forearm pronates and the wrist flexes.
This description of events has been helpful to coaches to understand the
sequential nature of rotations involved in skills of this type and to clinicians
who have appreciated the importance of joint flexibility and ranges of motion
demanded by the performance of these skills.
In addition to understanding the sequence of events, observation can also
help understand the purpose of actions made. For example, one of the pur-
poses of the jump smash in badminton is to gain extra height at contact with
the shuttle so that a sharper angle of descent into the opponent’s court can be
achieved. Observation of some skilled but sub-elite players indicate that their
general action is sound but their timing is in error, as at the moment of
impact they have landed back on the ground, thus failing to use the height
generated during the jump. Similar observations can indicate the success
of positioning, for if a player is poorly positioned they make contact with the
shuttle at a lower height than would be possible if their positioning was
optimal.
Movement principles
Movement principles are statements that define how a movement should take
place and are based on sound mechanical or biological principles. There are
many principles that can be stated (see Lees, 2002, for a discussion of this
issue) but there are four which apply easily to racket sports.
The first is known as range of motion. This describes how performance can
be enhanced by increasing the range of motion during the retraction and
action phases of a skill. This is seen clearly in fast shots like the overhead
smash in badminton or the serve in tennis. During these movements the
player ‘winds up’ thus increasing the distance that the ‘un-winding’ action
can go though. The increased range of motion increases the acceleration path
of the racket head and means that muscle force can be applied over a greater
Biomechanics of racket sports 101
distance enabling more muscle energy to be used. This principle is also influ-
enced by flexibility and joint ranges of motion, those with more mobile joints
are able to generate a greater range of motion. Thus, flexibility training is
important.
A second principle is the proximal-to-distal sequence associated with
actions, like the tennis serve, which require high end point speed. The basic
statement of the principle is that the more proximal joints (i.e. to the centre of
gravity of the body) act first with the more distal joints acting later in
sequence. The velocity created by the larger slower proximal segments pro-
vide a platform on which the lighter more distal segments operate. This is
clearly seen in the overhead smash and in the general sequence of action as
noted under the observation section. In particular it is worth noting that
segment rotations about the longitudinal axis are also important and in prac-
tice these are difficult to observe and measure, and their timing may not
always follow the strict sequence implied by the proximal-to-distal principle.
Marshall and Elliott (2000) commented that the traditional concepts of
proximal-to-distal sequencing may be inadequate to describe the full com-
plexity of racket shots, due to the longitudinal rotation of segments, although
the concept is helpful for a general understanding.
The third principle is referred to as a velocity lever and is evident again in
the power shots. This principle explains why the longitudinal rotations of the
arm segments are important in racket sports. If the racket is held perpendicu-
lar to the forearm and the forearm is rotated, the racket head moves through
a much greater distance than the hand because it has a greater radius of
rotation about the longitudinal axis of the forearm. As in force levers, which
try to magnify the force applied, the velocity lever magnifies the velocity of
the end of the lever (i.e. the racket head).
The final principle is the stretch–shorten cycle which describes the charac-
teristics of muscle when initially stretched and then allowed to rapidly
shorten again. The basis of this principle is that during the stretch, the muscle
is pre-loaded so that when it starts to shorten it is able to generate its highest
level of force immediately at the start of the shortening phase, rather than
having to build that force up more gradually, as would occur in a normal
concentric contraction. It is thought that there are other factors that might
also contribute to this effect (see Elliott, 2006, for a fuller discussion).
Kinematic applications
As mentioned in the Introduction, the kinematic analysis of racket sports
skills has developed along with technological advances in high-speed
imaging. The most recent and important developments have been in three-
dimensional (3D) kinematic analyses. The first studies that applied 3D analy-
ses to racket sports established some basic data for joint flexion angles, joint
flexion–extension angular velocities, linear joint velocities and racket and ball
speeds for a number of tennis skills. It is not possible to detail all of this
102 A. Lees
information but some of the skills analysed are the tennis serve (Elliott et al.,
1986; Papadopoulis et al., 2000; van Gheluwe et al., 1987), the tennis back-
hand drive (Elliott et al., 1989a), the tennis forehand drive (Elliott et al.,
1989b; Knudson, 1990), the tennis volley (Elliott et al., 1988), and the fore-
hand drive in squash (Elliott et al., 1996). There are limited 3D data on skills
in other racket sports like badminton or table tennis.
The 3D kinematic methods referred to above have been developed to
analyse rotations about the longitudinal axis of the forearm and upper arm
during fast shots like the serve in tennis and the smash in badminton. In order
to investigate these more complex 3D characteristics of movement, a special-
ized marker system and analysis method are required. The first attempt to do
this was reported by van Gheluwe et al. (1987) who attached several markers
to the wrist, elbow and upper arm and from the reconstructed 3D location of
these markers they were able to quantify the magnitude of rotation of the
upper arm and forearm. Using a similar approach, Tang et al. (1995) investi-
gated the kinematics of the badminton forehand smash. They reported on
forearm pronation, wrist flexion–extension and ulnar and radial deviation
and found that, although there was considerable wrist joint motion about its
two axes of rotation, the most important movement in this shot was prona-
tion of the forearm.
A method for obtaining the contribution of all rotations of the arm
segments to racket speed was presented by Sprigings et al. (1994). A series
of markers were used to define segment positions and orientations
which allowed a full 3D description of segment rotations including flexion–
extension, abduction–adduction and internal–external rotation of the upper
arm, lower arm and hand. This method showed that in the tennis serve the
greatest contribution to final speed of the racket head was upper arm internal
rotation (29 per cent), followed by wrist flexion (25 per cent), upper arm
horizontal adduction (23 per cent), forearm pronation (14 per cent) and
forward movement of the shoulder (9 per cent). These results, though,
contradict the earlier reports with regard to the importance of forearm
pronation. This method was used by Elliott et al. (1995) to investigate the
tennis serve in more detail. They reported the same order of importance as
above although the percentages differed slightly. They also reported that
the elbow extension played a negative role (−14 per cent) by reducing the
forward velocity of the centre of the racket at impact.
A 3D kinematic analysis has recently been reported by Gordon and
Dapena (2006) using similar, but not identical, methods. Methodologically
they questioned the ability of 3D kinematic analyses to fully quantify joint
and segment rotations close to impact, and their error analysis suggested that
some of the segment rotation data, in particular, should be treated with
caution. However, within the limits of their analysis they were able to demon-
strate that the most important sequential contributions made by joint rota-
tions during the action phase were twist of the lower trunk, twist rotation
of the upper trunk relative to the lower trunk, shoulder abduction, elbow
extension, ulnar deviation rotation, second twist of the upper trunk relative
to the lower trunk and wrist flexion. While some of these rotations were
similar to those reported by earlier studies, there are also some differences.
It is clear that the methodology is still developing and that a consensus as
to exactly what might be happening in detail during the serve is still to be
achieved. Gordon and Dapena provide some very useful illustrations of the
rotations they refer to and will be of particular value to the coach as well as
the scientist.
Kinetic applications
The uncertainties experienced in the detailed 3D kinematics noted above, also
affect the 3D kinetics. There are fewer studies that explore the 3D kinetics
of racket skills but their value is that they provide an insight into the overall
pattern of joint moments which in general terms relate to both performance
and injury. Elliott et al. (2003) have presented shoulder and joint torque data
for the tennis serve from male and female Olympic competitors with respect
to two aspects of technique – the extent of backswing and the level of knee
flexion. These latter two technique factors have been implicated in injury.
They reported highest torque levels in male players for shoulder horizontal
adduction (108 Nm). The next highest value was in elbow varus (78 Nm),
shoulder internal rotation (71 Nm) and elbow flexion torque (37 Nm). The
respective values for female players were lower (by between 30 and 50 per cent)
at 69, 58, 48 and 18 Nm respectively. At the position of maximal internal
rotation, all of these joint torques were close to maximum values suggesting
that the joints are at their greatest risk of injury close to this position.
In the forehand drive in male tennis players, Bahamonde and Knudson
(2003) reported peak torques in shoulder horizontal adduction (91 Nm),
elbow varus (62 Nm) and shoulder internal rotation (52 Nm). These peak
torques were similar, but a little lower, to those reported by Elliott et al.
(2003) for the serve, suggesting less risk of overuse injury in the forehand
drive than in the serve.
The lower limb

Research in racket sports has tended to ignore the lower limb in favour of the
upper limb. However, the ground–foot interface has an important bearing on
performance as well as injury. The actions used (e.g. side-stepping, running
foot plant and lunging) generate unusual force profiles that can influence both
performance and injury.
The peak vertical ground reaction forces in the lateral movement of tennis
players has been reported up to 2.5 body weights (van Gheluwe and Deporte,
1992) and 3.5 body weights for a running forehand foot plant (Stiles and
Dixon, 2006). For the badminton lunge, Lees and Hurley (1995) reported
vertical forces up to 1.5 body weights and noted that less skilled players
104 A. Lees
generated the higher forces. Simpson et al. (1992) found that the technique
used to plant the foot has a marked effect on loading and ankle movement
and so it may be that less skilled players lack the movement skills to reduce
the load they experience and as a result, would be more susceptible to injury.
This interesting finding has never been followed up but it would be another
example of where technique is important for reducing the load experienced
by players.
Stiles and Dixon (2006) also investigated the influence of tennis surface
on the impact forces generated during the running foot plant but found,
surprisingly, that there was no difference between three tennis surfaces of
different cushioning properties (carpet, acrylic, artificial turf). The authors
speculated that players were adjusting to the surfaces although there was
little evidence in their joint kinematic data. Subject variability seemed to be
an important factor masking possible effects and this finding warrants further
investigation.
The future
Technological advances have yielded analysis systems that are currently able
to quantify many of the biomechanical variables relevant to racket sports.
These have been developed and applied mainly in tennis with much less
attention paid to other racket sports. A good general understanding has been
gained of performance in racket sports and much of this is transferable
to other sports. There are still some methodological issues to be satisfactorily
developed (for example appropriate 3D kinematic analysis around impact)
and extended (into satisfactory 3D kinetic analysis) but these solutions are
likely to be available soon. Applications to a wider range of racket sports and
skills is likely to be important in the near future, along with the use of
advanced technology to answer questions regarding the efficacy of particular
equipment, surfaces and techniques used by players.
References
Bahamonde, R.E. and Knudson, D. (2003). Kinetics of the upper extremity in the
open and square stance tennis forehand. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,
6, 88–101.
Elliott, B. (2006). Biomechanics and Tennis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40,
392–396.
Elliott, B.C., Marsh, T. and Blanksby, B. (1986). A three dimensional cinematographic
analysis of the tennis serve. International Journal of Sports Biomechanics, 2,
260–271.
Elliott, B.C., Overheu, P.R. and Marsh, A.P. (1988). The service line and net volleys
in tennis: a cinematographic analysis. Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in
Sport, 20, 10–18.
Elliott, B.C., Marsh, A.P. and Overheu, P.R. (1989a). The topspin backhand drive in
tennis: a biomechanical analysis. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 16, 1–16.
Elliott, B.C., Marsh, T. and Overheu, P.R. (1989b). A biomechanical comparison of
the multisegment and single unit topspin forehand drives in tennis. International
Journal of Sports Biomechanics, 5, 350–364.
Elliott, B.C., Marshall, R.N. and Noffal, G.J. (1995). Contributions of upper limb
segment rotations during the power serve in tennis. Journal of Applied Biomechanics,
11, 433–442.
Elliott, B.C., Marshall, R.N. and Noffal, G.J. (1996). The role of the upper limb
segment rotations in the development of racket-head speed in squash. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 14, 159–165.
Elliott, B., Fleisig, G., Nicholls, R. and Escamilla, R. (2003). Technique effects
on upper limb loading in the tennis serve. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,
6, 76–87.
Gordon, B.J. and Dapena, J. (2006). Contributions of joint rotations to racket speed
in the tennis serve. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 31–49.
Knudson, D. (1990). Intra-subject variability of upper extremity angular kinematics
in the tennis forehand drive. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 6,
415–421.
Lees, A. (2002). Technique analysis in sports: a critical review. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 20, 813–828.
Lees, A. and Hurley, C. (1995). Forces in a badminton lunge. In Science and Racket
Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees), London: E.&F.N. Spon,
pp. 186–189.
Marshall, R.N. and Elliott, B.C. (2000). Long axis rotation: the missing link in
proximal-to-distal sequencing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 247–254.
Papadopoulis, C., Emmanouilidou, M. and Prassas, S. (2000). Kinematic analysis of
the service stroke in tennis. In Tennis Science and Technology (edited by S. Haake
and A.O. Coe), Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 383–388.
Simpson, K.J., Shewokis, P.A., Alduwaisan, S. and Reeves, K.T. (1992). Factors influ-
encing rearfoot kinematics during a rapid lateral braking movement. Medicine and
Sprigings, E., Marshall, R., Elliott, B. and Jennings, L. (1994). A 3-D kinematic
method for determining the effectiveness of arm segment rotations in producing
racket head speed. Journal of Biomechanics, 27, 245–254.
Stiles, V.H. and Dixon, S. J. (2006). The influence of different playing surfaces on
the biomechanics of a tennis running forehand foot plant. Journal of Applied
Biomechanics, 22, 14–24.
Tang, H.P., Abe, K., Katoh, K. and Ae, M. (1995). Three dimensional cinemato-
graphic analysis of the badminton forehand smash: movements of the forearm and
hand. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees),
London: E.&F.N. Spon, pp. 113–120.
van Gheluwe, B. and Deporte, E. (1992). Friction measurements in tennis on the field
and in the laboratory. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 8, 48–61.
van Gheluwe, B., de Ruysscher, I. and Craenhals, J. (1987). Pronation and endorota-
tion of the racket arm in a tennis serve. In Biomechanics X-B (edited by B. Jonsson),
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 666–672.
15 Angular velocities in the
tennis serve
C. López de Subijana and E. Navarro
Introduction
The serve has turned into a fundamental stroke in tennis. It is one of the most
difficult shots to learn correctly. The act of throwing the ball with one hand
and then hitting it with the racket arm, supposes a complex eye–hand and
intersegment coordination (Bahamonde, 2002).
The speed of the ball in the tennis serve has been recorded at up to
249 km.h−1 (69.2 m.s−1) by the player Andy Roddick in the 2004 season
(www.daviscup.com). A high velocity combined with a good percentage of
serves in court, guarantees higher probabilities of winning a match (Brody,
2003). Haake et al. (2000), proved that when the speed of the tennis serve
was higher than 160 km.h−1, the errors in the opponent’s return increased
significantly.
The serve has been one of the most studied strokes in tennis. Of the studies
which have considered the angular velocity as a reference parameter (Van
Gheluwe et al., 1987; Sprigings et al., 1994; Elliott et al., 1995; Ito et al., 1995;
Wang et al., 2000; Fleisig et al., 2002; Elliott et al., 2003; Fleisig et al. 2003),
the most complete studies were presented by Elliott et al. (2003) and Fleisig
et al. (2003). The sample in both cases was taken from the Sydney 2000
Olympic Games with the best three serves performed by the tennis players on
the central court.
Fleisig et al. (2003) showed that the angular velocity sequence was: first the
knee extension, then the upper arm external rotation, trunk tilt, thorax rota-
tion (longitudinal axis), pelvis rotation (longitudinal axis), elbow extension,
wrist flexion and finally upper arm internal rotation.
Lopez de Subijana and Navarro (2005) analysed the flat tennis serve
from two female top level tennis players taking the kinetic energy as the main
parameter. Both players showed a proximal to distal kinetic chain. The maxi-
mum kinetic energy peaks were from the lower limbs, to the trunk, the upper
arm, the lower arm and finally the hand–racket segment. In all, the tennis
shots sequences were stable.
The aims of this study were twofold; first to quantify and compare the
angular velocities of tennis serves from two female top level tennis players,
Angular velocities in the tennis serve 107
and second to analyse if those angular velocities followed the kinetic energy
chain previously found.
Methods
Three dimensional (3D) photogrammetry was used to obtain data. The parti-
cipants were two professional female tennis players who volunteered and gave
written informed consent and with local ethics committee approval. They
were between 40 and 60 WTA in the world ranking. They previously under-
went a specific warm-up activity. Performances were recorded with two syn-
chronized high-speed cameras at 125 Hz. The camera location varied during
the event as one of the players was right-handed and the other, left-handed. A
2-m length cube was used as calibration system and also to define the three
axes: x, y and z (Figure 15.1).
A total of 15 flat tennis serves, which landed in an aiming area were
recorded (Figure 15.2). All shots were manually digitized. To get the 3D
coordinates the DLT algorithm was applied.
The mechanical model was adapted from Clauser et al. (1969) considering
the body defined by 28 points (Figure 15.3). All segments were defined as bars
except for five solids (pelvis, thorax, upper arms and racket). The inertial
parameters were taken from De Leva (1996). Data were filtered with quintic
spline functions The manual digitization mean error was 0.016 m, similar to
Fleisig et al. (2003) who found 0.014 m.
Figure 15.1 The calibration system.

108 C. López de Subijana and E. Navarro
Figure 15.2 Filming area location.
Figure 15.3 The 28-point body model.

A preliminary qualitative analysis identified two different techniques related
to movements at the feet and the swing. Player A used a ‘foot back’ technique
and an ‘abbreviated’ swing and player B used a ‘foot up’ technique and a full
swing.
The final sample included 12 and 14 flat serves from players A and B. All
landed in the target area. The ball speed measured after ball–racket impact
was 41.9 ± 1.6 m.s−1 for player A and 38.1 ± 1.2 m.s−1 for player B (mean ±
SD). This result agrees with Fleisig et al. (2003) and Elliott et al. (2003), who
registered 41.5 m.s−1 for the three best tennis serves from 12 female tennis
players at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.
The angular velocities about the ‘z’ axis are shown in Table 15.1. Player A
used more flexion and extension about the ‘y’ axis, as her technique produced
less rotation about the ‘z’ axis. The angular velocities found in player B were
similar to Fleisig et al. (2003). That study registered 440°.s−1 ± 90° at the
thorax, 870°.s−1 ± 120° at the pelvis and 1370°.s−1 ± 730 at the upper arm.
The data showed increased variability the closer the body segment was to the
racket and to impact time.
Player A reached a higher angular velocity in upper arm internal rotation.
Elliot et al. (2003) showed that at high speeds the loads at the shoulder joint
were higher than desirable and could cause overload injuries.
The time of maximum angular velocities of the segments before impact are
shown in Table 15.2. These key events represented the temporal sequence of
segment rotations. In previous studies (Lopez de Subijana and Navarro, 2005
and 2006), these players showed a kinetic energy chain of the body segments
from proximal to distal. Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy of the lower
limbs came first, then the trunk, the upper arm, the lower arm and finally the
hand–racket that peaked just prior impact.
Table 15.1 Angular velocities from players A and B, in °.s−1
Player Maximum angular velocity (mean ± SD)
Upper Arm Pelvis Thorax

A 1962 ± 486 197 ± 23 405 ± 46
B 1404 ± 506 416 ± 51 618 ± 55
Table 15.2 Maximum angular velocities key instances (s) where t=0 represents impact
A (mean ± SD) B (mean ± SD)
Thorax rotation −0.135 ± 0.014 −0.090 ± 0.027

Pelvis rotation −0.088 ± 0.037 −0.027 ± 0.034
Upper arm internal rotation −0.006 ± 0.018 −0.021 ± 0.011
110 C. López de Subijana and E. Navarro
In the angular velocities about the ‘z’ axis, it was noticed that the thorax
participated first, before the pelvis and finally the upper arm. These events
(with t=0 representing impact) were thorax rotation −0.075 ± 0.018 s; pelvis
rotation −0.048 ± 0.028 s. and upper arm internal rotation −0.010 ± 0.018 s.
Due the high variability of upper arm internal rotation this event could occur
in a different order, resulting in a different sequence as shown by Flesig et al.
(2003). This fact indicated that the angular velocity could only be considered
as a descriptive parameter as its information is only about one axis and it
could not be considered as a part of a stable kinetic chain, as its order could
be easily altered.
Conclusions
This study showed the difference in technique when it is determined
exclusively by a rotation about one axis. Player A reached higher upper arm
angular velocities than in recent studies. This fact was not due to higher
previous rotation of the body segment, so it could be based on her muscle
power. Player B was more similar to those in recent studies. This player had a
more natural technique and she had higher body segment rotation about the
‘z’ axis in consequence.
On the other hand the angular velocity must be considered as a descriptive
parameter, since it doesn’t show a stable sequence of events, and it doesn’t
allow the intra- and inter-individual analysis of the shot throughout the
movement.
In the assessment of the high-level tennis player, the individual shot features
and not the general description of the serve should be considered.
References
Bahamonde, R.E. (2002). The role of trunk angular momentum in the tennis serve.
In Scientific Proceedings: Applied Programme. XXth International Symposium
on Biomecanics in Sports: Tennis (edited by K. Gianikellis, B. Elliott, M.M. Reid,
M. Crespo and R.E. Bahamonde), Caceres (Spain): University of Caceres,
pp. 14–19.
Brody, H. (2003). Serving Strategy. ITF Coaching and Science Review, 31,
December, 2–3.
Clauser, C.E., McConville, J.T. and Young, J.W. (1969). Weight, Volume and Center
of Mass of Segments of the Human Body. NTIS, Springfield.
De Leva, P. (1996). Adjustments to Zatsiorsky-Seluyanov’s segment inertia para-
meters. Journal of Biomechanics, 29, 1223–1230.
Elliott, B.C., Marshall, R.N. and Noffal, G.J. (1995). Contributions of upper limb
segment rotations during the power serve in tennis. Journal of Applied Biomechanics,
11, 433–442.
Elliott, B., Fleisig, G., Nicholls, R. and Escamilla, R. (2003). Technique effects on
upper limb loading in the tennis serve. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6,
76–87.
Fleisig, G., Nichols, R., Escamilla, R. and Elliot, B. (2002). Kinematics and kinetics
of the high velocity tennis serve. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34,
supl. 1, 105.
Fleisig, G., Nichols, R., Escamilla, R. and Elliot, B. (2003). Kinematics used by
world class tennis players to produce high-velocity serves. Sports Biomechanics, 2,
17–30.
Haake, S., Rose, P. and Kotze, J. (2000). Reaction time-testing and Grand Slam
Tie-break data. In Tennis Science and Technology (edited by S.J. Haake and
R. Coe), Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 269–276.
Ito, A., Tanabe, S. and Fuchimoto, T. (1995). Three dimensional kinematic analysis of
the upper limb joint in tennis flat serving. In XVth Congress of the International
Society of Biomechanics (edited by K. Hakkinen), July 2–6, University of Jyvaskyla,
pp. 424–425.
Lopez De Subijana, C. and Navarro, E. (2005). The kinetic chain performed by top
tennis players. In International Congress on Physical Activity and Sport at the
XXIth Century (edited by E. Gymnos), Madrid: The European University of
Madrid, pp. 619–625.
Lopez De Subijana, C. and Navarro, E. (2006). The kinetic chain performed by
high performance tennis players. In Proceedings of the XXIV International Sym-
posiom on Biomechanics in Sport (edited by H. Schwameder, G. Strutzenberger,
V. Fastenbauer, S. Lindinger and E. Müller), Salzburg, Austria: University of
Salzbburg, pp. 367–370.
Sprigings, E., Marshall, R., Elliott, B. and Jennings, L. (1994). A three dimensional
kinematic method for determining the effectiveness of arm segment rotations in
producing racquet-head speed. Journal of Biomechanics, 27, 245–254.
Van Gheluwe, B.V., Ruysscher, I.D. and Craenhals, J. (1987). Pronation and endoro-
tation of the racket arm in the tennis serve. In Biomechanics X-B (edited by
B. Johnson), Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics, pp. 667–672.
Wang, L., Wu, C. and Su, F. (2000). Kinematics of trunk and upper extremity in
tennis flat serve. In Tennis Science and Technology (edited by S.J. Haake and
A.O. Coe), Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 395–400.
16 Comparison of injuries between
Slovenian table tennis and
badminton players
M. Kondrič, G. Furjan-Mandić,
L. Petrinović-Zekan and D. Ciliga
Introduction
Table tennis and badminton are two of the most popular sports in the world
and two of the most common sports for people aged from 7 to 99 not only
as recreational sport, but also as sport for rehabilitation. Table tennis and
badminton are ideal sports for young and old because of their extremely
low risk of injury (Kondrič and Furjan-Mandić, 2003) and the very low
incidence of acute and chronic injuries. There are hardly any injuries reported
in recreational table tennis (Weber, 1982; Scott, 1992; Hochenbichler, 1992).
Jørgensen and Winge (1987) reported that in badminton there are more
overuse injuries (74 per cent) than acute injuries (26 per cent).
The potential risk of injuries in sport seems to increase for all levels of
athletes with increasing participation, intensity and demands, as well as
longer training periods. The number of top athletes in Slovenia is increasing
leading to a problem of sport injuries. Physicians are required to take part in
the rehabilitation process, advising for training and helping athletes to get
back to practising sport as well as helping to decrease the risk of potential
injuries. As a result, sport physicians must be fully acquainted with the strains
athletes are exposed to in a particular sport. In addition they must have
the knowledge of patho-physiology of sport injuries (Dervišević and Hadžić,
2002).
As with any other sport, there are some injuries that are typical of table
tennis and badminton. For effective prevention, it is important to understand
the functional anatomy and patho-physiology of injuries of different tissues.
For injury prevention it is also necessary to understand the importance of
excessive load and how these loads are distributed, sports-injury mechanisms
and the biochemical response of body tissues to impact and overuse (Kondrič
and Furjan-Mandić, 2003).
Sports medical examinations of table tennis and badminton players should
not merely be an additional examination by a primary care physician. A
physician must have, in addition to expertise in anatomy and physiology of
the human body, also a profound knowledge of various loads, which often
reach the limit or even exceed an athlete’s physiological capabilities. A good
Comparison of injuries 113
knowledge of these factors and appropriate measures taken to solve them is a
pre-requisite to prevent a number of injuries, or at least to decrease the injury
incidence and severity in table tennis and badminton. The incidence of injury
levels needs to be reduced and it can be achieved by concentrating more on
preventative measures. The aim of this study is therefore to point out the
factors that can prevent a number of injuries.
Methods
Within this project, 43 top Slovenian athletes (17 table tennis players and
26 badminton players) were questioned. At the time when the questionnaires
were distributed, these athletes had an international or national ranking (as
per Slovenian Olympic Committee criteria).
For the purpose of this study, a questionaire of 42 questions pertaining to
sport injuries among top Slovenian athletes was used.
Data was processed by SPSS software. Basic descriptive statistical para-
meters were calculated (mean, standard deviation and frequency).

A total of 50 questionnaires were mailed to top Slovenian athletes, among
which 23 are table tennis players and 27 badminton players. The question-
naires were mailed to those athletes who were listed in the publication by the
Slovenian Olympic Committee ‘Announcements: List of categorized athletes
in the Republic of Slovenia’, and whose medical records were at the same
time at the clinic of sports medicine CMŠ in Ljubljana. According to the
instructions provided, 43 athletes returned the questionnaires. The average
age of the athletes questioned was 21.5 years. Data from the analysis are
given in Figures 16.1 and 16.2 and Tables 16.1 to 16.3.
Participation in competitive sports places the athlete in a situation in which
injuries are possible at any given time. Based on the results of this study risk
factors can be identified and injury prevention measures planned accordingly.
Traditionally, table tennis has been associated with a low injury rate and the
Figure 16.1 Training and competitive status of top athletes (both games).
114 M. Kondrič et al.
Figure 16.2 Location of injury (both games) for foot, ankle, shank, knee, hip, spine,
trunk, forearm and shoulder respectively.
same holds for badminton. However, the number, distribution and nature of
injuries within table tennis and badminton have not been well defined due to
poor injury definition reporting.
The highest number of injuries (23.3 per cent, Figure 16.1), as expected,
are shoulder girdle injuries. However, it is interesting that the number of these
injuries is far higher in table tennis than in badminton. The higher number
of injuries in table tennis is a result of short, abrupt and extremely rapid
movements, particularly in forehand strokes (Kondrič et al., 2003).
Table 16.1 Percentage of injuries in muscles, tendons and joints

per individual sport
Muscles Tendon Joint
Table tennis 52.9 17.6 5.9

Badminton 23.1 26.9 7.7
Together 34.9 23.3 7.0
Table 16.2 Sum of all injuries reported by players (both games)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum. Percent
Valid 1 muscle 15 34.9 50.0 50.0

2 tendon 10 23.3 33.3 83.3
3 joint 3 7.0 10.0 93.3
4 others 2 4.7 6.7 100.0
TOTAL 30 69.8 100.0
Missing System 13 30.2
Total 43 100.0
Table 16.3 Number of injuries reported by players (both games)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum. Percent
Valid 1 In practice 21 48.8 70.0 70.0

2 In competition 3 7.0 10.0 80.0
4 During other sports 3 7.0 10.0 90.0
activities
5 Others 3 7.0 10.0 100.0
Total 30 69.8 100.0
Missing System 13 30.2
Total 43 100.0
As many table tennis players experience pain only during specific skill
execution, normal physical testing of the shoulder is often not sufficient to
reproduce the table tennis player’s pain. Therefore, functional testing must
be used in order to identify the pain-provoking position with estimation of
the force, direction and magnitude of muscle activity. There are more injuries
that occur during a training period (Table 16.3). The result is not expected
as the number of risk factors increases – such as the opponent, violation
of fair play, increased motivation – and consequent over-enthusiasm. This is
particularly interesting because it possibly indicates inadequate warm-up,
lack of stretching exercises prior to practising and similar. Unfortunately,
even at major events such as World or European championships, it is evident
that some top athletes are either not familiar or are not well informed about
proper warm-up and stretching.
Although there are few studies focused on the medical aspects of table
tennis, Shida et al. (1994) reported 25.1 per cent injuries of waist (lumbago),
15.7 per cent of shoulder and 14.1 per cent of knee joint. Many of reported
disorders were referable to the specific nature of the practice. After treatment,
more than 95 per cent of players were able to resume the game. Jørgensen
and Winge (1987) reported 74 per cent overuse and 26 per cent acute injuries
on Danish badminton players. They also reported that there was 2.9 injuries
per 1000 playing hours. Azarbal et al. (2004) found that 17.7 per cent of
badminton players had a history of medial elbow pain during training reflect-
ing a history of medial elbow injury including medial epicondylitis, ulnar
nerve injury, medial collateral ligament injury, medial elbow intra-articular
pathology, or any combination of these causes.
The most frequent injuries in table tennis and badminton pertain to muscle
tissues (Tables 16.1 and 16.2), followed by tendon injuries. These records more
or less correspond to the epidemiology of sport injuries records in the inter-
national literature. In percentage terms, the shoulder joint injuries are ranked
highest, which is consistent with epidemiology studies. The shoulder is the
most flexible body part and therefore most vulnerable.
116 M. Kondrič et al.
In both racket sports, the trunk is significantly involved in all strokes players
perform. There are various sites around the hip that are weak as a consequence
of open physeal plates. Quite large pieces can be pulled off, particularly
with sudden unexpected loads. The anterior-inferior iliac spine tends to go in
badminton when the front leg is suddenly blocked. Because of these abrupt
blocking movements, the percentage of ankle injuries is as high as 9.3 per cent.
Spine injuries (7.0 per cent) more or less pertain to lower back pain or overuse
injuries. Overuse injury to the pars interarticularis is quite common in the
young athlete (Pizzutillo, 1985).
Because of fast lateral movements in table tennis and all round movements
in badminton, the integrity of the foot is essential, as shoe support and
orthotic devices cannot be used to modify poor foot biomechanics. A high
percentage of injuries of ankle and foot joints (11.6 per cent in badminton),
indicates that badminton players should pay more attention to choosing
appropriate footwear to avoid those injuries.
Some players are more prone to overuse injuries and this is usually related
to anatomic or biomechanical factors. Imbalances between strength and
flexibility around certain joints predispose to injury.
Conclusions
The poor recognition, localization and reporting of pain by table tennis and
badminton players can often delay access to appropriate and timely interven-
tion to prevent injury. The first requirement for effective management of table
tennis and badminton injuries is therefore prevention, based on an under-
standing of the factors involved in overuse injuries generally and table tennis
injuries specifically.
The high repetition of activity necessary to develop and perfect table tennis
and badminton skills produces the potential for chronic overuse injury.
Poor technique, coupled with the anomalies of growth and improper equip-
ment, produce skill errors, which may result in an increased stress on the
musculoskeletal tissues and produces pain in response to micro trauma or
overload. To minimize the pain response, the body adopts compensatory
mechanisms, which ultimately add to the skill errors, and the never-ending
cycle of overload is established.
The most frequent injuries in table tennis and badminton pertain to mus-
cle tissues, followed by tendon injuries. In addition, the database records
obtained in such studies contribute to health care planning and organization
for top Slovenian athletes, who inevitably require a better and qualitative
medical supervision primary care physicians could offer.
References
Azarbal, M., Adybeik, D., Ettehad, H. and Arash Kia, M. (2004). A survey of elbow
injuries in badminton players. The Internet Journal of Orthopedic Surgery, 2.
www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijos/vol2n1/elbow.xml
(last accessed 2 April 2008).
Derviševič, E. and Hadžić, V. (2002). Knee and shoulder injuries in comparison
with other sport injuries in high profile sportsmen in Slovenia a prospective
study. In Book of Abstracts (edited by E. Di Pietro), Citta di Castello: A.C.
Grafische.
Hochenbichler, A. (1992). Sportverletzungen und überlastungsyndrome im Leis-
tungssport Tischtennis [Sports injuries and overloading syndromes in competitive
table tennis]. Munich:
Jørgensen, U. and Winge, S. (1987). Epidemiology of badminton injuries. International
Kondrič, M. and Furjan-Mandić, G. (2003). Zakonitosti kondicijskih programov v
treningu namiznoteniškega igralca [Rules for designing physical preparation in
table tennis]. Top Spin (Ljubljana), 2, 3–6.
Kondrič, M., Furjan-Mandić, G. and Medved, V. (2003). Myoelectric and neuro-
muscular features of table tennis forehand stroke performance with balls of different
sizes. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees, J.-F. Kahn and
I.W. Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 121–126.
Pizzutillo, P.D. (1985). Spondylolisthesis: etiology and natural history. In The Pedi-
atric Spine (edited by D.S. Bradford and R.M. Hensinger), New York: Thieme,
pp. 395–402.
Scott, M.J. (1992). ITTF questionnaire of elite athletes at 41st World Table Tennis
Championships. International Journal of Table Tennis Sciences, 1, 191–193.
Shida, Y., Shida, S., Suzuki, S., Hurakami, H., and Youza, N. (1994). Injuries and
systematic disorders of table tennis players. International Journal of Table Tennis
Sciences, 2, 121–122.
Weber, K. (1982). Analyse der körperlichen Beanspruchung in den verschiedenen
Rückschlagspielen unter dem Aspekt der Präventiv- und Leistungsmedizin
[Analysis of physical demands in the different racket sports under the aspect of the
preventive and sports medicine]. In Training im Sportspiel 4 (edited by R. Andersen
and G. Hagedorn), Ahrensburg: International Sportspielsymposium, pp. 111–133.
17 Prevention of injuries and
cardiovascular events in veteran
table tennis players
J.-F. Kahn and T. Charland
Introduction
There are many arguments based on medical and/or scientific recommenda-
tions which underline the positive effects on health of regular physical activity
during life as opposed to the negative effects of a sedentary way of life
(Haskel, 1991). If it cannot be denied that a well conducted sporting activity
can have beneficial effects (Blair et al., 1992; Marks, 2006), it also cannot be
denied that it can carry some risks. The notion of risk is present in any
sporting activity, including racket sports, and in most cases, for a given discip-
line, the probability of occurrence of an injury increases as the intensity of
the practice increases on the one hand, and as age increases on the other.
A great number of works have already been published about the physiological
and biomechanical aspects of different racket sports, mainly in young and/or
in elite players. With respect to the induced pathologies, practically all the
publications deal with traumatic injuries, i.e. bone, joint, ligament and muscle
injuries (Kibler and Chandler, 1994; Petschnig et al., 1997; Pluim, 2004).
However, data on cardiovascular events in racket sports and their prevention
are relatively scarce (Northcote et al., 1986; Reilly and Halsall, 1994).
Concerning table tennis, to our knowledge no study has ever been con-
ducted to make an inventory of all injuries affecting players above 40 years
(veterans). The few results presented here represent the initial step of an
enquiry dealing with the different kinds of injuries found in veteran table tennis
players in France. The main objective of this study is to define the risk profiles
of older players in order to propose preventive measures (Chandler, 1998).
Methods
In France, every competitor has the obligation to get annually a valid playing
licence delivered by the appropriate national association, a medical certificate
delivered by a physician and an individual insurance. The present preliminary
enquiry is based on consulting insurance claim reports collected during the
40 months period between 3 January 2003 and 8 May 2006. Only the reports
of injuries having occurred on the site of practice (table tennis halls and
Prevention of injuries in veterans 119
outdoor grounds for training camps), and having necessitated medical care
have been taken into consideration. The incomplete reports, the broken
glasses and road accidents have been discarded.
Results
During 40 months more than 500 insurance claim reports were received by
the insurance company working with the French Association. A total of
441 players suffered more or less serious injuries, and among them 142
(32 per cent) were aged at least 40 years (mean ± SD, 50.7 ± 9.3 years). There
were 12 women (8.5 per cent) aged 48.8 ± 9.6 years, and 130 men (91.5 per
cent) aged 50.9 ± 9.3 years (Table 17.1).
Among the 142 injuries, 125 were traumatic injuries and 17 were cardio-
vascular events of which 15 lead to the death of the player in a few minutes
(Table 17.2). Joint injuries (32) were mainly represented by ankle and knee
sprains, but there were also patella and glenohumeral dislocations and low
back injuries.
Concerning muscle injuries (25), there were 21 partial ruptures of the
gastrocnemius muscle (‘tennis leg’) of which one was in a female player, three
were partial ruptures of the tight posterior muscles, and one was a partial
rupture of the biceps brachii muscle. The largest number of cases have been
obtained with the rupture of Achilles tendon (29); among them, only one
occurred in a woman.
Fractures (20) concerned elbows, wrists, ankles, feet and teeth. In the
group ‘miscellaneous’ there were three falls without serious outcome, one
rupture of the patellar tendon, two short losses of consciousness, one cranial
traumatism, and a dozen minor injuries (bumps against the table or with
a racket, etc.)
All of the fatal cardiovascular events occurred in competition except one
during a training session.
Table 17.1 Distribution of the veteran players according to their age group and gender
N % Male/Female
V1 (40–49 yr) 85 60 M = 77
F=8
V2 (50–59 yr) 31 22 M = 29
F=2
V3 (60–69 yr) 20 14 M = 18
F=2
V4 (70–79 yr) 6 4 M=6
F=0
Total 142 100
120 J.-F. Kahn and T. Charland
Table 17.2 Distribution of the injuries in veterans according to their age group
V1 V2 V3 V4 Total
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Joints 22 7 3 0 32
(68.8) (21.9) (9.3) (0.0) (22.5)
Rupture of 16 9 3 1 29
Achilles tendon (55.2) (31.0) (10.3) (3.5) (20.4)
Tennis leg 21 4 0 0 25
(84.0) (16.0) (0.0) (0.0) (17.6)
Fractures 13 2 4 1 20
(65.0) (10.0) (20.0) (5.0) (14.1)
Miscellaneous 8 5 4 2 19
(42.1) (26.3) (21.0) (10.6) (13.4)
Cardiovascular 5 4 6 2 17
events (26.7) (20.0) (40.0) (13.3) (12.0)
Total 85 31 20 6 142
(59.9) (21.8) (14.1) (4.2) (100)
Discussion
The practice of table tennis by older players offers different advantages: there
is no direct contact with the opponent, and there are no heavy loads to move
(the racket mass is between 160 and 210 g, and the mass of the ball is 2.7 g).
It maintains, and even improves, a sense of rhythm, visual strategies, eye–
brain coordination, reaction time and so on (Ripoll, 1989). Moreover, being
an indoor activity, it can be played the whole year round. However, the reality
indicates that there is also a probability of occurrence of more or less serious
injuries. One third of all injuries collected arose in players aged more than
40 years (veterans) while this age group represents only one fifth of all players.
With respect to muscle and tendon injuries: even with regular standard
table tennis training twice a week, the total muscle mass decreases with age
and leg muscles become more fragile (Jansen et al., 2000). In the case of loss
of balance, for example, during a quick lateral step, which is a very frequent
situation in table tennis, the leg muscle weakness increases the risk of falling.
Besides, with age there is a decrease in muscle and tendon elasticity and an
increased stiffness, and the combined muscle and tendon unit becomes more
fragile. Since it is impossible for a player to control the intensity of the force
generated by a given muscle group, especially the calf muscles during a sud-
den displacement of the whole body to try to catch the ball, there is a strong
risk of total or partial rupture of either the gastrocnemius muscle or the
Achilles tendon. In the present preliminary report, muscle and tendon injur-
ies account for nearly 39 per cent of all injuries, and they have lead to an
incapacity of the player of about a month, and a total temporary working
disability of up to three months. Even if full recovery can be obtained, the
personal and economical (professional) consequences are high.
There is a progressive decline in bone mass of about 0.10 to 0.15 per cent
per year until the age of 50 years. Beyond 50 years the reduction in bone mass
increases especially in post-menopausal women. The regular practice of a
physical activity can slow down the decrease in bone density, however
it cannot completely stop it (Copeland, 2004). The result is that the bone
fragility increases as people get older, which explains the high frequency of
bone fractures (14.3 per cent of all injuries). They mainly occur during
falls due to a less efficient control of the motor coordination and balance. In
some cases however, the falls did not result in fractures but in joint injuries
(22.8 per cent). Again these injuries have been followed by a more or less long
period of immobilization and a total or partial working disability period.
Cardiovascular events may have been less numerous (12.0 per cent of all
injuries), but they were more serious since in 15 cases out of 17, players
have died within a few minutes despite immediate attempts to resuscitate.
Two main risk factors were identified: gender and age. All cardiovascular
events occurred in male players; their mean age was 59.0 ± 9.3 years (range:
43–73 years). In one case, it has been found that a player who died had a
history of arterial occlusive disease of the legs.
As for skeletal muscles, one of the consequences of ageing is the decrease in
heart performance. Among others, it translates into a lowering of the maximal
heart rate of which the mean theoretical value changes from 200 beats.min−1 at
20 years of age to 160 beats.min−1 at 60. From there on, the decreased heart
rate during exercise is accompanied by a decrease in cardiac output, and thus
by a reduced oxygen transport to the active muscles, including the cardiac
muscle itself. The insufficient heart oxygenation can be worsened by an already
existing hypertension, or in a player whose resting blood pressure is within the
normal limits, by a sudden increase in blood pressure due to a strong and
sustained catecholamine excretion. Such a situation is frequently found in
players under pressure (high level of psychophysical stress) and who inten-
sively fight in order to win a game (Baron et al., 1992). Moreover recordings
made during play show that during a rally there is a sharp increase in heart rate
and its value is close to the maximum. It is likely that these marked and
uncontrolled reactions are at the origin of most cardiovascular events having
occurred during play, either in competition or in a training session.
The age category which is the most prone to injury has been the V1 group,
whatever the kind of injury. A plausible explanation is that the ‘youngest
veterans’ (V1) were not totally conscious of the weakness of their muscle and
central and peripheral nervous system capacities, and they continued to play
as if they were 10 or 15 years younger. Therefore it is possible that they have
been more exposed than the oldest to the risk of a traumatic injury.
Further to these preliminary observations, simple and efficient measures
can be taken in order to limit the occurrence of injuries and even to prevent
most of them.
122 J.-F. Kahn and T. Charland
All players, whatever their age and their level of play, should undergo a
systematic assessment of their health status and physical abilities at least once
every year. In particular, the medical check-up must be oriented towards the
detection of cardiovascular risk factors. If an abnormality is detected, every-
thing must be undertaken to explore it and to treat it, and when necessary
the patient must be encouraged to modify his way of life (e.g. to lose weight,
to stop smoking, etc.). In order to limit exercise intensity, it could be advis-
able to avoid any competition (fighting) spirit.
The second measure is the maintenance of a good physical condition.
Training must be carried out the whole year, with a warm-up and a cool-down
phase, and the physical load must be adapted. Since table tennis is character-
ized by a succession of short periods of intense activity separated by
incomplete recovery periods, it is recommended that players maintain their
endurance abilities through walking, running or cycling. In order to fight
against the decrease in muscle mass and force, veteran players must be
encouraged to regularly make adapted strength training.
During or just after an exercise, any unusual shortness of breath with
regard to the exercise intensity and/or duration, or any other abnormal sensa-
tion (sudden dizziness, unexplained pain, suffocation, transient loss of vision,
etc.) must lead to an immediate interruption of the ongoing activity and for
a medical examination to be carried out with the utmost urgency.
Last but not least, it is necessary to have a balanced diet, correct hydration
(Evans, 1992; MacLaren, 1998) and periods of rest.
Conclusion
An adapted practice of table tennis by veteran players may delay and
momentarily lessen the negative effects of the ageing process. However, it must
be kept in mind that the probability of occurrence of a leg muscle/tendon
injury or a serious cardiovascular event increases as age increases. Therefore
it is recommended to detect and to treat cardiovascular risk factors, to have
regular activity, including endurance and strength training, at a moderate
level without too much competitive spirit.
References
Baron, R., Petschnig, R., Bachl, N., Raberger, G., Smekal, G. and Kastner, P. (1992).
Catecholamine excretion and heart rate as factors of psychophysical stress in able
tennis. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 13, 501–505.
Blair, S.N., Kohl, H.W., Gordon, N.F. and Paffenberger, R.S. (1992). How much
physical activity is good for health? Annual Review of Public Health, 13, 99–126.
Chandler, T.J. (1998). Conditioning for tennis: preventing injury and enhancing
performance. In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard,
M. Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 77–85.
Copeland, J.L. (2004). Anabolic hormones in aging women: effects of supplementa-
tion vs. physical activity. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 29, 76–89.
Evans, W.J. (1992). Exercise, nutrition and aging. Journal of Nutrition, 122, 796–809.
Haskel, W.L. (1991). Dose response relationship between physical activity and disease
risk factors. In Sport for All (edited by P. Oja and R. Telama), Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 125–133.
Jansen, I., Heymsfield, S.B., Wang, Z. and Ross, R. (2000). Skeletal muscle mass and
distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr. Journal of Applied Physiology,
89, 81–88.
Kibler, W.B. and Chandler, T.J. (1994). Racquet sports. In Sports Injuries, Mechanisms,
Prevention and Treatment (edited by F. Fu), Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
MacLaren, D.P.M. (1998). Nutrition for racket sports. In Science and Racket Sports II
(edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon,
pp. 43–51.
Marks, B.L. (2006). Health benefits for veteran (senior) tennis players. British Journal
Northcote, R.J., Flannigen, C. and Ballantyne, D. (1986). Sudden death and vigorous
exercise: a study of 60 deaths associated with squash. British Heart Journal,
55, 198–203.
Petschnig, R., Wurnig, C., Rosen, A. and Baron, R. (1997). Stress fracture of the ulna
in a female table tennis tournament player. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical
Fitness, 37, 225–227.
Pluim, B. (2004). Physiological demands and injury in racket sports: differences
and similarities. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees, J.F. Kahn and
I.W. Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 61–69.
Reilly, T. and Halsall, D.L. (1994). Physiological effects of squash participation in
different age-groups and levels of play. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by
T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 44–48.
Ripoll, H. (1989). Uncertainty and visual strategies in table tennis. Perceptual and
Motor Skills, 68, 507–512.
18 Strategies and support
mechanisms used by elite
Australian female tennis
players returning to the circuit
from injury
A.J. Pearce, J.A. Young and M.D. Pain
Introduction
Elite athletes in many sports recognize that injury endangers their sporting
career, and often it is how well an injury is managed, not only medically but
psychologically, that affects their sporting longevity and success.
In studies of athletes’ returning to sport from an injury, Smith et al. (1990)
found that the most seriously injured group experienced significantly more
tension, depression, anger and less vigour than college norms, a mood dis-
turbance that lasted one month. Johnston and Carroll (1998) reported a
regained confidence in competitive and recreational athletes after return to
sport from injury before regaining their previous performance levels. Poor
performance upon return from injury often resulted in initial stages of
depression, further eroding confidence and performance.
Chase et al. (2005) examined the mental and physical strategies used by
competitive gymnasts to overcome fear of injury or re-injury. Ten themes
emerged from the data analyses including ‘mental preparation’ (with strat-
egies such as ‘thought stopping’ and imagery to deal with pressure), ‘coach’s
influence’, ‘positive self communication’, ‘good luck objects’ (e.g. lucky ear-
rings and hair ties to help build confidence), ‘peer support’, ‘physical prepar-
ation’ (e.g. breaking the skill into component parts), ‘routine of action’ (e.g.
sticking to the same warm-up activities), ‘thinking of past successful per-
formances’ and ‘bribe’ (i.e. thinking of a reward to gain if gymnast com-
pleted the difficult routine). For athletes who were not adapting to the threat
of injury or re-injury, Chase et al. (2005) recommended coaches and parents
look for signs of avoidance that, if not countered, may result in the athlete
retiring prematurely.
Research by Young et al. (2006) into the retirement experiences of elite
female tennis players revealed a high degree of frustration with Australia’s
governing body of tennis, Tennis Australia (TA) in terms of the perceived
lack of support and recognition for the country’s former players. Thus, the
aim of this study was to further explore issues of player welfare so as
to provide the basis for improvement of psychosocial outcomes for players.
Strategies and support mechanisms 125
Further, Podlog and Eklund (2005) have suggested that having enforced time
off due to an injury may result in the athlete gaining ‘a renewed perspective’
on their life, and consequently, this study sought to also examine this issue.
Methods
Approval of the study, conforming to the Code of Ethics of the World
Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki), was granted by the Board of
Management of TA. For the purposes of the study, and based on Devonport
et al.’s (2005) suggestion to develop ‘measures grounded in the athlete’, a
questionnaire was devised to allow players to relate experiences in their own
words regarding satisfaction with the speed of identification of the injury, the
efficacy of the treatment sought, the effect it had on their mental state and the
perceived support by the national governing body (TA).
A letter of invitation, including consent form, and an anonymous ques-
tionnaire were posted to the players (both competitive and retired) with a
self-addressed stamped envelope. The questionnaire was developed by the
investigators in response to the specific areas of interest as defined by TA and
consisted of 21 closed and open-ended questions asking players to recount:
(a) minor and severe/chronic injuries sustained and how the injury affected
their tournament participation; (b) the frequency and type of treatment
sought for their injury; (c) attitudinal changes that occurred following minor
and severe/chronic injury; and (d) their beliefs about precautions that limited
exposure to injury.
Descriptive data are reported using frequencies. Qualitative data were
content analysed, where possible, for key themes and phrases, or reported
verbatim in the words of the subjects.
Results
Fifty-five participants voluntarily consented to take part in the study; 26 were
active on the circuit, and 28 were retired (average retirement was seven years).
Of the 26 who were still playing, 24 were not contemplating retiring in the
foreseeable future (i.e. within two years), and two players were thinking of
retiring within one year.
The average number of years participants had been on the professional
women’s tennis circuit was 4.3 years. The average Women’s Tennis Associ-
ation singles ranking was 501 (three in the top 100, 16 in the top 500), and the
average doubles ranking was 325 (three in the top 100, 25 in the top 500).
Minor injuries
Examining the effect of minor injuries (described as ‘niggling’ or ‘short-
term’) on a players’ career (Table 18.1), the degree to which a player’s tennis
career had been negatively affected (i.e. hampered ability to train and play) by
126 A.J. Pearce, J.A. Young and M.D. Pain
minor injuries was given an average score of 3.8 (signifying ‘hampered, but
not extensively’ on a 1–10 point rating scale).
On a rating scale of 1 to 10 (1 = never withdrawn due to minor injury,
10 = withdrawn from 10 or more tournaments due to the effects of a minor
injury), an average score of 2.8 was obtained, indicating that the average
player had withdrawn from one to three tournaments due to minor injuries.
The types of treatments sought to overcome these injuries were extensive.
Table 18.2 shows the frequency of treatment options undertaken by players,
assisting their recovery from minor injuries. Many players sought advice from
the doctor and trainer (physiotherapist) on-site at tournaments, some then
followed up with their own doctors for their minor injuries. Following a
minor injury, self-treatment was also very popular. Sport psychologists were
sought to help overcome problems arising from the injury, with goal setting
and self-talk being the main skills taught. As well, talking to others, usually
those well known to the player, was a strategy used to help with recovery from
minor injuries.
Severe/chronic injuries
Severe or chronic injuries were those that prevented a player from competing
for more than one month. The degree to which a player’s tennis career had
been negatively affected (i.e. it hampered their ability to train and play) by
severe or chronic injuries was given an average score of 3.7 (signifying ‘ham-
pered, but not extensively’ on a 1–10 point rating scale). Table 18.3 presents a
summary of injured body areas.
On a rating scale of 1 to 10 (1 = never withdrawn due to severe or chronic
injury, 10 = withdrawn from 10 or more tournaments due to the effects of a
Table 18.1 Frequency of minor injuries to body

parts (Note: players could nominate more than
one injured body part)
Area of body affected Frequency
Ankle 12
Lower back 11
Hip/Quad/Hamstring area 10
Shoulder; Wrist 9
Abdomen 8
Neck/Upper back; Foot 7
Knee; Shin 6
Forearm; Elbow; Groin 4
Calf/Achilles 3
Upper Arm; Toes; Fingers; Hand 1
Table 18.2 Frequency of treatments sought for minor injuries (Note: players could
nominate in more than one category)
Treatment Frequency
Actively sought medical treatment from tournament doctor at the 16

time of injury
Actively sought medical treatment from tournament trainer at the 42
time of injury
Actively sought medical treatment from own doctor some time after 20
Treated self (with no medical intervention):

a) Took anti-inflammatory medication 30
b) Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation 43
c) Rubbed on a heat gel (e.g. Dencorub) 26
d) Treated with ice packs 30
e) Strapped body part 30
f) Took headache tablets 5
Used physiotherapy services 40

Used chiropractic services 12
Used massage 35
Used acupuncture 9
Used a sport psychologist:

a) mental images 5
b) goal setting 10
c) hypnosis/meditation 3
d) self talk 9
e) Other Nil
Used other support mechanisms:

Friends or family (to distract from injury) 16
Coach, manager, other ‘entourage’ staff 11
Other:
a) Personal trainer 1
b) Muscle manipulator 1
c) Yoga 5
d) Osteopath 1
severe or chronic injury), an average score of 2.8 was obtained, indicating

that the average player in the sample had withdrawn from one to three tour-
naments due to severe or chronic injuries. The types of treatments were more
varied (Table 18.4) with mixed success. Some players admitted to trying to
return too soon from their injury, adding to their problems. Some thought
their problems occurred initially from overtraining. Severe or chronic injuries
were often treated on-site at the tournament and then followed up with
Table 18.3 Frequency of severe or chronic injuries to body parts (Note: players could
nominate more than one injured body part)
Area of body affected Frequency
Shoulder 8
Wrist 7
Lower back 6
Knee 5
Abdomen 3
Hip area (including Thigh and Hamstring) 2
Hand; Elbow; Upper arm; Shin; Ankle; Foot 1
Forearm; Neck/Upper back; Groin; Toes; Calf/Achilles; Fingers Nil
appointments to the player’s own doctor. The injury sometimes required

surgery, but at some stage of the players’ recovery, they self-treated, as well
as received physiotherapy, massage and chiropractic services. Fewer players
sought the services of a sport psychologist than they did for minor injuries.
Talking to others was still an option to help recovery, but ‘talking to other
players’ was admitted when a severe or chronic injury had occurred.
With respect to ‘coming back from a severe or chronic injury’, players
responded that a return to previous best form took less than six months in
12 cases, and more than six months in eight cases. For some (n = 9), previous
good form was never regained after a serious or chronic injury. Of those
retired (n = 25), 15 attributed their decision to do so to reasons other than
their inability to recover from their injuries.
Attitude perspectives
Players’ perceptions as to changes in their ‘personal values’ as a direct result
of being injured were explored. If they had been largely unaffected by injury,
42 per cent of players said they experienced a change in attitude, which
mainly included an appreciation for life and family and friends outside of
tennis and a change in training routine (such as more strength and condition-
ing and not overtraining). However, a greater number of players claimed their
attitude to life was unaffected (at this stage of their life and career). Further,
players did not suggest that the National Federation could have provided
greater support during their recovery from injury.
Players were happy to make recommendations to future players, and many
of these recommendations centred on behaviours within the players’ own
control such as: more stretching; maintaining strength and conditioning/
fitness, not playing when injured; more sleep/rest; good nutrition; and
having a ‘balance’ in their life (i.e. something other than tennis). Most of the
recommendations were inexpensive to implement on a regular basis.
Table 18.4 Frequency of treatments sought for a severe or chronic injury (Note: play-
ers could nominate in more than one category)
Treatment Frequency
Actively sought medical treatment tournament doctor at the time of 13

injury
Actively sought medical treatment tournament trainer at the time of 24
injury
Actively sought medical treatment from own doctor some time after 24
Had surgery to correct the injury 10
Treated self (with no medical intervention):

a) Took anti-inflammatory medication 18
b) Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation 24
c) Rubbed on a heat gel (e.g. Dencorub) 14
d) Treated with ice packs 21
e) Strapped body part 18
f ) Took headache tablets 7
Used physiotherapy services 24

Used chiropractic services 8
Used massage 18
Used acupuncture 6
Used a sport psychologist:

a) Mental images 4
b) Goal setting 5
c) Hypnosis/meditation 2
d) Self talk 5
e) Other Nil
Used other support mechanisms:

a) Friends or family (to distract from injury) 13
b) Other players 13
c) Coach, manager, other ‘entourage’ staff 10
Other:
a) Went to hospital 1
b) Osteopath 1
c) Rehabilitation strengthening 1
d) Unspecified 1

The high level of frustration experienced by a perceived ‘lack of support’
from the National Federation (Young et al., 2006), and a raison d’être for
further exploration of these issues in the current study, was not evident
among this sample of current or newly retired players who generally believed
that ‘destiny was in their own hands’.
During their playing career, elite female tennis players in this study had
been hampered by minor and severe/chronic injuries – almost to the same
degree, in terms of tournaments missed – but different body parts were
injured. Lower limb injuries were more represented to a greater extent in the
injuries classified as ‘minor’ (and many players attributed these to constantly
playing on hardcourts), and shoulder, wrist and lower back injuries were the
main body parts implicated in those classified as severe/chronic. Overtraining
was frequently cited as the cause of a severe or chronic injury, however some
injuries occurred from an initial acute injury, such as when the player tripped
and fell (particularly with wrist injuries).
In Podlog and Eklund’s (2005) study, the positive benefits an athlete
acquired after an injury may have arisen from the skewed sample of athletes
who had returned from their sport (i.e. overcoming the injury). Their research
did not include athletes who had become injured and had not returned to the
sport (or, possibly, not chosen to complete the questionnaire). In the present
study, less than half of the players thought there was a positive attitudinal
change. Like the present study, Podlog and Eklund (2005) used retrospective
recall, which can be open to bias (i.e. if players have successfully returned to
sport, the effects of their injury may be looked at ‘through rose-coloured
glasses’) however, the present study also included players who were currently
on the tennis circuit (47 per cent of the participants).
Although psychological strategies were found to be useful among elite
gymnasts in coping with fear (Chase et al., 2005), these skills were not cited
frequently by tennis players in assisting them recover from minor or severe or
chronic injuries. Players in this study were asked if they had seen a sport
psychologist (with reference to some specific psychological skills listed), how-
ever, players were not asked if they used these skills to assist in their recovery
(i.e. without needing to see a sport psychologist to do so). This issue could be
explored in future research.
Talking to others was a strategy players used to help overcome injury,
however this research is unable to suggest if it was for a dissociative (i.e. to
distract them by chatting about things other than the injury) or an associative
purpose (i.e. find out more information from others who may have suffered a
similar injury). Players were more likely to talk to family, friends and a coach
if suffering a minor injury, but included other players as well only if suffering
a severe or chronic injury.
In conclusion, the results have been presented to TA with recommenda-
tions to:
• offer touring players player-specific support (which includes ongoing

medical assistance) to elite female players not currently eligible for sup-
port from other tennis-sponsored groups (e.g. Australian Institute of
Sport scholarship holders);
• provide coach and player education sessions about appropriate levels of

training;
• promote sport psychology skills (such as goal setting, self talk and
imagery) to players of all abilities (via workshops) for use in all aspects
of the tennis career (and life generally), but also to utilize them when
recovering from injury.
Acknowledgements
Funding for the study was provided by Tennis Australia. The authors would
like to thank Ms Ros Kane for her administrative help with the project.
References
Chase, M.A., Magyar, T.M. and Drake, B.M. (2005). Fear of injury in gymnastics:
self-efficacy and psychological strategies to keep on tumbling. Journal of Sport
Sciences, 23, 465–475.
Devonport, T.J., Lane, A.M. and Hanin, Y.L. (2005). Emotional states of athletes
prior to performance-induced injury. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 4,
382–394.
Johnston, L.H. and Carroll, D. (1998). The context of emotional responses to athletic
injury: a qualitative analysis. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 7, 206–220.
Podlog, L. and Eklund, R.C. (2005). Return to sport after serious injury: a retro-
spective examination of motivation and psychological outcomes. Journal of Sport
Rehabilitation, 14, 20–34.
Smith, A.M., Scott, S.G., O’Fallon, W.M. and Young, M.L. (1990). Emotional
responses of athletes to injury. Mayo Clinical Proceedings, 65, 38–50.
Young, J.A., Pearce, A.J., Kane, R. and Pain, M.D. (2006). Leaving the professional
tennis circuit: exploratory study of experiences and reactions from elite female
athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 477–83.
19 The use of plantar supports in
badminton and squash players
G.A. Gijón Noguerón, M. Gijón Noguerón and
D. Cabello
Introduction
The presence of minor foot malfunctions has rarely been the object of con-
cern to society in general or to the athlete in particular. Only in cases of
serious morphological alterations or injuries directly related to the foot is a
treatment administered and most of the time this is limited to the surgical
field, ruling out the orthopodiatric field as an alternative therapy (Hoy et al.,
1994).
Orthopodiatry applied to sport, through the use of plantar supports,
may be of great help in the prevention of injuries, provided that its use is
preceded by an appropriate biomechanical study (Cabello et al., 2002). The
plantar supports cushion the pressure, increasing the contact surface and re-
distribute the loads throughout the foot, influencing the lower extremity and
acting on all its structures: ankle, tibia, knee, hip and lumbar region; thus
providing a force system to oppose the damaging forces, repositioning dis-
ordered structures and reducing the loads (Cabello and González-Badillo,
2003). In short, the purpose of a good support is to restore the muscular
balances in the practice of sport (Céspedes et al., 1995).
The biomechanical study, prior to the preparation of plantar supports,
must take into account the analysis of a group of forces, pressures and levers
of the lower extremities (Viladot, 2001) which will allow an accurate diag-
nosis of the characteristics of gait to be made, and at the same time establish
an appropriate orthopodiatric treatment (Levy and Cortés, 2003). Move-
ments made in each sports discipline have some specific biomechanical
components; in the cases of badminton and squash, sideways displacements,
sudden starts and stops are elements that differ from normal gait, therefore,
the design of plantar supports will have to consider not only the alterations to
classical gait, but also to an individual’s own playing style (Cabello et al.,
2004). It is also important in these cases to take into account some aspects,
such as the kind of court or the type of footwear, which will determine
certain corrections to be introduced throughout treatment.
The use of plantar supports is becoming more and more widespread
among athletes (Mejias, 1998), either to simply prevent unwanted movements
The use of plantar supports 133
or to treat osteoarticular or musculotendinous injuries (Jorgensen and Winge,
1990).
After several years treating players from different sports disciplines, we
decided to monitor some badminton and squash players who came to our
injury clinic in order to assess the consequences of using plantar supports in
players, by studying the recovery process of an injured player (Cabello and
Gijón, 2001). To this end, it was necessary to analyse the use of plantar
supports, adapted through the Live Adaptation Technique, with a follow-up
of the evaluation of the athletes treated.
Methods
Participants
The total number of players involved in this study was 18, of which 7 were
badminton players and 11 squash players. Their ages ranged from 12 to 38
years. All had been subjected to treatment in our clinic over the last three
years.
Adaptation technique and materials employed

The technical preparation of the plantar supports is known as the Live
Adaptation Technique (LAT) (Céspedes et al., 1999). This technique origin-
ated in the preparation of comfort insoles for ski boots; having previously
subjected the materials to a temperature of 80°C, they adapted the insole to
the skier’s foot with a vacuum, providing a stronger hold and comfort and
improving the adjustment of the ski boot.
Afterwards, with the use of orthotic compensator elements (Figure 19.1),
knowledge of gait disorders, such as heel supination, stress in midfoot prona-
tion, cavus foot structure, and so on, they managed to form a plantar support
using biomechanical criterion. This technique is currently becoming wide-
spread and the development of a great variety of materials means that the
podiatrist can choose, at any time, the most appropriate ones, for the
requirements of each treatment (Gijón et al., 2006).
The main components in the preparation of a plantar support through
LAT are the thermo-conformed resins of PVC and polyester with a frame
of textile gauze. This is combined in different thickness and fused to 105°C
for three minutes to provide the material with some physical features of
resistance and grip capable of supporting a player’s traction during training
and competition. The resins are combined with another group of materials,
foams of acetyl vinyl acetate (EVA), with different densities and hardness to
provide the cushioning and stability that each athlete requires for his or her
comfort.
134 G.A. Gijón Noguerón, M. Gijón Noguerón and D. Cabello
Figure 19.1 Orthotic compensator elements.
Diagnosis and treatment

The most relevant data from the viewpoint of establishing a diagnosis are
family history, injury history of the lower extremity, static examination and
the biomechanical study of gait.
The static examination allows, through visual examination, an analysis of
the morpho-structural aspects of the lower extremity and its possible alter-
ations. The biomechanical study allows us to establish the essential features
and characteristics of the player’s gait (Viladot, 2001). This is accomplished
through a first examination of over-ground gait with fluorolighting, in which
the different stances of the player can be analysed. An analysis of deviations
in the sagittal and frontal planes is made running over a force platform and
recording of gait with a video camera.
Thus, we were able to make a correct diagnosis and assessment of the differ-
ent pathologies in players. The pathologies were treated with plantar supports
prepared in PVC resins and polyester with EVA lining adapted with the LAT.
For the follow-up the following parameters were established: (a) assess-
ment of the pain caused by the injury on a 0–10 scale. It was considered both
before the treatment and in the subsequent checkups; (b) injuries sustained
once the treatment has been established, both related to the foot and lower
extremity on which it could have had repercussions; (c) impact on the sports
performance of the player throughout the season, subsequent to the estab-
lishment of the treatment.
Once the treatment has been established, periodic checkups are fixed for
15, 21 and 30 days, as well as for three and six months.
Results
After an appropriate examination, the following pathologies were detected:
repeated sprain 33 per cent, fasciitis 28 per cent, periostitis 28 per cent and
lower percentages of metatarsalgia, sesamoiditis and talalgia. Table 19.1
shows the distribution of these pathologies, according to the age of the
players.
As a result of the diagnoses established, 13 players (72 per cent) had cavus
feet and among them, 10 (56 per cent) had varus or supinated feet, and
three (17 per cent) associated with valgus or pronated feet. Only four players
(22 per cent) had a valgus or pronated foot from the beginning of the gait
stage. One of the players (5 per cent) had a normal foot (Table 19.2).
For such injuries, different supports were prepared to treat the structural
alterations of the foot, not the pathologies, with biomechanical elements that
correct the inadequate position of the foot (Table 19.3).
In all cases we employed a central stabilizer element in order to provide the
foot with a larger surface area and more control in total support as torsional
movements take place at this moment, passing from the supination stage of
backfoot to the pronation stage of mid-foot.
In the cases of varus or supinated foot, we used an external side element of
retention, with which it was possible to control excess supination in these feet.
Likewise, a forefoot stabilizer was employed to control its propulsion stage,
thus improving leverage through the first radius. In the cases of valgus feet,
Table 19.1 Relation between the age of the players and the injuries sustained
Age Sprain Periostitis Fasciitis Metatarsalgia Sesamoiditis Talalgia
12–18 3
19–22 2
23–26 1 4
27–30 1 1
31–34 1 3 1
35–38 1 1
Table 19.2 Relation between the morpho-structural alterations established and the
most frequent injuries
Injury– Sprain Fasciitis Periostitis Metatarsalgia Sesamoiditis Talalgia

Morphology
Cavus-varus 5 4 1
foot
Cavus-valgus 1 1 1
foot
Normal foot 1
Valgus foot 3 1
Table 19.3 Relation of the orthopaedic elements of the support with the different
dynamic alterations
Dynamic Central stabilizer External side Front Splint of 1st

alterations element of element of stabilizer radius
mid-foot retention element
Cavus-varus foot X X X
Cavus-valgus foot X X
Normal foot X
Valgus foot X X X
the central stabilizer was strengthened in order to reduce the tension in

the midfoot pronation. It was accompanied by a front stabilizer with splint of
first radius, which controlled the excess of pronation of the forefoot, facilitat-
ing the raising of the first radius.
In the cases of cavus feet, with sprain and periostitis pathologies, the
change after a recovery of 21 days after the treatment was established, always
complemented with physiotherapy treatment. In the subsequent checkups,
relapses into these pathologies were not detected, but two of the cases showed
metatarsalgia due to the excess of compensation of the external borders in
the supports, so it was necessary to reduce such compensation.
In the cases of valgus feet associated with pathologies such as faciitis or
sesamoiditis caused by the musculotendinous tension of the feet, the recovery
time was 30 days. In one of the cases, a patient with fasciitis, it was necessary
to resort to surgical treatment to free the plantar fascia of tension.
In the case of the player with the morphologically normal foot, the support
helped kill the pain caused by the fasciitis in 15 days.
Throughout the appropriate checkups, none of the players had relapses in
their injuries, except for the case of the player with faciitis who required
surgical treatment.
As for the possible impact of the treatment on sports performance, the
players reported more stability and less muscular fatigue obtained with
the constant use of supports, which made it easier for them to adapt to the
conditions of training and sports competition.
Discussion
According to the results, it is necessary to state that there were more injuries
of a musculotendinous nature than osteoarticular injuries, as highlighted
by Kroner et al. (1990). With regard to the injuries in badminton players,
these were mainly related to the age of the players; this aspect is comparable
with other sports (Mejias, 1998; Crespo and Martín, 1994) in which the
most frequent injuries are in children, with acute injuries such as ankle sprain
being the most widespread. Injuries due to fatigue, periostitis, fasciitis or
metatarsalgia (Hensley and Paup, 1979), are highlighted in older players
(aged between 22 and 38), being also consistent with other reviewed works
(Hoy et al., 1995).
The existence of a morphological structure that predominates among the
badminton and squash players, that of the cavus feet, is comparable to the
data from athletes in general (Cabello and Gijón, 2001; Jorgensen and Winge,
1990). It has a direct impact on musculotendinous injuries, since these feet
suffer from greater muscular tension (Gijón et al., 2006; Jorgensen and
Winge, 1987).
The impact of acute injuries on younger players, in contrast to fatigue
injuries in experienced players (Crespo and Martín, 1994) is explained by the
fact that young players with tensional morphological structures, such as
cavus varus feet, have less stability (Hoy et al., 1995); however, they have not
developed fibrosis, characteristic of chronic or fatigue injuries, unlike older
athletes whose feet have already developed fibrosis, which has repercussions
on the injuries closely related to repetitive actions.
It was not possible to compare our results with the literature, so this data
can be the basis for future studies on the use of plantar supports in athletes as
a treatment for mulculotendinous injuries.
Conclusions
The treatment of musculotendinous injuries in badminton and squash play-
ers with plantar supports has been effective in a high percentage of players.
The use of plantar supports in healthy players, in order to provide the foot
with a larger surface area and more control, may help achieve a greater
stability, while preventing the appearance of injuries.
References
Cabello, D. and Gijón Noguerón, G. (2001). Estudio del pie del jugador de
bádminton [Study of badminton players’s foot]. Apunts Medicina de L’esport, 36
(136), 23–27.
Cabello, D. and González-Badillo, J.J. (2003). An analysis of the characteristics of
competitive badminton. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 37, 18–25.
Cabello, D., Gijón, G. and Gijón, M. (2002). El pie cavo-varo en el deporte: a prop-
ósito de un caso [The foot in sport: a case study]. Revista Española de Podología,
13(2),72–75.
Cabello, D., Padial, P., Lees, A. and Rivas, F. (2004). Temporal and physiological
characteristics of elite women’s and men’s singles badminton. International Journal
of Applied Sports Sciences, 16, 1–12.
Céspedes, T., Dorca, A. Sacristán, S. and Concustell, J. (1995). Técnica de aplicación
directa de soportes plantares y prótesis de antepie [Direct application technique of
plantar supports and forefoot prosthesis]. Revista Española de Podología, VI(5),
234–248.
Céspedes, T., Dorca, A., Sacristán, S. and Concustell, J. (1999). Técnica de adaptación
directa de ortesis sobre el pie: A propósito de varios casos [Direct adaptation
technique of a foot orthotic]. Revista Española de Podología, 10 (6), 325–359.
Crespo, M.A. and Martín, C. (1994). Afecciones traumáticas del deporte en los niños.
Lesiones por uso y esfuerzo excesivo [Sport traumatic injuries in sport]. Archivos de
Medicina del Deporte, 42, 153–164.
Gijón, G., Gijón, M. and Amestoy, S. (2006). Fracturas de estrés del escafoides
en deportistas de elite [Overstrain factors in elite players]. Salud del Pie: Revista
Andaluza de Podologia, 39(2), 39–42.
Hensley, L.D. and Paup, D.C. (1979). A Survey of badminton injuries. British Journal
Hoy, H., Linblad, B.E., Terkelsen, C.J. and Helleland, H.E. (1994). Badminton injur-
ies: a prospective epidemiological and socioeconomic study. British Journal of
Hoy, H., Terkelsen, C.J., Linblad, B.E. and Helleland, H.E. (1995). Badminton Injur-
ies. In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees),
Jorgensen, U. and Winge, S. (1987). Epidemiology of badminton injuries. Inter-
national Sport Medicine, 8, 379–382.
Jorgensen, U. and Winge, S. (1990). Injuries in Badminton. Sports Medicine, 10,
59–64.
Kroner, K., Schimidt, S.A., Nielsen, A.B., Jakobsen, B.W., Moller-Madsen, B. and
Jensen, J. (1990). Badminton injuries. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 24,
169–172.
Levy, A.E. and Cortés, J.M. (2003). Ortopodología y aparato locomotor: Ortopedia del
pie y tobillo [Orthopaedics and locomotor system]. Barcelona: Masson.
Mejias, M. (1998). Patología digital en el pie del futbolista [Finger pathology in
football players]. Revista Española de Podologia, 9(8), 207–211.
Viladot Voegeli, A. (2001). Lecciones básicas de biomecánica del aparato locomotor
[Basic Biomechanical Lessons of the Locomotor System]. Barcelona: Springer.
20 Centre of gravity in
paddle rackets
Implications for technique
P.T. Gómez Píriz and M.F. Álvarez
Introduction
Controlling the location of the centre of gravity in implements used in
racket sports is of great importance, particularly in those implements that,
due to their weight, generate high levels of force on the joints. This may
in turn influence technique and performance. In other sports disciplines,
modifications to the centre of gravity location have enabled the best con-
ditions for success to be created. It could be said that, as an implement’s
weight increases (e.g. for a pole in vaulting) or a greater application of
force or speed is required (e.g. in baseball or tennis), this control grows in
relevance.
The centre of gravity (COG), as a representative point (origin) for the
gravitational force, is one of the key concepts of biomechanics. In racket
sports it is important to take into account the distance from the COG to the
handle, as this influences the movements made with the racket hand before,
during and after the shot. This, along with the speed of the ball at the instant
of impact and the speed with which the ball is intended to be sent will be
important when playing shots, and may increase the risk of injury in the
racket arm. Cross (1998) established a connection between these variables
with regard to both the effect produced on the joints and the trajectory of a
tennis ball. His model used the relation between the COG and the impact
point of the tennis ball. When the impact point goes through the COG the
racket will translate; if they do not coincide, a moment of force will be
generated, and the racket will both translate and rotate.
With regard to paddle rackets, the Spanish Paddle Federation regulations
state that the racket will not exceed 45.5 cm in length, 26 cm in width and
3.8 cm in thickness. There are no weight or COG specifications.
Although paddle rackets have no reference to their COG, this parameter is
supposed to be considered in their manufacture. Modifications to the weight
of the racket takes place due to the demands and the objectives of play.
Increasing the weight usually means putting more distance between the COG
and its proximal point, which would generate a greater moment of force at
the handle. These aspects are important in two situations (1) for beginners
140 P.T. Gómez Píriz and M.F. Álvarez
where bringing the COG closer to the proximal point will help technique and
(2) its use to develop different styles of play (i.e. more technical or more
powerful) according to technical/tactical requirements.
The specific objectives considered in this research are: first, to establish a
simple and easy procedure to obtain the COG; second to find the COG of
paddle rackets at amateur level of play for players of both sexes in the city of
Sevilla; and third, to raise awareness of the importance of the COG in paddle
rackets and its practical usefulness.
Methods
The COG of a racket is determined by suspension. Regardless of the point of
the racket from which it is hung, as the direction of gravitational force
coincides with the COG, it will stop rotating. If done from two locations, the
intersection point of both lines will be exactly at the COG of the racket
(Figure 20.1).
Images of the intersection point were taken with a 800×600 resolution
digital camera Epson brand (L-100 model) resting on a tripod. The ATD
Software (Analysis of the Sports Technique, Specialized Sports Training
Centre of Granada v.1996) was used to digitize the images and obtain the
COG and the distance from the proximal point to the intersection point of
Figure 20.1 Lines of application of the gravity force from two different suspension
points in a paddle racket.
Centre of gravity in paddle rackets 141
both straight lines (Figure 20.1). The weight of the racket was recorded using
scales (Blauscal, AC-500 series).
The sample consisted of 29 paddle rackets selected at random usually from
amateur level players employed at different clubs and gymnasiums in the city
of Seville. A total of 17 models were tested that were used by men, and 12 by
women.
In order to control and give internal validity to the process, it was necessary
to establish the reliability of the digitizer. The t-test for a trial sample showed
a value of P=0.732, thus concluding that the mean detected was not statistic-
ally different from the real value; therefore, the process was considered reli-
able within 0.77 per cent. For descriptive and inferential statistics (t-test for
independent samples), the SPSS 11.5 software for Windows was used.
Results
The COG from the proximal point (end of handle) ranged from 26.75 to
28.75 cm. The percentage of the total length of the racket was between 58.5
and 63 per cent. The frequency count of rackets in selected categories are
indicated in Tables 20.1 and 20.2. The difference between males and females
in the COG location relative to racket length and racket weight is given in
Figure 20.2.
After conducting a test for independent samples, no significant differences
were found between both groups in terms of gender or for the variable ‘COG
distance to the proximal point’, or for the ‘weight’. It can be stated that,
under the conditions of the research and even with the limits of the sample,
there are no differences between rackets used by male and female players in
these variables.
Discussion
The results obtained provide information on an issue that was believed to be
unimportant in the sport of paddle. The failure to recognize its importance
Table 20.1 Numbers in each category for distances (cm) of the COG to the proximal
end of the racket
>26.75 27.0 27.25 27.5 27.75 28.0 28.25 28.5 <28.75

Frequency 1 2 3 6 5 6 3 2 1
Table 20.2 Numbers in each category for percentage distance (cm) of the COG to the
proximal end of the racket relative to racket length
>58.5 59.0 59.5 60.0 60.5 61.0 61.5 62.0 62.5 <63.0
Frequency 1 1 2 5 4 4 7 3 1 1
142 P.T. Gómez Píriz and M.F. Álvarez
Figure 20.2 Distances from the COG to the proximal point and weight in all the
rackets used by male and female players.
may lead to injury, especially in players at risk (amateurs and children). At

the same time it could improve certain aspects in high-level athletes.
There are signs suggesting that the injuries in paddle involving the upper
limbs may be related to this matter. Some shots would be more effective with
a COG closer to the handle, such as those involving technical ability, however
it would be different if applying a great power in the shot were the objective,
in this case the COG would be better located further from the handle.
Similar modifications would establish the characteristics of the rackets in
persons who begin with little technical experience and poor development of
the musculoskeletal system
Conclusions
On the basis of what have been found, the following research conclusions
have been determined: (1) The method employed may be considered as valid;
(2) the distances and the percentage of the COG location with regard to the
proximal point in the racket is the same for men and women; and (3) there are
no differences with regard to the weight of rackets between sexes.
Reference
Cross, R. (1998). The sweet spots of a tennis racquet. Sports Engineering, 1, 63–78.
Part 3
Psychological aspects of
racket sports
21 Anticipation and skill in
racket sports
A.M. Williams
Introduction
In sports such as squash, badminton and tennis, the ability to anticipate an
opponent’s intentions is crucial to high level performance (Williams et al.,
1999). The racket sports are played at tremendous speed, particularly at the
highest level, such that the time available to respond often exceeds basic
human information processing constraints related to reaction time and
movement time. Although on occasion the costs associated with an incorrect
anticipation judgement may outweigh the potential benefits (James et al.,
2005), typically, players do not have the luxury to react to an opponent’s
stroke and consequently they must anticipate the type of stroke they will face
before the ball or shuttle is struck. At very best, a decision must be made after
viewing the initial portion of the ball or shuttle’s flight path.
It is now widely documented that skilled players in the racket sports dem-
onstrate superior anticipation ability when compared to their less skilled
counterparts. Moreover, over the last two decades or so, scientists have
made significant progress in identifying the mechanisms underpinning antici-
pation skill (for a review, see Williams and Ward, 2007). A number of
perceptual-cognitive skills have been identified that contribute in varying
degrees to anticipation skill. In this article, a brief overview of the important
perceptual-cognitive skills that contribute to anticipation in the racket sports
is provided. The implications of this research for performance enhancement
are discussed, with particular reference to the development of perceptual-
cognitive training programmes in the racket sports.
The perceptual-cognitive skills underlying anticipation skill

A number of different perceptual-cognitive skills are assumed to support
effective anticipation in the racket sports. These skills are likely to be seam-
lessly integrated and to vary in importance from one situation to another
depending on the unique constraints that exist at any given moment. An over-
view of some of the important perceptual-cognitive skills is provided next.
146 A.M. Williams
Advance cue utilization
One of the oldest and most robust findings in the literature is that skilled
racket sport players are better than less-skilled individuals at picking up sub-
tle information cues from an opponent’s postural orientation prior to the ball
or racket being struck (for a review, see Williams et al., 1999). This skill has
typically been examined using a temporal occlusion paradigm. Such an
approach involves filming the task (e.g. return of serve in tennis or a forehand
lob shot in badminton) from the perspective that the player would experience
during an actual match. This film is then played back to participants using a
repeated-measures design with the recording being edited at varying time
periods relative to ball- or shuttle-racket contact (e.g. 120 ms before, at
contact, 120 ms after). The results have been very consistent, with skilled
performers demonstrating superior accuracy, particular at the earlier occlu-
sion conditions. Such findings have been observed in tennis (Goul et al.,
1989; Jones and Miles, 1978), badminton (Abernethy, 1988) and squash
(Abernethy, 1990).
In comparison, fewer researchers have attempted to identify the specific
sources of information that performers pick up when making such judge-
ments. One hypothesis is that skilled players are able to pick up essential
biological information from the relative motions between limbs rather than via
a single cue or information source. In support of this latter argument, there is
published research to show that the skilled player’s superiority over less
skilled individuals when making such judgements is maintained even when
action is presented as point-light rather than as filmed images (Abernethy
et al. 2001; Ward et al., 2002). A related proposal is that skilled players are
able to pick up multiple sources of information simultaneously using a more
‘global’ rather than ‘local’ processing strategy (Huys et al., in press). This
latter finding may have significant implications for improving understanding
of how players attempt to disguise their intentions and in deciding how best
to develop training programmes to facilitate anticipation skill in the racket
sports.
Visual search behaviour

The ability to pick up relevant information from an opponent’s postural
information is at least partly dependent on the player’s ability to orientate his/
her gaze towards relevant display features. The manner in which athletes
move their eyes around the display in an effort to extract pertinent informa-
tion is refereed to as visual search behaviour. Typically, the search behaviours
employed by athletes are assessed using a head-mounted corneal reflection
system (see Williams et al., 1999). The findings indicate that skilled players
employ more efficient search behaviours than their less skilled counterparts
(see Singer et al., 1998; Ward et al., 2002). Skilled players in the racket sports
fixate on different areas of the display, for varying periods of time and in a
Anticipation and skill in racket sports 147
different order than less skilled athletes (for a detailed review, see Cauraugh
and Janelle, 2002; Williams et al., 2004). The relative proportion of time spent
fixating different areas of the display for high and low skill players when
attempting to anticipate the direction of forehand drive shots in tennis is
typically highlighted by our data in Figure 21.1. The high skill players spend
more time viewing the head, shoulder and trunk regions compared to the low
skill players, who spent a much higher proportion of time fixating the racket.
Pattern recognition
Several researchers have demonstrated that skilled athletes are able to identify
the patterns of play used by opponents more accurately than less skilled
performers. If one can identify a pattern of play early in its development it
should be feasible to accurately predict how the sequence will end, thereby
facilitating anticipation. The importance of this skill has been demonstrated
in team ball games such as basketball and soccer (Williams et al., 2006). It
appears that skilled players are able to identify important cognitive and stra-
tegic information based on the relative positions and movements of a few
select players. Unfortunately, there has been no attempt to identify such pat-
terns of play in the racket sports, although it is likely that such information
may be particularly important in the doubles events in tennis and badminton.
This issue certainly merits further investigation in the racket sports.
Knowledge of situational probabilities

The different perceptual-cognitive skills presented thus far primarily relate
to a performer’s ability to process information present in the display as the
Figure 21.1 Mean (± SE) percentage time spent viewing each fixation location for
skilled and less skilled participants.
Notes: H/S = head and shoulders; T/H = trunk and hips; A/H = arm and hand; L/F = leg and
foot; R = racket; B = ball; R/BC = racket and ball contact area; UC = unclassified
148 A.M. Williams
action unfolds. However, there is evidence to suggest that irrespective of this
information skilled performers are able to generate accurate expectations or
likelihood ratios in relation to the potential shots that may be played by an
opponent in any given situation. The seminal work in this area was carried
out by Alain and Proteau (1980) using squash, badminton and tennis players.
Players were filmed performing a series of rallies during actual matches and
after viewing the replays of these sequences were required to assign subjective
probabilities to their opponent’s shots. Findings indicated that the skilled
players’ initial anticipatory movements were strongly guided by their a-priori
expectations in relation to shot probabilities. Unfortunately, despite the
potential value of this type of work, there have been few published papers on
this topic involving the racket sports (for a recent exception, see Crognier and
Féry, 2005).
In summary, as a result of the adaptations that occur following extended
engagement in their sport skilled racket sports players develop perceptual-
cognitive skills that enable them to process information effectively and adapt
‘on the fly’ to the changing nature of any situation. These perceptual-cognitive
skills develop as a result of the effective storage of information in memory
coupled with access to efficient retrieval structures that enable skilled players
to retrieve task-specific information in a flexible manner so that they can
rapidly adapt to situational demands (Ericsson and Kintsch, 1995). So, what
are the implications for skill acquisition and training in the racket sports?
Implications for performance enhancement in the racket sports

The key issue for those interested in developing anticipation skill in the racket
sports is how the development of these perceptual-cognitive skills can be
facilitated through practice and instruction. Although it is widely reported
that such skills develop with extended engagement or experience in the spe-
cific sport (e.g. see Abernethy, 1988; Tenenbaum et al., 1996), there is now
evidence to suggest that these skills are amenable to practice and instruction.
The typical approach in this area has been to use film-based simulation of the
performance context, coupled with appropriate instruction and feedback in
relation to task performance (e.g. see Williams et al., 2002; Smeeton et al.,
2005). However, there have also been successful attempts to develop these
skills using field-based practices (e.g. see Singer et al. 1994; Williams et al.,
2005). A brief overview of some of the key studies is provided next (for a
detailed review of this literature, see Williams and Ward, 2003).
Simulation training
The vast majority of researchers have employed film-based simulation tech-
niques to train perceptual-cognitive skills in the racket sports, although
most have focused on tennis with relatively few published papers involving
badminton and squash (for exceptions, see Abernethy et al., 1998; Tayler
et al., 1994). The usual approach is to employ similar film footage to that used
in the temporal occlusion approach. Players are then provided with instruc-
tion as to the important sources of information underlying anticipation skill,
followed by the opportunity to practise using further film sequences, often
using progressively earlier occlusion periods, and feedback in relation to per-
formance on the task (e.g. see Farrow et al., 1998; Scott et al., 1998). This type
of training programme has been successful in improving performance on
laboratory-based tests of anticipation skill, when compared to control condi-
tions involving non relevant instruction, with some researchers also providing
evidence that the observed improvements transfer to the field-setting (e.g. see
Smeeton et al., 2005).
Field-based training
A much smaller sample of researchers have used field-based practices to try
and train anticipation skill (e.g., Williams et al., 2005), although several have
used a combination of film- and field-based practice and instruction (e.g., see
Abernethy et al., 1998; Singer et al., 1994; Williams et al., 2002). In these
latter studies the researchers have combined traditional video-based training
with field-based practices and drills intended to provide an opportunity for
performers to link together perception and action in the actual performance
setting. The findings from these studies have generally supported those
reported using laboratory-based practice alone. However, there is scope for
further research that compares the relative effectiveness of laboratory- and
field-based practice; particularly given the potential benefits of developing
such skill practices as part of the player’s regular training regime (e.g. see
Steinberg et al., 1998).
Some questions that remain to be answered

Although existing literature highlights the potential benefits that may be
gained from attempting to improve anticipation skill through perceptual-
cognitive training, numerous questions remain to be answered. For example,
some of the questions still to be addressed include:
• How do we create effective simulations for training purposes? What are

the respective merits of video simulation, virtual reality, and on-court
training? How important is it for perception and action to be coupled
together during practice?
• How and what type of information should be conveyed to the learner?
How do we develop pattern recognition skills or knowledge of situ-
ational probabilities in the racket sports? What type of instruction is
most effective?
• What are the optimum frequency, duration and scheduling of perceptual-
cognitive training sessions?
150 A.M. Williams
• Can imagery play a role in developing anticipation skill in the racket-

sports?
• What are the key time windows for developing perceptual-cognitive
skills? At what age and skill level should we introduce perceptual-
cognitive training?
• What is the best way to assess the degree of transfer of learning from
laboratory to field settings?
Unfortunately, space precludes a detailed coverage of all these issues in this

chapter, but a couple of areas are considered in greater detail below.
Does the normal functional link between perception and action need to
be maintained during training?
Williams et al. (2005) examined whether field-based perceptual-cognitive
training that required the learner to physically respond to the action by
attempting to return the serve (perception-action group) was more effective
than training that merely necessitated the learner to make a judgement as to
an opponent’s intentions (perception only group). Participants who received
technical instruction as to how to play forehand and backhand returns were
included as controls. Anticipatory performance was assessed pre- and post-
test using established on-court measures involving frame-by-frame video
analysis. The perception-action and perception only training groups signifi-
cantly reduced their response times from pre- to post-test compared with the
technical instruction control group. No significant differences were observed
between the perception-action and perception only training groups. Anticipa-
tion skill can be improved through appropriate instruction regardless of
whether the learner has to physically respond to the action or merely make a
perceptual judgment as to the likely destination of an opponent’s serve.
If anticipation skill can be improved equally with or without an action
response, then one possible implication is that video simulation training may
be at least as effective as on-court instruction, allowing coaches to make alter-
native use of on court practice time. The advantages of using video simulation
rather than on-court practices for perceptual-cognitive training is that learn-
ing can occur at a self-regulated pace, in and outside of regular practice time,
or when the performer is injured or fatigued. Video images can also be more
easily manipulated for training purposes, providing greater flexibility than
that offered by on-court practices, by, for example, highlighting or occluding
relevant or irrelevant sources of information (see Williams and Ward, 2003).
What type of instructional approach is most effective for developing

perceptual-cognitive skills?
An issue that has attracted significant research interest recently is what type
of instruction is most effective when developing these skills. For example,
Smeeton et al. (2005) examined the relative effectiveness of explicit instruc-
tion, guided discovery and discovery learning techniques in enhancing antici-
pation skill in young, intermediate level tennis players. The instruction was
provided using film-based simulation and a progressive occlusion technique,
whereas performance was assessed using laboratory and on-court measures
both pre- and post-intervention, as well as during acquisition and under
transfer conditions designed to elicit high levels of anxiety. The three training
intervention groups improved their performance from pre- to post-test com-
pared with a control group, highlighting the benefits of perceptual-cognitive
training. Participants in the explicit and guided discovery groups improved
their performance during acquisition at a faster rate than did the discovery
learning group. However, the explicit group showed a significant decrement in
performance when tested under anxiety provoking conditions compared with
the guided discovery and discovery learning groups. Although anticipation
skill may be improved using film-simulation coupled with all three types of
instruction, guided discovery methods appear to provide greater expediency
in learning and resilience under pressure.
Summary and conclusions

The ability to successfully anticipate an opponent’s intentions is due to a
number of underlying perceptual-cognitive skills. These include the ability to:
a) pick up advance information from an opponent’s postural orientation at
key moments prior to ball- or shuttle-racket contact; b) recognize evolving
sequences or patterns of play as the action unfolds; c) use the visual system
to search the display in an effective manner in order to extract pertinent
information; and d) accurately predict an opponent’s shot probabilities.
Although these skills develop as a result of experience within the sport, there
is empirical evidence to suggest that the acquisition of such skills can be
facilitated through film- and field-based training coupled with appropriate
instruction and feedback. Such training programmes should be used routinely
for performance enhancement in the racket sports.
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Abernethy, B. (1988). The effects of age and expertise upon perceptual skill develop-
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Abernethy, B. (1990). Expertise, visual search, and information pick-up in squash.
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152 A.M. Williams
Alain, C. and Proteau, L. (1980). Decision making in sport. In Psychology of Motor
Behavior and Sport (edited by C.H. Nadeau, W.R. Halliwell, K.M. Newell and
G.C. Roberts). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 465–477.
Cauraugh, J.H. and Janelle, C. (2002). Visual search and cue utilisation in racket
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Crognier, L. and Féry, Y. (2005). Effect of tactical initiative on predicting passing
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Ericsson, K.A. and Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological
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Farrow, D., Chivers, P., Hardingham, C. and Sachse, S. (1998). The effect of video-
based perceptual training on the tennis return of serve. International Journal of
Sport Psychology, 29, 231–242.
Goulet, C., Bard, C. and Fleury, M. (1989). Expertise differences in preparing to
return a tennis serve: a visual information processing approach. Journal of Sport
and Exercise Psychology, 11, 382–398.
Huys, R., Cañal-Bruland, R., Hagemann, N. and Williams, A.M. 2006 (in
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mation on anticipation in tennis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28
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James, N., Caudrelier, T. and Murray, S. (2005). The use of anticipation by elite
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Scott, D., Scott, L.M. and Howe, B.L. (1998). Training anticipation for intermediate
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22 A perception-action perspective
on learning and practice in
racket sports
G.J.P. Savelsbergh, F. Rivas and J. Van der Kamp
Introduction
Competitive sports such as tennis and badminton require the players to
receive and return a fast-moving ball or shuttle in one and the same action.
Key to success is to intercept the ball at the right place at the right time and to
apply the right amount of force to project it to the desired location. Because
of the speed of the game together with the intrinsic limitations in the player’s
movement times, it is hard to imagine that sportsmen can completely rely
on ball/shuttle flight information. Many have therefore concluded that infor-
mation arising prior to ball flight is pertinent for successful interception.
Perceptual skill thus encompasses the ability to make accurate predictions
from partial or incomplete advance sources of visual information (Poulton,
1957). In other words, the ability to anticipate future ball or shuttle position is
a crucial skill in peak performance. In recent years, the anticipation capability
of athletes with different levels of expertise is studied by means of occlusion
of visual information in the event and/or by recording the visual search
behaviour of these players. The chapter discusses the players’ anticipation
behaviour from a perception-action perspective. The aim is to illustrate that it
is important to identify the visual information used and, to examine how
different levels of players use the visual information. This contribution will be
concluded with some practical suggestion for coaching in racket sports.
Expertise and anticipation

In recent years applied researchers have become increasingly interested in the
study of skilled anticipation in interceptive tasks (Williams et al., 2004; Ward
et al., 2002). There appear to be much evidence to support that experts are
better able to identify what is needed to be done in sports like badminton
(Abernethy, 1988; Abernethy and Russell, 1987), squash (Abernethy 1990;
Abernethy et al., 2001) or tennis (Buckolz et al., 1988; Goulet et al., 1989;
Williams et al., 2002).
From the 1980’s onward, the occlusion technique has been dominant in
studies of visual anticipation in sports. Players are presented with film clips
A perception-action perspective 155
that displayed the opponent’s movements (e.g. serve) from the receiving
party normal perspective (e.g. Abernethy and Russell, 1987; Jones and Miles,
1978). The film clips selectively occluded either the opponent’s movements
at various times (e.g. prior to, at or after the racket made contact with the
ball), or various body parts of the opponent (e.g. head, trunk, arm, racket).
Participants were thus presented with partial visual information and asked
to predict the outcomes of ball flight (e.g. landing location) or to identify
the opponent’s action (e.g. type of stroke). Expert players were found to
differ from novices in terms of their ability to utilize early visual cues
to either task.
The main reasons for adopting the occlusion technique were theoretical
and methodological. First, the occlusion technique fitted neatly with the then
leading theoretical paradigm of the information-processing approach. It was
a basic assumption within the information-processing approach that percep-
tion is a process of assigning meaning to cues via some sort of inferential
process. Second, it permitted a more rigorous control and replicability of the
visual scene than field studies. However, visual anticipation was investigated
in isolation of action, the implicit (i.e. little explicit statements about the
process(es) underlying anticipation were made) assumption being that a
single perceptual representation or process supports anticipation.
In the last decade or two the information-processing approach has come
under attack. Proponents of the ecological approach (Gibson, 1979; Van der
Kamp et al., 2003) regard visual perception as the detection of information,
where information refers to (visual) information that is specific to environ-
mental properties. Consequently skilled anticipation is not associated with
the ability to process early visual cues but the ability to detect or pick up the
information that specifies the forthcoming event or guides the action. The
ecological approach also fuelled concerns over the validity of the outcomes
of the laboratory studies, primarily on the ground that the studies did not
preserve the functional coupling between perception and action. In response,
there has been a growing number of field studies (e.g. Abernethy et al., 2001;
Singer et al., 1998; Starkes et al., 1995).
The relevance of the functional coupling between perception

and action
The perception-action perspective offers a useful starting point for under-
standing situation awareness in sport, as this issue is a core theme of this
perspective: perceiving the environment by detecting those sources of infor-
mation that are relevant for one’s actions. From this perspective, the control
of movement is based on a continuous coupling to available perceptual
information, which is presumed to evolve over time (Savelsbergh and Van der
Kamp, 2000; Savelsbergh et al., 2004). In other words, from the perception-
action perspective, visual information is assumed to be picked up in a
continuous rather than discrete fashion. Hence, we will illustrate this core
156 G.J.P. Savelsbergh, F. Rivas and J. Van der Kamp
idea with two examples: one coming from soccer and one from racket sports,
i.e. badminton.
Visual search and locomotion behaviour in a soccer tactical

position game
In the first example differences in locomotor and visual search behaviours
were examined among a group of skilled amateur soccer players (Savelsbergh
et al., 2006). The aim of the study was to examine what and how visual
information is used in a complex game situation in soccer, not only with
respect to tactical decision making, but also with respect to the way locomo-
tion behaviour evolves during the participants’ actions. For that purpose,
participants watched film clips of a four-to-four position game, presented on
a large screen. The task for participants was to take part in the game by
choosing the best position for the reception of the ball passed by one of the
players in the clip.
A temporal occlusion paradigm was used: the clip stopped at 80 ms before
foot-ball contact, at foot-ball contact or 80 ms after foot-ball contact by
the passing player. Instead of using a binary response, such as a button
press, the participants’ body movements are recorded by linked to a potenti-
ometer to ensure continuous data sampling. This procedure allowed correc-
tions to be made (and recorded) to the response in an on-going manner as
the flow of information changed across early and late time periods in the
game situation. In addition to the locomotion behaviour, the visual search
behaviour was recorded using a video-based eye-tracker system. Thus, parti-
cipants’ locomotor and visual search behaviours were collected continuously
throughout the presentation of the clip.
A within-group comparison, based upon the participants’ interception
score, was made. The high-score-group (i.e. participants that moved to the
right location at the right time to receive the ball) had a significant advantage
(e.g. more correct interceptions) when information was available 80 ms after
foot-ball contact. No such effect was found for the low-score group (i.e.
participants that moved to an incorrect location or arrived too late at the
correct location). Additionally, the high-score group covered a greater dis-
tance than the low-score group both before and after the player passed the
ball. This was independent of occlusion condition. No group differences were
found for visual search behaviour. We conclude that the two groups used
similar visual search strategies, but exploited the detected information differ-
ently to control locomotor behaviour. In relation to the use of the visual
information, the study shows that there is a clear difference in performance
level. Visually scanning the same fixation locations but performing signifi-
cantly different locomotion behaviour before, as well as after, foot-ball con-
tact of the passing player, emphasizes that taking the movement pattern into
account in visual search research is of the utmost importance. As a con-
sequence of this finding, we studied in the racket experiment reported in
the next section, both the gaze pattern (perception) and the locomotion
behaviour of expertise and recreation badminton players.
Perception-action coupling in badminton

Abernethy and Russell (1987) examined how badminton players of different
standards perceived how to move. Participants were presented with film
clips of a player on a screen. The image could be occluded at different times
before and after shuttle-racket contact and at different locations (e.g. arm,
arm and racket, head). After the screen turned off, the participant had to
mark on paper (i.e. schematic representation of a badminton court) the
future landing position of the shuttle. The expert players were superior to
their less skilled counterparts in predicting the future shuttle landing pos-
ition. They appeared to be using information from the very first occlusion
period of the sequence (i.e. 167 to 83 ms prior to the racket-shuttle contact)
from the arm and the racket, reducing significantly their errors conversely
to the novices. The researchers concluded that experts somehow conduct a
kind of proximal-to-distal way of extracting information, which possess
higher predictive potential. However, the movements of the player were not
recorded.
In line with the soccer study and keeping the connection between percep-
tion and action, we examined the visual search strategies and the movement
control of the anticipatory and visual behaviour between different strokes.
Three kinds of forehand strokes were presented (i.e. drop shot, clear and
smash) down-the-line and cross-court, providing us with a total of six differ-
ent directions per hitting location. The players were required to act as if they
were actually playing a real match. Each film clip included the whole player’s
action sequence, since the player is waiting for the service until the shuttle
touched the floor.
The findings showed significant differences between the two levels of
expertise in the percentage of correct responses, that is, at the right shuttle
landing location at the right time. Furthermore an significant interaction
between stroke and expertise were found that indicated that expert and novice
badminton players differed in the percentage of successful smashes and clears
but not in drop shots. Based on this finding one could concluded that the
drop shot does not differentiate between the level of players. However, the
movement analyses revealed that the experts go more often to the right spot
but also they covered the shortest possible distance between start and end
location of the shuttle.
From the perception-action perspective, both studies (football and bad-
minton) show that there is a clear difference in performance level, that is,
significantly different locomotion behaviour in relation to level of expertise.
This emphasizes, first, that the movement pattern analyses should be taken
into account in visual search research. Second, during learning and practice,
the visual information should be coupled to the desired movement behaviour.
The next section deals with this issue followed by the implications for practice
in racket sports.
The learning stages in perception-action coupling

Savelsbergh and Van der Kamp (2000) proposed, analogous to ideas of
Bernstein (1967), that during the process of learning to detect and use per-
ceptual information to control movements three mutually overlapping phases
of freezing, freeing and exploiting of perceptual degrees of freedom may
be distinguished. The perceptual degrees of freedom refer to the fact that
the environment provides us with multiple sources of information to which
the required behaviour can be coupled. For instance, velocity information
about an approaching object can be provided by the changing size of the
object on our retina. But, there is also distance information in combination
with object size, which informs us about the velocity of approach. In fact,
there are multiple sources of information available in the sport setting. We
will discuss only the first two stages here, freeing and freezing.
We argued that in the beginning of the learning, the player selects one of
multiple information sources that will enable him to more or less successfully
perform the task at hand. For instance, in the case of badminton, using
distance information about the player to predict shuttle arrival time. With
repetitive practice (e.g. constant interception of the shuttle that is hit from the
same distance), the strength of the coupling (i.e. distance information to
moving to correct arrival location) increases: the movement gets intricately
tuned to information, which enhances the probability that this particular
coupling re-occurs under the same set of circumstances. Eventually, this
would result in a pruning of other potential couplings, and an increasing
stability of the selected coupling. However, a change within the particular
circumstances (hitting the shuttle from different positions) during this early
phase will disrupt the information-movement coupling. Because an alterna-
tive coupling is not available or too weak this could lead to a breakdown of
action. Only after practice an (alternative) information-movement coupling,
specific for the new set of local circumstances, will be established and
strengthened.
The second phase involves the freeing or releasing of perceptual degrees of
freedom. During this phase, practice under different sets of circumstances
(e.g. shuttle is approaching with different velocities, distances, locations etc.)
eventually leads to a whole repertoire of possible information-movement
couplings for a certain task (e.g. timing the arrival position of the shuttle by
coupling it to information specific for distance, speed or time). Hence, if the
local circumstances change, the actor will be able to realize an alternative
coupling, without the need to learn it from scratch and without a complete
breakdown of the action. In this stage, variability of practice is a must.
In sum, we proposed that improvement in perceptual skill by learning
to couple information to movement, may be captured by three mutually
overlapping phases of freezing, freeing and exploiting of the available per-
ceptual degrees of freedom. If we accept this description of the learning
process, it has implication for practice.
Implications for coaching and practice in racket sport

The proposal that the road to expertise is also characterised by a mastering of
perceptual degrees of freedom has some important implications for the prac-
tice process. Coaches, instructors, and physical education teachers should
consider the following points.
First, the coupling of perception and action implies that specificity of
practice is very important. That is to say, what should be learned during
practice is to couple information and movement. For instance, during prac-
tice the game situation should be matched as close as possible. The visual
information available during training should correspond with the informa-
tion during the match.
Second, in most sporting situations there is a redundancy of information
and novices may develop strong sub-optimal couplings with less useful infor-
mation. In order to help a player to discover the most optimal information-
movement coupling(s) during practice sessions, a coach should carefully
design the practice environment (a set of circumstances) in which a specific
coupling of information and movement is facilitated. In other words, a coach
has to create a training environment whereby the player is ‘forced’ to tune to a
specific information-movement coupling. We call such an environment a
facilitative environment.
Third, the coach can manipulate task constraints during practice in order
to facilitate the discovery of preferred information-movement couplings.
Fourth, the learning sequence is of great importance. From the perception-
action perspective, the processes of learning serve to establish and further
refine information-movement couplings. We have argued that the learning
process of coupling information to movement consists of a sequence of
mutually overlapping phases. Practice under a similar set of circumstances
will refine or increase the strength of the coupling between distance informa-
tion and positioning the racket. After reaching a certain degree of stability in
performance, the second learning phase starts where alternative information-
movement couplings are explored (freeing). Practice will unavoidably take
place under different circumstances and will lead to a whole repertoire of
information-movement couplings for the task. As a result, the performance
of the player becomes much more flexible and learns to adapt to changing
conditions.
In conclusion, particularly during the early phase of learning, specificity
of practice is implied. In the first instance, information is coupled only
to movement under similar conditions. Hence, specificity of practice is
needed. During later phases, however, practice should take place under
changing conditions. That is, modifying the degree of uncertainty provides
us with a facilitative environment so that the learner can explore alternative
information-movement couplings. Under these conditions a repertoire of
couplings can be formed and further exploited.
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23 Influence of training and task
difficulty on efficiency of a
forehand drive in table tennis
L. Jospin, V. Fayt and S. Lazzari
Introduction
The purpose of our study is to determine what characterises the efficiency of
a player in table tennis. The first term which comes to mind is ‘complexity’:
complexity in the management of the ball–bat contact (Bootsma and Van
Wieringen, 1990), complexity in the effort management and complexity on
the mental load (Baron et al., 1992). In other words, the complexity of the
table tennis activity lies in the need for intercepting and returning balls as fast
and as precisely as possible, while ensuring varied and fast displacements and
choosing the best strategy to win the rally.
An analysis of the table tennis activity in terms of motor skill organization
points out that the player is confronted with an activity of trajectory percep-
tion and of fine movement execution to control the ball–bat contact, the
movement velocity, the movement accuracy and the drive direction. These
stages (perception, decision and action) have to be accomplished within an
important time constraint (200 ms) and following the tactical organization of
the strokes. As mentioned, the informational constraints are high (quantity
of information to be treated, perceptual uncertainty and time pressure, preci-
sion necessary for the execution) and led certain authors to define this activity
as a bio-informational sport activity (Ripoll, 1989).
Table tennis is also characterized by a rapid succession of short-term max-
imal or sub-maximal efforts and short recovery phases. From a physiological
point of view Lundin (1973) and Orfeuil (1982) characterized table tennis as
an aerobic activity with an occasional anaerobic involvement. Consequently,
a good aerobic capacity seems to be an essential factor to ensure the various
and fast displacements needed during a rally.
To go further into the analysis of the table tennis ability both these aspects,
motor control and physiology, must be taken into account. Motor skill organ-
ization depends on the physical preparation and physical preparation sustain
motor skill efficacy. In activities where motor control and physiological
involvement play a fundamental role, Durand (1992) used the expression ‘non
optimal solicitation’ to describe the conflict between efficacy and energetic
solicitation.
Influence of training and task difficulty 163
To characterize the efficiency of table tennis players, we choose to look at
the training effects both on performance and physiological demand when the
intensity and the difficulty of the task vary. We hypothesize that a specific
training programme allow players to gain in efficiency, that is, to increase
their performance and to reduce the energetic demand. However, whatever
the training effects, we further hypothesized that efficiency remains influenced
by task difficulty, with a negative correlation between these two parameters.
In order to analyse at the same time the performance and the physiological
involvement of participants in the task execution we retained two indicators:
the percentage of success strictly linked to the capacity to organize move-
ments to attain an imposed goal, and the heart rate, that is considered a good
and easy-to-use indicator of energetic involvement (Astrand and Ryhming,
1954).
Method
Participants
Eleven students from the Faculty of Sport Science volunteered to participate
in this study. They were all right-handed and they were considered as novices,
having only 20 hours of trained practice behind them. Anthropometric char-
acteristics such as age (23 ± 3.9 years), height (1.78 ± 0.051 m), mass (72 ±
8.2 kg), maximum heart rate (189 ± 2.6 beats.min−1) and heart rate at rest
(58.1 ± 7.1 beats.min−1) were collected from the players. Heart rate at rest
(HRrest) was measured whilst lying supine for 15 min and maximum heart rate
(HRmax) was determined during a progressive, continuous and maximum test
running around a track (Léger and Boucher, 1980).
Experimental design
Players were asked to perform a forehand drive as precisely as possible to
attain a target (a circle of 21 cm of diameter) placed in the opponents half-
table and as fast as possible to pass over a 75 cm high barrier placed at 2.50 m
from the table. Balls were sent by a trainer following nine different experi-
mental conditions: three displacement conditions, each performed at three
different ball projection rate (60, 72 or 80 balls.min−1). The trainer followed
the projection rhythm through a metronome earphone. Each condition lasted
one minute.
The three displacement conditions were: (1) task without displacement
(WD), (2) task with a predictable displacement (PD) and (3) with an unpre-
dictable displacement (UD). In the WD condition, balls were sent only on the
right side of the player; in the PD condition, balls were sent alternately to the
right hand side and middle of the player’s half court, in order to lead to
lateral footwork; in the UD condition balls were randomly sent on the right
hand side and middle of the player’s half court.
164 L. Jospin, V. Fayt and S. Lazzari
Materials
Heart rate (HR) was monitored during exercise every 5-s using a heart rate
monitor (Accurex plus, Polar, Kempele, Finland) including a polar coded
transmitter, an elastic belt and a receiver wristband. A Sony digital cam-
corder was employed to film the players and to evaluate their performance
‘off-line’.
Procedures
The nine experimental conditions were tested before (pre-test) and after
(post-test) a training period of three weeks, made up by nine sessions of 1:15
hours each (Table 23.1).
Data analysis
Heart rate (HR) and performance were recorded during exercises. The HR
data were analysed using the Training Advisor Polar software. The maxi-
mal HR (HRex) obtained during exercise was expressed in absolute terms
(beats.min−1) and relative to HRmax and to HRrest (Karvonen et al., 1983;
Hiillorskorpi et al., 2003), which allow the determination of the relative effort
intensity (HRR).
HRR = (HRex − HRrest)/(HRmax − HRrest) ... (1)
Table 23.1 Temporal structure of the experimental procedure including a pre-test and
a post-test sessions. During these sessions participants were evaluated in all the nine
experimental conditions. Between the two evaluation sessions, nine training sessions
took place: general description of the trainer’s interventions during the training
sessions is reported
Week Session Phase Training sequences
1 1 Leger-
Boucher
2 2 Pre-test 9 task conditions
3 WD 1 general heating
3 4 60 balls.min−1 PD 2 specific heating
5 UD 3 theoretical recall and
6 demonstration
4 7 Training 72 balls.min−1 WD 4 striking task (3 baskets)
8 PD 5 work on power and efficacy
9 UD (2 baskets)
10 80 balls.min−1 WD 6 work of power and precision
5 11 PD (2 baskets)
UD 7 Evaluation (motivation)
6 12 Post-test 9 task conditions
To evaluate performance, we retained six outputs classification: (1) the
target attained and the barrier passed (T + B), (2) only the target (T) or (3)
only the barrier (B) attained, (4) the ball hit the opponent table neither attain-
ing the target nor passing the barrier (O), (5) the ball hit by the player without
reaching the opponent half-table (N), and (6) the ball not hit (NT). Using
these six performance outputs, a global score of the performance was calcu-
lated and expressed as a percent relatively to the total attainable points for a
subject, in order to compared conditions having different numbers of pro-
jected balls.
Three-way repeated measures ANOVA were performed on HRR and on
performance score to analyse and quantify differences between the nine
experimental conditions and to evaluate the improvements due to the specific
training period. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05. All results are
reported as mean ± standard deviation (SD).
Results
Performance
Performance score, obtained in the different experimental conditions, showed
that participants significantly increased their performance after training in
all the experimental conditions (F1,10 = 19.35, P = 0.001). Their mean score
increased from 22 per cent to 32 per cent (Figure 23.1a).
We found a significant reduction in performance associated with the
increase of task difficulty (F2,20 = 5.24, P < 0.05) and with the increase of
intensity (i.e. ball projection rate) (F2,20 = 24.98, P < 0.001). Moreover, an
interaction between the factors Task Difficulty and Projection Rate
(F4,40 = 3.74, P < 0.05) underlined that the influence of the increasing projec-
tion rate on the performance was stronger for the easiest task (WD) than for
the two other tasks.
Before training, there was no significant difference between experimental
conditions, though a trend showed a decrease in performance associated with
the increasing difficulty of the task. After training UD was significantly lower
than WD and PD (P < 0.05), reflecting with a negative trend the increasing
difficulty of the task.
Heart rate
The analysis of HR showed a significant effect of the training (F1,10 = 7.79,
P < 0.05): HR passed from 167 beats.min−1 during the pre-test to 162
beats.min−1 during the post-test. Training results in a slight decrease of HR in
all the experimental conditions (Figure 23.1b).
Another parameter affecting HR was the difficulty of the task (F2,20 =
45.82, P < 0.001). Post-hoc analyses pointed out a significant difference
between WD and the two other conditions (P < 0.05) with significantly lower
Figure 23.1a Performance in the nine experimental conditions.
Figure 23.1b HR in the nine experimental conditions.
HR for the first condition, while no difference was revealed between the two
kinds of displacements.
Projection Rate also influenced HR (F2,20 = 7.37, P < 0.05) showing an
increase of HR with the increase of ball’s projection rate.
Discussion
The main goal of our study was to analyse the efficiency of a table tennis
player both from a physiological and a motor control point of view. In this
kind of investigation, considered as a ‘non optimal solicitation’ activity
(Durand, 1992), efficiency critically depends on the conflict between efficacy
(i.e. performance) and movement economy (energetic cost). Our analysis was
based on the evolution of two major indicators of this conflict (HRR and
score) due to training and concomitantly to different level of difficulty (kind
of displacement required) and intensity (ball projection rate) of the task. The
basic hypotheses that lead this study was that training would induce an
improvement of players’ efficiency (better performance with lower energy
expenditure) and that this improvement would depend on task complexity
(Durand, 1992).
After the nine training sessions, we observed an increase in performance,
with the score passing from 22 per cent to 32 per cent. This result supports the
first hypothesis, stating that learning leads to an increase in efficacy. This result
suggests that a better organization of movement patterns took place during
training: the high movement variability of novices, made up essentially by a
lower motor control organization (Jospin and Fayt, 2004), gradually evolved
towards highly reproducible movements (Schmidt, 1982; Magill, 2004). More-
over, an improvement in displacement management may play a primary role in
improving efficacy, avoiding postural misplacements and incomplete and late
information pick up (Abernethy, 1993; Ripoll, 1989), and allowing an optimal
placement of players relatively to the table and balls (Arzel, 1994).
Generally speaking, an increase in performance, due to a new movement
organization, should lead to an optimization in terms of energy expenditure,
induced by a more adapted muscular recruitment (Durand, 1992). The
decrease in HRR that we evidenced in our study denotes that this change
took place during training, allowing players to reduce their energetic involve-
ment (Billat, 2003; Wilmore and Costill, 1998). In PD and UD conditions
players evolved from an ineffective mobility, essentially made up by disorgan-
ized movements and useless muscular contractions, to a specifically organized
mobility, allowing an adapted muscular recruitment. The more efficient
‘anticipation’ capability of players, achieved through a better analysis and
understanding of ball trajectories, allow them to have more versatile and
controlled movements (Abernethy, 1993; Schmidt, 1982).
Finally, the results obtained support the second hypothesis we formulated
(i.e. improvement in efficiency depends on task complexity). The increasing
in task constraints due to displacements and/or to ball projection rate
seems inversely correlated with efficiency, both in terms of performance and
of HRR. This result follows results found in previous studies on efficacy
(Fitts, 1954; Keele, 1968; Schmidt, 1982) and energetic cost (Durand, 1992).
Conclusion
Results presented in this work suggested that training allows table tennis
players to improve their ability through an increase in motor efficiency. This
efficiency is made up both by a better efficacy and by a decrease in the
energetic involvement (Guthrie, 1935). This ‘economic’ parameter could be
retained to precisely characterize motor abilities (Sparrow and Newell, 1998).
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24 Tennis play simulator 1
Psychomotor predispositions
for tennis based on
locomotor movements
J. Lapszo
Introduction
Our study in table tennis (Lapszo, 1998) showed a strong correlation between
the speed of ball-hitting movements, anticipation and behavioural fluctu-
ations tested in simulatory conditions with sporting results. On the basis of
these findings we have developed a universal measurement system (Lapszo,
2002) which enables the testing of psychomotor efficiency in racket sports
and ball games on the basis of fundamental and specific movement speed. In
this study we present the application of the system to diagnose psychomotor
efficiency in tennis. In a game of tennis we can differentiate between the
locomotion used to hit the ball and locomotion after ball-hitting. These
locomotor events have the character of fundamental movements for ball-
hitting. The movements are often called by coaches ‘foot work’. The speed of
locomotor movements is related to ball-flight anticipation. This anticipation
consists of predicting the position towards which the ball is flying and the
execution of a movement to reach this position. In real play, anticipation is
demonstrated by initiating the displacement of the body on the basis of how
the opponent has hit the ball or from the early phase of the ball’s path. This
information we have called anticipatory stimulus which indirectly indicates
the place towards which the ball is flying. The middle and final phase of the
ball’s path, directly indicating the spot, where the ball is flying was called an
orientation stimulus. In our experiment the locomotor movements were initi-
ated by anticipatory and orientation stimuli and were called anticipatory
and orientation locomotor movements respectively. Ball-flight anticipation
is based on anticipatory schema (Lapszo, 2000; Schmidt, 1975), which consti-
tute the memorized relationships of the ways in which the ball was struck
by the opponent and the places where the ball bounced on the tennis
court. Creating the anticipatory schema in memory takes place in the learn-
ing process which influence behavioral fluctuations caused by variations in
attention concentration, motivation, arousal and resistance for disturbances
(Hull, 1942). These fluctuations determine the regularity in the learning
process of anticipatory schema (Lapszo, 1998). The ability to react quickly
and accurately in competitive conditions (play for points) seems also to
170 J. Lapszo
be an important factor which can have an influence on sporting results in
tennis.
The aim of the research is to verify whether the developed universal diag-
nostic and training system (Lapszo, 2002) can be used to test the psychomotor
predispositions specific to tennis on the basis of fundamental locomotor
movements.
Method
Participants
Highly skilled male tennis players (6 senior, 6 junior and 5 younger junior)
were participants. The average age of seniors was 23.6, juniors 17.2 and
younger juniors 14.8 years respectively, and the period of tennis training was
13.4, 8.7 and 7.2 years respectively.
Tennis play simulator 1

The tennis play simulator was designed in two versions (1 and 2). Both ver-
sions consist of a simulator proper, a controller and a computer. Version 1
was designated to test psychomotor efficiency specific to tennis on the basis
of fundamental (locomotor) movements, while version 2 was on the basis of
specific (ball-hitting) movements. In simulator 1 there are 14 lamps (anticipa-
tory stimuli) on 12 stimuli boards (Figure 24.1) that simulate the spot where
the ball is struck by one’s opponent. The lamps in ten tactile sensors (orienta-
tion stimuli) indicate the spot where the simulated ball is to be struck by the
participant. Programming enables different directions and the ball’s flight
speed to be simulated by creating constant pairs of lamps on the board and in
the sensors (anticipatory schema) which are switched on sequentially with
0.5–1.5 s break.
Psychomotor factors tested as predispositions for tennis

In order to establish the psychomotor predispositions for tennis, the follow-
ing factors were tested: the speed of anticipatory (‘brain’ and ‘body’ speed)
and orientation (‘body’ speed) locomotion movements, the level of behavioural
fluctuations (the capability of optimizing attention concentration, motiv-
ation, arousal and resistance to disturbances), and the capability for anticipa-
tion and competitiveness.
On the basis of the above factors, a psychomotor efficiency index was
calculated which comprehensively expresses the psychomotor efficiency spe-
cific for tennis.
Tennis play simulator 1 171
Figure 24.1 The tennis play simulator – version 1 (with tactile sensors).
Anticipatory and orientation locomotion movements to ball-hitting

The subject’s task was to perform locomotion movements to the places
indicated indirectly by the lights on the boards (anticipatory locomotion
movements) or directly by the lights in the sensors (orientation locomotion
movements). The speed of particular movements was measured by the time
that elapsed from when the light in the sensor lit to the instant the player
touched the sensor. Accordingly, the shorter the time, the higher the speed.
The speed of anticipatory and orientation locomotion movements was
investigated in a series (tests) of 11 different movements. The result of the
whole test was the average speed of these 11 measurements. The tests of
anticipatory movements were repeated ten times, while orientation move-
ments were repeated six times. The order of movements in each test was
different but the same for the last four anticipatory and orientation move-
ment elements of the test. The tests started five (anticipatory movements) and
three (orientation movements) times from the right and left return positions.
The results of the last four tests for each kind of movement were then aver-
aged in order to obtain the final speed of anticipatory (Ta) and orientation
(To) locomotion movements to ball-hitting.
172 J. Lapszo
The curves of anticipatory schema learning
Learning curves were used to investigate behavioural fluctuations (Lapszo,
1998). These curves illustrate the process by which the anticipatory schema
develops. The results obtained in ten trials (tests) of anticipatory locomotion
movement speed were approximated by the exponential learning curve (Wood-
worth and Schlosberg, 1966). The following formula of this curve was used:
T(p) = (Tmax − Tp) × (1 − Is)(p − 1) + Tp,
where p = serial number of the trial, T(p) = the result of the test as a function
of the trial, Tmax = the lowest speed of anticipatory locomotion movements,
Is = speed of learning, the increase in anticipatory movements speed in each
trial (computed), and Tp = potential speed (the asymptote of the learning
curve, computed). The statistical parameter R2 (Draper and Smith, 1973)
showing the magnitude of the scatter around the learning curve was used as
the index of behavioural fluctuations If.
The index of ball-flight anticipation

The increase in the speed of locomotion movements resulting from the
ball-flight anticipation was treated as an index of this anticipation (Ia).
Ball-flight anticipation is based on the association of a definite light (antici-
patory stimuli) on the stimuli board with the position (place of location) of
the sensor on the tennis court. The speeds of the anticipatory (Ta) and orien-
tation (To) locomotion movements to ball-hitting were used to calculate the
Ia index according to the following formula (Lapszo, 1998):
Ia = (To − Ta)/To.
This shows the relative extent to which the speed of displacement to the place
towards which the ball is flying increases as a result of ball-flight anticipation.
The simulated play for points: the index of capability

for competitiveness
The simulator enables playing for points. Programming the defined speed of
play (ball’s fight speed) for a series of, for example, five movements, the
performance of the series can be scored if the subject performed all five
movements with the required speed or not. Too late in one of the five move-
ments causes a loss of points. In this study, scoring was done using the
standard tennis system of games and sets. Players in most cases had to per-
form four series of tests, consisting of five locomotion movements to win a
game. The play was conducted to win one set (six games). The ratio of the
number of lost to won games multiplied by the coefficient of simulated play
speed (the speed of ball’s flight) was treated as an index of capability for
competitiveness (Ic). The simulated play for points also enabled practising the
speed of ‘foot work’ in competitive conditions, in which the level of motivation
is usually higher than in practice conditions. Only junior groups participated
in this test.
The index of psychomotor efficiency

In order to express psychomotor efficiency in a comprehensive way, the index
of psychomotor efficiency Ipe was introduced. The index was calculated on
the basis of the following formula
Ipe = (If + Ia + Ic )*5/(Ta + To ).
Index Ipe expresses psychomotor efficiency in one number, which corresponds

to the speed of anticipatory (Ta ) and orientation (To) motor reacting and
a capability for psychomotor state optimizing (If), anticipation (Ia) and com-
petitiveness (Ic ) of particular players. By introducing this index we were
interested whether it can be used to assess, in a comprehensive way, the psy-
chomotor predispositions to achieve high sporting success in a tennis game.
Statistics
The relationships of the tested factors with sporting results were analysed on
the basis on the Pearson’s correlation with the level of statistical significance
of P< 0.05.
Results
Psychomotor predispositions for tennis

Sporting predispositions constitute such psychomotor factors that have an
influence on sporting results. In order to examine, whether the factors tested
in this study (If, Ta, To, Ia, Ic, Ipe) are sporting predispositions for tennis
we have correlated them with sporting results ranking for each age group
separately. The rankings were determined independently by two coaches
(separately for each group), who knew the sporting results of the tested play-
ers. The correlation coefficients are presented in Table 24.1. All tested factors
correlated with sporting results (although not all in all tested groups). In
published studies the reaction and movement time (Keele, 1982) and anticipa-
tion (Meeusen, 1991) and attention concentration (Nettelton, 1986) did not
differ between highly and less skilled fast-ball games players.
Our study has shown such differences although the tested groups were
relatively small. We believe that a planned similar study with a participation
of larger groups will support the results obtained in this study. We found the
174 J. Lapszo
Table 24.1 The correlation coefficients of the tested factors with sporting results for
the examined groups
Tested groups N Coefficients of correlation
Correlated If Ta To Ia Ic Ipe
factors
Seniors 6 Sporting −0.67 0.7 0.54 0.78 a 0.79

results
Juniors 6 −0.56 0.66 x 0.75 1.0 0.77
Younger juniors 5 x 0.67 0.55 0.7 0.97 0.73
Note: x = statistically insignificant coefficients, a = not participated in the research, P < 0.05
strongest correlation (Table 24.1) between the index of capability for com-
petitiveness (Ic) and sporting results. In an earlier study (Lapszo, 1998) on
table-tennis the cluster analysis was used to classify players with respect to
their level of aptitude (talent) for this game. In this study we used the index of
psychomotor efficiency Ipe to assess the aptitudes for tennis. In all groups the
correlation of sporting results with index Ipe was stronger than with other
tested factors (except index Ic). The calculation of the index Ipe is more simple
than cluster analysis and can be easily applied by coaches to assess the degree
of psychomotor talent for tennis of advanced tennis players as well as of
children that are novices to the game.
The simulator could be used to diagnose and improve the psychomotor
predispositions of tennis players at every competitive stage. The application
of the tactile sensors in the simulator eliminate any influence of stroke tech-
nique on the speed of tested movements and inversely, the performed move-
ments on stroke technique.
Discussion
The strength of the correlation of particular factors with sporting results
indicate the kind of psychomotor predispositions profiles of tested groups.
We have found that seniors exhibit an anticipatory-concentration-speed pro-
file, juniors competitive-anticipatory-concentration profile and that young
juniors a competitive-anticipatory-speed profile. The kind of psychomotor
predisposition profile shows what factors influence sporting results in groups
of players of different ages and having different sport experience levels.
Our study in table tennis (Lapszo, 1998) has shown that very talented players
had all psychomotor predispositions at a very high level though not necessar-
ily at the top level. To determine the level of tested psychomotor factors
obtained by particular players, in comparison to other players or the whole
group, the psychomotor profiles analysis can be used. The profiles constitute
the graphic presentation (for example bar graphs) of all psychomotor
predispositions in the same scale (Skorny, 1974). The profiles enable the iden-
tification of strong and weak sides in the psychomotor profiles of tested
players. The degree of the psychomotor strengths and weakness can be
assessed on the basis of relative differences between particular factors in
groups and individual profiles. The psychomotor profiles analysis can be use-
ful when recruiting to tennis the most talented children, as well as identifying
psychomotor strengths and weaknesses in players at any level of ability to
individualize the practice process.
Conclusions
The research presented using the tennis play simulator 1 has demonstrated
that:
• the tennis play simulator enabled the testing of several psychomotor

factors related to tennis in simulated conditions;
• the tested psychomotor factors can be treated as predispositions for
tennis;
• the index of psychomotor efficiency in a complex way expresses the level
of talent for tennis;
• the strength of correlation of particular psychomotor factors with sport-
ing results is different for different age groups;
• the capability for competitiveness has the strongest influence on sporting
results in tennis.
This study has shown that the tennis play simulator 1 seems to be useful for
sport researchers and coaches to test the psychomotor predispositions for
tennis on the basis of locomotion movements that can be easily performed by
people with or without previous experience playing tennis. The simulator can
be applied to practice the speed of anticipatory and orientation locomotion
movements (foot work) of advanced players in practice and combative
(play for points) conditions without any interference from their ball-hitting
techniques.
References
Draper, N.R. and Smith, H. (1973). The Applied Regression Analysis (in Polish). State
Scientific Publishers, pp. 196–234.
Hull, C.L. (1942). Conditioning: outline of a systematic theory of learning. National
Social Study of Education, 41 Yearbook, pp. 61–95.
Keele, S.W. (1982). Component analysis and conceptions of skill. Human Motor
Skills. London: Erlbaum, pp. 141–159.
Lapszo, J. (1998). The method of research into the speed of specific movements and
anticipation in sport under simulated conditions on the basis of table tennis.
In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard and T. Reilly),
176 J. Lapszo
Lapszo, J. (2000). Anticipatory model of human situation motor behaviours. In
Current Research in Motor Control (edited by A. Raczek), Katowice: University
School of Physical Education, pp. 134–139.
Lapszo, J. (2002). Simulatory diagnostic and practice timer of movement speed,
concentration and anticipation. Patent PL 183700. Warsaw Polish State Patent
Office.
Meeusen, H.J. (1991). On simplifying reality: implications for research on individual
differences. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 1055–1058.
Nettleton, B. (1986). Flexibility of attention in elite athletes. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 63, 991–994.
Schmidt, R.A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological
Review, 7, 225–259.
Skorny, Z. (1974). The Methods of Research and Psychological Diagnostic (in Polish).
Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk: Ossolinski National Publishers, pp. 90–91.
Woodworth, R.S. and Schlosberg H. (1966). Experimental Psychology (in Polish).
Warsaw: State Scientific Publishers.
25 Tennis play simulator 2
Speed of sequential ball-hitting
movements under practice and
competitive conditions
J. Lapszo
Introduction
The single ball-hitting movement in tennis has the character of sequential
movements and consists of four separate, sequentially performed phases:
split-step, displacement (locomotion) to hit the ball, ball-hitting proper and
displacement after ball-hitting. The split-step prepares the muscles to move
the body towards the ball as quickly as possible. The displacement to hit the
ball is directed towards moving the body as fast as possible to the place where
the ball is flying. The purpose of the ball-hitting proper is to hit the ball to the
opposite side of the court to score a point or cause the opponent to miss-hit
the return. The purpose of displacement after the ball has been hit is to reach
as quickly as possible the best position on the playing court to cover the
possible lines (directions) of flight of the returning ball.
Contemporary tennis requires the ball-hitting movements to be performed
very fast and with very high precision. The speed and precision of sequential
ball-hitting movements is related to the anticipation of interception (Belisle,
1963), which consists of predicting the place or time (or both) where the ball
will arrive and performing a movement coincident with the place and the
time. This anticipation can be divided into the ball-flight (place) and ball-
hitting (movement) anticipation (Lapszo and Kolodziejczyk, 1999). In the
first case, the anticipation consists of predicting the place where the ball is
going and displacing the body to reach this place. In the second case, the
anticipation is responsible for the spatial and temporal coincidence of the act
of striking the ball with the path of the moving ball.
We have differentiated anticipatory and orientation sequential ball-hitting
movements. The anticipatory ball-hitting movements are initiated by the
opponent’s ball-hitting movement or by the early phase of the ball’s path.
This information is called the anticipatory stimuli. The middle or final phase
of the ball’s path have been treated as the orientation stimuli. The movements
initiated by the orientation stimuli were called the orientation sequential
ball-hitting movements. The anticipatory stimuli indirectly indicate the place
in which the ball is flying, while the orientation movements show it directly.
The phase of the ball’s path just before and after bouncing on the tennis
178 J. Lapszo
court can be regarded as a ball-hitting anticipatory stimulus, which allows the
prediction of the shape (run in the space) and the speed of the ball-hitting
movement proper. The ball-hitting anticipation enables hitting a ball in the
optimal spot on the ball’s flight trajectory to direct it toward the chosen place
on the opposite side of the court with the highest precision. In other words,
the ball-flight anticipatory stimuli indicate where to run to reach a good
position to hit the ball, while the ball-hitting anticipatory stimuli show how
and when to hit the ball.
The ball-flight anticipation is based on memorizing the way in which the
ball was struck by the opponent and the place where the ball ended up.
Memorized experiences of this kind make up an anticipatory schema (Lapszo
and Kolodziejczyk, 1999; Lapszo, 2000), the essence of which is similar
to Schmidt’s motor schema (Schmidt, 1975). The ball-flight anticipation is
responsible for the instant of locomotion movement initiation while ball-
hitting anticipation is for precision of hitting the ball. The ball-flight and
hitting anticipations are unconscious (automatic) information processes.
The concept of sequential ball-hitting movements, anticipatory and orien-
tation stimuli, ball-fight and hitting anticipation and anticipatory schema
was used to design the tennis play simulator versions 1 and 2. The purpose
of this paper is to present the construction of the tennis play simulator 2
(the version of the simulator, which allows the simulated ball-hitting
movements to be performed with a tennis racket) and the research on psy-
chomotor efficiency in tennis on the basis on the speed of orientation and
anticipatory ball-hitting movements performed in practice and competitive
conditions.
Methods
Participants
Eight highly-skilled American tennis players (four female and four male,
average age 14.2 years) with an average of 6.1 years of special training in
tennis participated in the study. One male player was located on the ATP list.
Tennis play simulator 2

The simulator, used in the study, is a second (advanced) version of the tennis
play simulator. Both versions of the simulator consist of a computer, a con-
troller, and a specific simulator (Lapszo, 2002). The specific simulator-version
2 is presented in Figure 25.1. This simulator consists of: ten anticipatory
stimuli lamps (red, yellow), three split step lamps (white), start (green) and
end (blue) lamps, and ten sensors (with ten orientation stimuli lamps)
enabling performance of ball strokes with a tennis racket in the manor of
real play (eight base line strokes and two volleys). The computer enables the
measurement tests to be controlled using a special computer language.
Figure 25.1 The tennis play simulator 2.
Anticipatory stimuli lamps can emit the light in two colours: yellow and red.
The yellow colour indicates ‘the ball is flying cross court’, and the red one
indicates ‘the ball is flying down the line’. The following symmetric pairs of
anticipatory and orientation (anticipatory schema) stimuli lamps were
created in computer programme (Figure 25.1): 1,10–4,7; 2,9–2,9; 3,8–1,10;
4,7–3,8; 2,9–5, 6 (volleys), 5–7; 8 (service on forehand side), 6–3, 4 (service
on backhand side). The players learned this anticipatory schema. In the
anticipatory conditions, the ‘spilt step light’ was presented first, next the light
on the defined board (anticipatory stimulus), and with delay (ball’s flight) the
light in the defined sensor (orientation stimulus). In orientation conditions,
‘split step light’ comes on first, and then the light in the sensor. The light on
the board did not come on in these conditions. The players were instructed to
perform the simulated ball hitting movements as in real play. Their task was
to displace themselves as fast as possible in the direction of the proper sensor
and hit the sponge ball located on the top of the flexible stick (Figure 25.1) in
response to anticipatory lights (anticipatory conditions) or lights in the
sensors (orientation conditions). The speed of anticipatory and orientation
ball-hitting movements were measured by the time elapsing from the instant
of sensor activation to the instant of hitting the ball (on top of a flexible
180 J. Lapszo
stick) in the sensor. The tested movements were performed in six series. Each
series of orientation and anticipatory ball-hitting movements consisted of six
to eight movements started in the return position. Three series started from
the right and three series from the left return position. The players performed
the orientation and anticipatory ball-hitting movements in practice and
competitive conditions. In the practice conditions, the players were only
instructed to perform the movements as fast as possible. In the competitive
conditions, the players were playing a game of six points in both orientation
and anticipatory conditions. The speed of play was controlled by a special
coefficient (Csp) which determined the time in which the player had to
perform the sequential ball-hitting movements. If the player performed all
movements in a series in the required time she/he won a point. The following
psychomotor factors were obtained in the presented research:
• speed of orientation (To) and anticipatory (Ta) ball-hitting movements

in practice (To-pc, Ta-pc) and competitive (To-cc, Ta-cc) conditions – the
speeds were averaged across all movements in the series and next across
all series;
• coefficients of the maximum speed of play in orientation (Msp-oc) and
anticipatory (Msp-ac) conditions – the maximum value of coefficient
Csp, for which the players were able to win the points, if the index is
larger the lower the speed of play;
• indexes of competitiveness in orientation (C-oc) and anticipatory (C-ac)
conditions – the relative increase in orientation (To) and anticipatory
(Ta) ball-hitting movements speed in competitive conditions in com-
parison to practice conditions;
• anticipation of the ball flight in practice (A-pc) and competitive condi-
tions (A-cc) – reflects the relative increase in sequential ball-hitting
movements as a result of ball-flight anticipation, the indexes A-pc and
A-cc were calculated using the following formulas:
A-pc = (To-pc − Ta-pc)/(To-pc)
and
A-cc = (To-cc − Ta-cc)/(To-cc);
• speed endurance (Se), was tested in form of play for points (12) for the
speed of play 30 per cent lower (larger Csp) than maximum speed (Msp),
the index Se was calculated by the ratio of the number of lost to scored
points multiplied by the coefficient of the play speed Csp; smaller Se
index means larger speed endurance;
• index of psychomotor efficiency (Ie), which was calculated on the basis
of the following formula:
Ie = [(C-oc + C-ac + A-pc + A-cc)/(To-pc + To-cc + Msp-oc
+ Ta-pc + Ta-cc + Msp-ac + Se)]*5;
the index Ie expresses in comprehensive way the psychomotor efficiency;

the larger the index the higher is the psychomotor efficiency related to
tennis game.
Statistics
One-way ANOVA was used to assess the differences between factors. Rela-
tionship were tested by Pearson’s correlation. The level of significance level
was set at P < 0.05.
Results
Psychomotor profiles
The average values of tested factors are presented in a form of psychomotor
profiles (Figure 25.2) that constitute the graphic presentation of the factors
on the same scale (Skorny, 1974; Lapszo, 1998). In the same figure the profiles
of the best player (located on the ATP list), the whole tested group and a
freely chosen player (player 5) are shown.
Higher speed (shorter time, Figure 25.2) of orientation (To) and anticipa-
tory (Ta) ball-hitting movements and larger index of anticipation (A) were
found in competitive than practice conditions (To-cc < To-pc, Ta-cc < Ta-pc,
A-cc > A-pc, P < 0.02). The findings indicate that the play for points causes
an increase in the speed of ball-hitting movements and anticipation in both
conditions. The speed benefit resulting from ball-flight anticipation is much
larger in competitive (A-cc, 71 per cent) than in practice (A-pc, 37 per cent)
Figure 25.2 Profiles of the tested psychomotor factors for the best player, the tested
group and a freely chosen player (player 5).
182 J. Lapszo
conditions. The indexes C-oc and C-ac show a relative increase in the speed
of orientation (C-oc) and anticipatory movements (C-ac) as a result of an
increase in motivation caused by playing for points. The increase in the speed
was 0.05 (5 per cent, C-oc) in orientation conditions, while in anticipatory
conditions it was 0.53 (53 per cent, C-ac). Also found were a higher speed
(shorter time) of anticipatory (Ta) than orientation (To) ball-hitting move-
ments in both practice and competitive conditions (Ta-pc < To-pc, Ta-cc <
To-cc, P < 0.05). The research has shown that the best player obtained better
results than group with respect to all tested factors while freely chosen player
(player 5) demonstrated weak sides in his psychomotor profiles (Ta-pc, Ta-cc,
C-ac, A-pc, A-cc, Se, Ie).
Correlation of tested factors with sporting results

Pearson’s correlation of the tested psychomotor factors obtained for particu-
lar players with their sporting results ranking was examined (Figure 25.3).
All the tested factors strongly correlated with sporting results. Unfor-
tunately, not all correlation coefficients were statistically significant because
the number of tested players was not large (eight players). We found the
strongest correlation for the maximum speed of play (Msp-ac, r = 0.97),
index of competitiveness for anticipatory conditions (C-ac, r = 0.94) and
index of psychomotor efficiency (Ie, r = 0.89).
Discussion
The much higher anticipatory (Ta-pc, Ta-cc) than orientation (To-pc, To-cc)
ball-hitting movement speed indicates that the ball-flight anticipation in
tennis enables players to reach the ball faster than relying on the orientation
of the ball’s fight. The speed of orientation ball-hitting movements mainly
depends on motivation and on the motor (body) speed capability, which
in turn depends on the proportion of the fast and slow fibers in the muscles.
The speed of anticipatory ball-hitting movements reflects the speed of
information and motor processes in anticipatory motor reacting based on
Figure 25.3 The profile of correlation coefficients between tested psychomotor fac-
tors and sporting results ranking for tested group.
anticipatory experience (anticipatory schema). Motivation is an energizing
process of the human psychomotor system, directed on achieving a defined
goal (Schmidt, 1988). It was found that additional motivation resulting from
the play for points caused a much higher increase in anticipatory (53 per cent)
than orientation (5 per cent) ball-hitting movement speed. The increase in
motivation causes much larger increases in efficiency of mental (perceptual,
information and memory) than motor (execution) processes. We found strong
correlations in all tested factors with sporting results. Keele (1982) and
Meeusen (1991) found that movement time (motor speed) and anticipation
do not differentiate highly proficient from less skilled players. Our study has
shown the difference (Figure 25.2) between ATP tournaments player and less
skilled competitors with respect to motor speed, anticipation and other psy-
chomotor factors tested. This research indicates that the tested factors reflect
psychomotor capacities that are important in a contemporary tennis game.
The obtained results support our earlier study (Lapszo, 1998) that showed
a strong correlation with ball-hitting movement speed, anticipation, and
concentration with sporting results in table tennis.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the presented research:
• The simulator enabled testing of several psychomotor factors related

to tennis in orientation and anticipatory, practice and competitive
conditions.
• All tested psychomotor factors strongly correlated with sports ranking.
• The anticipatory ball-hitting movements are much faster than orientation
movements.
• The speed benefit (an increase in the speed of ball-hitting movements) of
the ball’s flight anticipation is larger in competitive (70 per cent) than
practice (37 per cent) conditions.
References
Belisle, J.J. (1963). Accuracy, reliability and refractoriness in a coincidence-
anticipation task. Research Quarterly, 34, 271–281.
Keele, S.W. (1982). Component analysis and conceptions of skill. Human Motor
Skills. London: Erlbaum, pp. 141–159.
Lapszo, J. (1998). The method of research into the speed of specific movements and
anticipation in sport under simulated conditions on the basis of table tennis. In
Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard and T. Reilly),
Lapszo, J. (2000). Anticipatory model of human situation motor behaviours. In Cur-
rent Research in Motor Control (edited by J. Raczek). Katowice: University School
of Physical Education, pp. 134–139.
Lapszo, J. (2002). Simulatory, diagnostic and practice timer of movement speed,
184 J. Lapszo
concentration and anticipation. Patent PL 183700. Warsaw: Patent Office of the
Republic of Poland.
Lapszo, J. and Kolodziejczyk, J. (1999). Psychomotor efficiency profiles of the
members of the senior and junior polish national table tennis team. Acta of
Bioengineering and Biomechanics, 1, 65–71.
Meeusen, H.J. (1991). On simplifying reality: implications for research on individual
differences. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 1055–1058.
Schmidt, R.A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological
Review, 7, 225–259.
Schmidt, R.A. (1988). Motor Control and Learning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Publishers.
Skorny, Z. (1974). The Methods of Research and Psychological Diagnostic (in Polish).
Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk: Ossolinski National Publishers.
Part 4
Performance analysis of
racket sports
26 Computerized notational
analysis and performance
profiling in racket sports
M.D. Hughes, M.T. Hughes and H. Behan
Introduction
The first hand notational analysis system published in Britain was for tennis
(Downey, 1973). This system was never actually used to gather data due to its
complexity but was significant as it provided other researchers with a wealth
of ideas for notational analysis (Hughes, 1998).
Sanderson and Way (1977) reported a system for squash which seemed to
be based on the work by Downey (1973). Their hand notation system was
created to analyse successful and unsuccessful patterns of play in squash and
was further developed by Sanderson (1983) to include symbols to represent
shots that were placed upon a diagram of a court. However, it took five to
eight hours to learn how to use this system, and a further 40–50 hours to
analyse the data from one match. Because of the problems inherent in more
sophisticated hand notation systems, computers were used to minimize learn-
ing time and process the data gathered. Hughes (1985) began this progression
by computerizing the processing of the data gathered by hand with the system
of Sanderson and Way.
It is the aim of this paper to trace the development of computerized perfor-
mance analysis through the examination, as a case study, of the maturation
of the process across racket sports, which not only have the most advanced
performance analysis support systems, but also have been clearly chronicled
in research papers.
The development of analysis and technology in racket sports

Difficulties with data entry and system learning time were reduced with the
development of the digitization pad. Digitization pads are programmable,
touch sensitive pads, over which one places an overlay with a graphic repre-
sentation of the playing surface and aptly labelled keypad areas for the actions
and the players (Hughes, 1994). A number of studies both in Britain and in
the Notational Analysis Centre at University of British Columbia have used
‘Concept keyboards’ and ‘Power pads’ respectively.
A voice interactive system (Taylor and Hughes, 1988) made the analysis
188 M.D. Hughes, M.T. Hughes and H. Behan
systems easier to use for non computer-literate operators. They were able to
demonstrate that a computer ‘non-expert’ was capable of using the system
despite the sophistication of their study being limited by cost. Intuitively, this
seems like the most ‘user friendly’ system, but there has been little advance
in this area until recently (Cort, 2006).
Concurrent with developments in how the data were entered into the
computer, there were also advances in how the data were displayed post-
processing. Hughes and McGarry (1989) designed a program that presented
the data in three-dimensional coloured histograms that could be rotated and
viewed from different angles. This made the results of the computer processing
easier to understand.
Another step forward in terms of data entry was the creation of a graphical
user interface. This allowed the user to enter data by moving the mouse around
the screen and clicking on icons representing the actions to be entered.
Hughes and Clarke (1995) used this system for the analysis of strategies on
different playing surfaces at Wimbledon (grass courts) and the Australian
Open (synthetic courts). They noted that there were significantly shorter rallies
at Wimbledon and indicated the importance of the serve on grass courts. Later
O’Donoghue and Liddle (1998) analysed time factors in both the men’s and
ladies’ games, for both grass and clay surfaces. In badminton, the European
circuit was studied at the 1996 tournament (O’Donoghue and Liddle, 1998).
Recent systems utilize the Windows environment and are interactive with a
number of graphics packages making representation far clearer and easier to
understand (Hughes, 1994).
The developmental work by these researchers has now led to the current
generation of generic analysis systems that are linked into digital video for
easy retention of a video database and for editing and feedback purposes.
Indeed, there are now a large number of commercial systems that are avail-
able for the notational analyst that can considerably enhance the power of
feedback, through the medium of video replays and edited video clips. Some
of the more successful were appraised by Hughes et al. (2002b).
Application of feedback in racket sports

Hughes (1994) outlined four major areas within which feedback gathered via
computerized notational analysis can be applied to racket sports as tactical
evaluation, technical evaluation, movement analysis, and creating databases
and modelling.
Tactical evaluation
Hughes and Robertson (1998) used computerized notational analysis to
re-examine the patterns of play at the elite level and create a ‘structural
archetype’ of elite squash. This in turn enabled the creation of a tactical
model for the game at the elite level for men, it enumerated the structures of
Computerized notational analysis and performance 189
the rallies and games, shot distribution frequencies, or ratios, across the
court, and the percentages of shots played in the four corners of the court,
enabling individuals to compare their own patterns.
Murray and Hughes (2001) reviewed the development, methodology and
application of tactical performance profiles used with elite level male and
female English squash players. The aim of the methodology (tactical per-
formance profiles) was to provide the performers with quantitative analyses,
highlighting their own, or an opponent’s, comparative strengths and weak-
nesses. It is very difficult to quantify the effect that these profiles may have
upon the performance of the players, and to attribute transition of perform-
ance to the implementation of these profiles is speculative. However, con-
sidering that the world of elite sport (especially when on the playing field
or court) has multivariate influences then any singular attribution would be
very difficult to achieve. The verbal feedback from the players and coaches
was both constructive and positive and has raised several issues around how
we, as sports scientists, give our information to elite performers. Nevertheless,
the process alone made the players more analytical and focused in their
approach to matches and tournaments, which, arguably, is a singular positive
effect in itself.
The process itself is one of analysis and, more importantly, of self-analysis
and change. These experiences are presented as an exemplar of performance
analysis from which some generic indicators of process for the performance
analyst can be defined.
Technical evaluation
Technique and tactics are inherently inter-dependent, so that research
methods that define technical strengths and weaknesses of given players will
also highlight the areas of tactical importance. Highlighting technical
deficiencies or strengths in players can be of vital importance to coaches in
their quest to improve players. The analysis systems used over the years
(Hughes, 1985; Brown and Hughes, 1995) have been used to show the areas
on the court from where players hit their winners and errors, and the shots
used.
Armed with this information the coach can then analyse any technical
deficiencies of their players when playing in these particular areas of the
court or when playing a certain shot. This in turn will inform the player
of tactical considerations of shot sequences. This can be done live in train-
ing, or with use of video feedback. Seeing technical faults in the past has
been quite difficult on video due to the low frame rates. However, with intro-
duction of high-speed cameras for feedback purposes, technical analyses of
the racket swings and individual player movement can now be scrutinized
in detail.
Movement analysis
Hughes et al. (1989) designed a tracking system for squash. The tracking
system was designed to be used post-match from video at match speed. A
‘Power pad’ was used to gather the positional data along with the time base
(Hughes, 1998). Accurate tracking was enabled by training a video camera
on the ‘Power pad’ and mixing the image from the camera with the footage of
the match and transferring it to a single VDU screen. The image of the
representation of the playing area on the ‘Power pad’ was aligned to exactly
meet the dimensions of the court on screen. This allowed the operator to be
able to focus upon where they were tracking and where the player was moving
at the same time. This was shown to be an accurate and reliable method of
gathering information regarding player velocities and accelerations.
This system was utilized by Hughes and Franks (1994) in a study comparing
the motions of squash players of differing standards. They recorded the
distances moved, the average velocities and the accelerations during rallies
of four different standards of players ranging from club level to elite inter-
nationals. The mean distance travelled by recreational and regular club play-
ers was only 12 m, which raised some questions about the type and specificity
of the training that these players were performing. The study also showed
that the then number one player in the world, Jahangir Khan, had a physio-
logical advantage over the other top players in the world. It was found that
when the data for Jahangir Khan were compared to that of the top six play-
ers, his acceleration during a rally was 50 per cent greater than that of his
opponents.
O’Donoghue and Liddle (1998) investigated rally and rest times for each
discipline of badminton (apart from mixed doubles) and found mean rest
durations to be longer than mean rally durations for all forms of the game. In
men’s singles, mean rally duration was found to be 9.15 ± 0.43 s, whilst the
mean rest time was 13.84 ± 1.16 s. However, the study by was limited in that
only four of each men’s and ladies’ singles, five men’s doubles and four ladies
doubles matches were notated. This meant that a restricted study size was
examined for each discipline. Conclusions drawn from the research were that
training should be specific to the discipline in which performers participate.
This is reinforced by the fact that the Badminton Association of England
have appointed specialist singles and doubles coaches in recent times.
Pereira et al. (2001) indicated the importance of movement within the
game of squash, a concept that is reiterated by many tennis professionals,
even given the differences in reported rally time, intensity and rest ratios
between the two sports. The principle aim of the research undertaken by
Pereira et al. (2001) was to link movement patterns form different areas of the
court, to establish a normative movement profile. Such profiles of movement
are not currently available in the field of tennis, and if a reliable and valid
measure for these movements in tennis could be produced, it would serve as a
valuable resource for both coaches and players alike.
Movement analysis in racket sports has enabled a better understanding
of the physical demands of the sports and, as a result, the creation of specific
training drills to better prepare the players for match-play. This information
can also be used to help strengthen junior players who are currently finding
the transition from the junior game to the senior (professional) sport difficult
due to the greater physicality of the senior game (Pearson, 1999).
Databases and modelling

Mathematical modelling can be used to describe sport and can be applied to
racket sports to expose strategic patterns of play. Using the mathematical
theory of probability, Alexander et al. (1988) analysed and modelled the
game of squash. They first suggested that the actions in squash a series of
discrete events with each event having an associated probability function.
However, this model cannot take into account the human factors of the game
such as form and tiredness. They then took these factors into account and
were able to make recommendations for players on how to ‘set’ the game at
8–8 depending on fatigue and technical ability.
McGarry and Franks (1994) created a stochastic model of championship
squash match-play which inferred prospective results from previous perform-
ance through forecasting shot response and associated outcome from the pre-
ceding shot. Their results were limited however by the fact that players used
the same playing patterns against the same opponents but different playing
patterns against different opponents. This was in contrast to the work of
Sanderson (1983) who found that squash players did not alter their patterns
of play against different opponents whether they were winning or losing.
These discrepancies could be the result of differing levels of detail in terms of
measuring the responses of the players, McGarry and Franks used a very
detailed analysis structure, but they do remain a contradiction to the more
generally accepted view of the stabilization of playing patterns.
To try to promote a more attacking style of play in squash, ‘point-per-rally’
scoring was introduced to all PSA tournaments in 1990 along with the tin
being lowered from 19 inches to 17 inches. It was thought that with points
on offer when receiving serve as well as being able to play shots lower on the
front wall, players would hit more offensive shots, rallies would become
shorter and squash would become more spectator friendly. To analyse the
differences in the game when using point-per-rally scoring compared to the
traditional English scoring method, Hughes and Knight (1995) designed a
computerized notational analysis system that utilized a graphical user inter-
face. Surprisingly rallies were found to be marginally, but not significantly
longer, when playing using the point-per-rally scoring. There was an increase
in winners but no increase in errors, which was attributed to the lower tin.
Further analysis of the scoring systems in squash was conducted by Hughes
(1995), when he investigated the scoring structures in tennis and squash. Key
terms ‘activity cycles’ and ‘critical points’ were described by Hughes as the
crucial events that lead up to exciting points in the games. In tennis the
activity cycles leading up to a ‘game point’ were about three mins in duration,
whereas in squash (and in badminton at that time) it took 15–20 mins to
reach a critical point, i.e. game-ball. Hughes realized that in order to make
the game more attractive the activity cycles preceding critical points in the
games needed to be shortened to make the game more appealing, more excit-
ing. So, Hughes recommended playing more, shorter games in squash thereby
increasing the number of critical points and, it was hoped, crowd excitement.
A time analysis of badminton was performed of both the 1999 Welsh Open
in the three games to 15 points format, and the 2000 Welsh Open in the five
games to seven points format. Post-event analysis (Pritchard et al., 2001)
allowed repeated viewings to enable the collection of extra data. Performance
indicators such as rally length and duration, rest times and game lengths were
recorded by hand on computer printed record sheets. The experimental scor-
ing system under trial in 2001 by the International Badminton Federation
seems to have the desired effect on elite men’s singles. This research enabled
the following conclusions to be made.
• Mean, mode and median rally lengths showed no significant change and
were comparable to those found by O’Donoghue and Liddle (1998),
and Liddle et al. (1996);
• A significant difference (P = 0.025) was found in the lengths of games under
the new scoring system. The average duration dropped from 19:24 min
under the old system, to 8:53 min under the new one;
• Match length decreased significantly (P = 0.025) when defined by the
number of rallies played;
• A tight match in 3 × 15 format may last up to an hour. This decreased
to 45 minutes in 5 × 7 format;
• Work-to-rest ratios were identical under both forms of scoring;
• Critical Points occurred 4.05 times per game under the new scoring
compared to 1.76 per game under the traditional format;
• Shorter games containing more Critical Points making badminton more
exciting and better suited to television;
• There were more breaks in play as there were more games of a shorter
length. This gives time for expert analysis on television coverage;
• Spectators are likely to better understand the new scoring format as
all ties are the best of five games to seven points, irrespective of which
discipline of the game is being played.
The professional men’s squash association has recently introduced a new

scoring system, with the aim of making the game more appealing to televi-
sion audiences. It is so far unclear as to whether this change has achieved its
aim. The aim of a study by Hughes et al. (2007) was to analyse any changes in
the game structure or differences in the patterns of play occurring amongst
the elite of men’s squash whilst playing in competition under the old (point
per rally to 15) and new (point per rally to 11) scoring systems. Overall the
study determined that matches were shorter and more ‘critical points’ were
created through the new scoring system, hence making it more attractive to
the television media.
McGarry (2006) examined the space–time patterns of squash players as
they move around the squash court in the context of a dynamical system. The
phase relations that describe the squash dyad (i.e. where one player is in
relation to the other player) demonstrated a strong tendency towards an anti-
phase (180°) relation, as expected. These new and exciting ways of examining
racket sports provide innovative ways of modelling these sports and point the
way toward an ongoing series of modelling developments.
Performance profiling
Recent applied research has made the definition of profiles much less a matter
of guesswork in terms of how accurately a particular profile really repre-
sented the way a player or a team performed in general. The use of perform-
ance profiling (Hughes et al., 2001) has created a sound empirical method
of ensuring the stability of the data profiles. Further, the work of James et al.
(2004) has introduced the ideas of using confidence intervals, that enable the
use of any number of matches for a profile with some quantitative statement
about the quality of the data.
Reliability
It is vital that any data gathering system used within research has been proven
to be reliable and in a manner that is compatible with the intended analyses
of the data (Hughes et al., 2002a). The data gathered must be tested in the same
way and to the same depth in which it will be processed in the subsequent
analyses. Hughes et al. (2002b) went on to demonstrate how insensitive the
non-parametric tests of comparison, such as chi-square, Mann-Whitney and
Kruskal-Wallis, are to differences between sets of data – no significant differ-
ence between sets of data more than 25 per cent apart. They pointed out
that this creates difficulties for analysts, and researchers, working with sets of
data taken from elite performances, where the differences between winning
and losing are as small as 1 or 2 per cent. At elite levels of sport, differences
as large as 10 per cent between winning and losing performances are rare,
so perhaps different types of test need to be defined with these sorts of
data sets.
Current areas of research and support

Most of the support that is currently being offered to England Squash is
based upon the work of Murray and Hughes (2001). During their research
they offered England Squash various types of feedback from information
gathered using simple winner and error analysis and ‘the full analyses’ systems.
Analyses ranging from simple winner and error ratios to complex rally ending
patterns were produced from the computerized systems. Murray and Hughes
(2001) also introduced the concept of momentum analysis in racket sports –
this has been further extended by Hughes et al. (2007). The use and further
recent developments in feedback both for competition and training and
coaching were presented by Murray and Hughes (2006) – an applied demon-
stration of the strengths and uses of the Focus, Quintic, Dartfish and
SiliconCoach software, together with digital video, high-speed video and the
best available VDU’s for feedback.
Future research
Momentum analysis is a new way of extending performance analysis and its
significance is not yet fully explored. It does seem apparent, however, that the
results of the analysis combined with the work of sport psychologists can be
of great benefit to players in their attempts to maintain focus during match-
play. Further research needs to be carried out as to why the peaks of the top
players in the world are longer and steeper than those of the lesser players.
The research into neural networking and fuzzy logic (Perl, 2001) has huge
potential for modelling purposes. If models for elite racket sports players can
be created, using the theories that he is applying to other aspects of sports
science, this could have huge potential for analysts and coaches. The ideal
would be to have models created via neural networking that could be used to
predict future performance of players taking into account factors such as
fatigue, temperature, and crowd support. These types of applications of fuzzy
logic, together with artificial intelligence shells should make ideal models for
analysing the coaching process – a ‘nettle’ few coaching science experts have
grasped so far.
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27 Playing patterns of world elite
male and Austrian top male
single’s badminton players
E. Oswald
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to highlight the technical components of bad-
minton games using a specific computer program for data analysis. Differences
between international top players and Austrian top players are established
in order to find the areas in which the Austrian top players should improve in
their technical and tactical training.
The author wants to establish a profile of the world’s top players and their
Austrian counterparts and to contrast the two groups. The following questions
are investigated:
• What differences between the two groups of players can be observed?

• What are strong and weak points of the Austrian players compared to the
international top 20?
Some results shall be compared with the data of earlier studies (e.g. Bochow,
1989 or Hong and Tong, 2000). In this way the technical development of
badminton in more recent years can be shown.
Methods
The author videotaped matches of the Austrian top players (players in the
Austrian top 20 ranking for male single badminton as recorded in May 2006)
in the year 2005 and 2006. These matches and videos of international players
(top 20 world ranking as recorded in May 2006) from the year 2005 and 2006
were analysed. Twenty games of international top players and the same num-
ber of games of Austrian top players were evaluated. This added up to
approximately 20,000 shots by the elite international players and 13,000 by
Austrian players.
Data were analysed with a specific computer program based on MS
Access®. The program used is capable of analysing most kinds of ball games
and was adapted to be applicable in badminton. The following attributes
were selected:
198 E. Oswald
• the position of the player: the centre line, short service line and the long
service line divide the court in six areas. Thus a total of six different
areas were available for recording the moves of the players. The six areas
are: right forecourt, left forecourt, right mid-court, left mid-court, right
rear-court and left rear-court;
• type of stroke: backhand, forehand, drop, smash, drive, clear, swipe;
• direction of stroke: long-line, diagonal;
• effectiveness: neutral shots, effective shots, ineffective shots and lucky
shots;
• height where the ball was hit: underhand, side-hand, overhand.
Also recorded was whether a stroke was a service, and if it resulted in a

fault or a point. In addition, the number of each stroke, the name of the
playing person, sets and points, playing time and the ranking of the players
were collected.
In order to investigate the objectivity of the model, five people were taught
how to work with the computer program. Each of them had to analyse three
sets of a game. The collected data were tested for reliability by calculating
Cohen’s kappa. The mean value of Cohen’s kappa over the several attributes
was 0.896 with a range from 0.754 to 1.00. This shows that the model has a
high degree of objectivity (Lames, 1990, p. 103).
Results
All the games in this study were counted in the English scoring system.
Table 27.1 shows basic statistics for the forty games.
The main differences between international top players and Austrian top
players are that the latter had fewer rallies per game and fewer strokes
per rally on average. Consequently they had fewer total strokes and shorter
playing time.
More than 52 per cent of the rallies of the Austrian players lasted only one
to four strokes. International top players perform longer rallies. A total of
35.6 per cent of the rallies had more than nine strokes. At the time of the
Table 27.1 Basic statistics of the investigation
International top players Austrian top players
analysed games 20 games 20 games

total strokes 19,965 strokes 13,072 strokes
mean playing time 53 minutes 34 minutes
effective playing time 27 minutes 16 minutes
maximum rally length 43 strokes 43 strokes
rallies per game 104.6 rallies 97.8 rallies
strokes per rally 8.0 strokes 5.9 strokes
Playing patterns of elite male badminton players 199
Table 27.2 Strokes per rally
Strokes International top Austrian top players International top players

per rally players (Bochow, 1989)
1 to 4 39.0% 52.3% 39.1%

5 to 8 25.5% 25.3% 29.7%
9 to 12 15.2% 11.6% 14.3%
13 to 16 9.0% 5.7% 7.4%
over 16 11.4% 5.1% 9.6%
mean 8.0 strokes per rally 5.9 strokes per rally 8.2 strokes per rally
study of Bochow (1989, p. 57) the international top players had 31.3 per cent
rallies which lasted more than nine strokes.
The service
Differences of the service strokes between the two analysed groups are
shown in Figure 27.1. Nearly 80 per cent of the services of international top
players were backhand or forehand drops. The Austrian top players used just
40 per cent drops and tended to forehand clears in more than 50 per cent of
the services. Compared to a study by Hong and Tong (2000, p. 190) the
international top players played more short services.
Figure 27.1 Type of service strokes.

200 E. Oswald
The return
International top players returned 53 per cent of the long services with a
smash. Austrian top players reacted in the same situation with 35 per cent
smashes only. They played 35 per cent attack clears whereas the international
top players used only 11 per cent. This shows the offensive playing pattern of
the world class.
Looking at the returns of short services there were a few main differences
between the two groups. A total of 51 per cent of the returns of short services
in the international top players’ group were drops and 39 per cent were
swipes. The Austrian top players used the drop in only 43 per cent and the
swipe in 50 per cent of the shots.
Analysing the faults and points during the return (Figure 27.2) inter-
national top players made most of their points hitting smashes and faults
hitting underhand drops. The Austrian top players made most of their faults
with the underhand drop and most of their points by hitting smashes.
Figure 27.2 Faults and points during the return.

The rally shots
International top players used more underhand clear, underhand drop, drive,
smash and swipe shots compared to the Austrian top players (Figure 27.3).
The Austrian athletes preferred overhand clear, overhand drop and attack
clear shots. The most dominant shot in both groups was the underhand drop
followed by overhand drop, smash and swipe shots.
Figure 27.4 gives an overview of the height of the strokes depending on the
court position of the players. It is obvious that the international top players
Figure 27.3 Type of strokes during the rally.
Figure 27.4 Shot frequencies in different areas.

202 E. Oswald
performed more shots in the net area hitting underhand shots. The Austrian
top players hit more strokes in the middle overhand area. It is assumed that
the Austrians did so because they often play long shots too short (Figure 27.5).
By definition, long shots should be played in the rear-court to have optimal
length. Too-short shots are returned in the mid-court.
Figure 27.5 shows that the Austrian top players did not use optimal length
shots as often as the international players and second that they played too-
short shots more often. In the situation of attack clear and swipe the Austrian
top players mostly use too-short strokes. This shows that under training
conditions the Austrians should exercise optimal long strokes.
An interesting aspect is the frequency of the kinds of stroke before the
point (Figure 27.6). The most frequent kind of stroke in both groups was an
underhand drop. The most noticeable differences are in the use of drive, swipe
and attack clear before point.

The main goal of the given investigation was to highlight the structural dif-
ferences in the playing patterns between the world’s top male players and the
Austrian top male players in single badminton.
As a central point, it could be shown that international games had more
rallies and more strokes per game than the Austrians. The world class players
also performed more offensive strokes. Noticeable differences in making
Figure 27.5 Distribution of too-short and optimal long strokes.

Figure 27.6 Distribution of different kinds of strokes before point.
points, respectively faults concerning aspects such as type of stroke, height of

stroke and area of stroke could be observed.
Because of the longer rallies in international top level badminton compared
to the Austrian, more importance should be attached to rally shots when
coaching the Austrian athletes.
References
Bochow, W. (1989). Badminton optimiere [Optimal badminton]. Ahrensburg bei
Hamburg: Czwalina.
Hong, Y. and Tong, Y.M. (2000). The playing pattern of the world’s top single bad-
minton players in competition: a notation analysis. Journal of Human Movement
Studies, 38, 185–200.
Lames, M. (1990). Leistungsdiagnostik durch Computersimulation [Game diagnostics
through computer simulation]. Frankfurt am Main: Harri Deutsch.
28 Comparison of the average
game playing time in different
scoring systems in badminton
L. Petrinović-Zekan, Ž. Pedišić, D. Ciliga
and M. Kondrič
Introduction
There are a few sports, and badminton is one of them, that are interesting to
watch and play but are nevertheless underrated in worldwide TV coverage.
Despite the well known popularity of badminton, it is very rarely on TV
channels. One of the reasons was that long games with many rallies would be
interesting to an expert but not to an ordinary TV audience. Furthermore,
long playing time, without many breaks, is challanging for the players and
also very unpopular for sponsors who would like their commercials to be seen
between games. The duration of the games is not easily predictable and live
telecasts are notoriously hard to schedule.
Therefore, the International Badminton Federation (IBF) has tried to
make the game more interesting for spectators and sponsors by introducing
in 2002 a worldwide experimental change in the scoring system from a con-
ventional three games to 15 (3×15) to five games to seven (5×7). Research
showed significant decrease in total match playing time (Pearce, 2002) for the
new system. However, the experiment was not well accepted and IBF decided
to return to the old scoring system. A new experiment which involved all
tournaments approved by IBF started in May 2005. The conventional format
of three games to 15 points (3×15) with counting points on change service
was changed to a three games to 21 points (3×21) format, with every rally
counting for a point. There was some controversy in badminton circles, but
also positive reactions and so the IBF decided in May 2006 to officially adopt
the new scoring system (http://www.internationalbadminton.org).
This change will definitely affect many aspects of the badminton game. The
players and coaches will have to adjust to the new ways of playing and coach-
ing the game. It remains to be seen who will benefit from the new system the
most, but there is a general opinion that something in tactics has to be
changed. Whether the training should be changed as well, and in which part,
also remains to be seen.
The aim of this study was to compare average playing time in the old
scoring system and in the new one.
Comparison of the average game playing time 205
Methods
In order to establish differences in average game playing time in the two
systems, a total 271 games were analysed. Only the matches from the quarter
finals, semi finals and the finals were included. In all, 152 games (36 men’s
singles, 40 women’s singles, 37 men’s doubles and 39 women’s doubles games)
from the Olympic Games in 2004 were used to represent the old scoring
system. A total of 119 games (34 men’s singles, 49 women’s singles, 23 men’s
doubles and 13 women’s doubles games) from the Thomas and Uber Cup in
2006 were used to represent the new scoring system. All data were collected
from the official web pages of the above-mentioned events.
To make comparisons across sub-scales of the games, descriptive param-
eters (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum and range) and 99 per
cent confidence intervals for the mean for each sub-scale were calculated.
Normality of distribution for each variable was tested using Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test. Differences between average game playing time in the old and
new scoring systems were evaluated by t-test. Normality of distributions and
differences between average game playing time were tested at significance
level of P<0.05. All analysis were done with Statistica, version 7.1.
Results
Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test showed that all game playing time
data sets were normally distributed. Results of the t-test showed a statistically
significant decrease in the average game playing time in men’s singles (22.9
vs. 18.4 min) and women’s doubles (22.9 vs. 16.4 min). For men’s doubles
there was no significant decrease in average duration of the game (20.7 vs.
18.0 min). For women’s singles, a statistically significant increase of the aver-
age game playing time (14.3 vs. 18.2 min) was found.
Discusion and conclusion

The purpose of the study was to compare the old and new scoring systems in
badminton based on average game playing time in the Olympic Games in
2004 and the World Team Championships in 2006 for men (Thomas Cup)
and for women (Uber Cup). The matches from the quarter finals to the finals
in both tournaments were chosen because the level of play in the closing stage
of both tournaments was similar.
A decrease in average playing time in men’s singles was expected and since
it is the most popular event the authors believed that the change would be the
most prominent. Player concentration was expected to be high in every rally
and it was thought to be psychologically more demanding than before.
In the old scoring system, women’s singles was the only event that was
played to 11 points per game, while the other events were played to 15 points
per game, so a statistically significant increase of average game playing time
Table 28.1 Descriptive parameters and confidence intervals for mean playing time (min)
Valid N Mean Confidence −99% Confidence +99% Minimum Maximum Range Std.Dev.
OM 36 22.9 19.9 26.0 9 34 25 6.7

OW 40 14.3 12.2 16.4 5 23 18 4.9
OMD 37 20.7 17.8 23.7 11 36 25 6.6
OWD 39 22.9 19.3 26.5 10 46 36 8.3
TCM 34 18.4 16.5 20.4 11 28 17 4.2
UCW 49 18.2 16.5 20.0 10 33 23 4.6
TCMD 23 18.0 14.8 21.3 11 37 26 5.5
UCWD 13 16.4 12.9 19.9 9 26 17 4.2
Notes: OM = Olympic Games – men; OW = Olympic Games – women; OMD = Olympic Games – men’s doubles; OWD = Olympic Games – women’s doubles;
TCM = Thomas Cup – men; UCW = Uber Cup – women; TCMD = Thomas Cup – men’s doubles; UCWD = Uber Cup – women’s doubles
Comparison of the average game playing time 207
Table 28.2 Differences between mean playing time (min)
Mean Mean Std.Dev. Std.Dev. t-value df p

OSS NSS OSS NSS
OM vs. TCM 22.9 18.4 6.7 4.2 3.3 68 0.00

OW vs. UCW 14.3 18.2 4.9 4.6 −3.9 87 0.00
OMD vs. TCMD 20.7 18.0 6.6 5.5 1.6 58 0.11
OWD vs. UCWD 22.9 16.4 8.3 4.2 2.7 50 0.01
Notes: OSS = old scoring system; NSS = new scoring system
was not unexpected. In this event, players and coaches faced different chal-
lenges. Since the game is longer the philosophy of the game is different, with a
stress on players’ stamina.
Men’s doubles showed no significant decrease in average duration of the
game but this could be biased with a small sample of matches that were
analysed. This should be examined further on a bigger sample. Unfor-
tunately, the World Team Championship was not an ideal competition for the
analysis of doubles because in many team matches the tie would be already
decided in single matches and therefore the doubles would not be played
at all.
Women’s doubles showed a decrease in average duration of the game. This
result is very encouraging for the event that was notorious for long durations
of play resulting in it being less popular than other events.
All events in the new system are of almost equal length, compared to the
old system in which some events lasted much longer than the others. This will
certainly help the organization of the tournaments and possibly improve live
TV coverage of badminton.
The growth of sports science and the commercialization of racket sports in
recent years have focused attention on improved performance and this has led
to a more detailed study and understanding of all aspects of racket sports.
Changes in the average game playing time, as shown in this study, should
point to changes that will affect physiological, psychological and tactical
approaches to training and competition of every event. The authors hope
that the changes that were made will help badminton to become more popu-
lar without losing its attractiveness for the players worldwide.
References
Science, 21, 707–732.
Pearce, A.J. (2002). A physiological and notational comparison of the conventional
and new scoring system in badminton. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 43,
49–67.
www.internationalbadminton.org (last accessed 3 April 2008).
29 Feedback systems in
table tennis
A. Baca and P. Kornfeind
Introduction
According to Farfel’s principle (Farfel, 1977), effective feedback systems
applied in training should provide feedback information rapidly and object-
ively. Powerful information and communication technology simplify the
development of sports specific feedback systems of that kind. Special focus
must be put on the acquisition and presentation of performance relevant
parameters.
In the case of table tennis, factors affecting the quality of the ball played
are the spin, the position, where the ball hits the table and the time left for the
opponent to react properly (Baca et al., 2004; Hohmann et al., 2004). Systems
that give immediate feedback on these performance parameters may assist
training.
The purpose of this paper is to describe two types of feedback systems
which have been built and their applications. The first variant is based on
the detection of impact positions of the ball on the table, the second on the
acquisition of ball impact intervals. Both systems shall direct and condition
the technique and, moreover, have a motivational effect in training.
Methods
Impact position detection

A schematic of the setup is presented in Figure 29.1. A detailed description
can be found in Baca and Kornfeind (2004). Four accelerometers (Kistler
8632C10; four-channel amplifier 5134A1; Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland)
are fixed on the underside of one half of the table and connected to an
amplifier, which itself is connected to a DAQ-system consisting of a note-
book computer and a data acquisition card (NI-6062E, National Instruments,
Austin, USA). Vibration signals produced by the ball hitting the table are
registered by the four sensors. A trigger impulse, generated from an electronic
circuit, starts the recording of a specified number of samples repeatedly
after every ball impact (1000 Samples at 125 kHz). A threshold algorithm
Feedback systems in table tennis 209
determines the four instants of time, when the vibration signal arrives at the
sensors. Software (LabVIEW®, National Instruments, Austin, USA) has
been programmed for this purpose.
A triangulation algorithm, which is also implemented in this software,
calculates the impact position from the four instants of time. To determine
the coordinates of the impact position, xT and yT, only three instants of
time are required. The fourth, redundant sensor is used to increase accuracy.
A least square method has been selected to determine the impact point
coordinates. xT and yT are calculated, which minimize
冱冢冪(x − x )
2
i, j
i T
2
− (yi − yT)2 + z2i − 冪(xj − xT)2 − (yj − yT)2 + z2j − (ti − tj)v冣
(i = 1 . . . 4; j = 1 . . . 4; i ≠ j)
where xi , yi and zi are the coordinates of the i-th sensor with regard to the
table coordinate system, ti, the instants of times, the vibration signal arrives at
sensor i (i = 1, . . ., 4), and v is the velocity of signal propagation, which
depends on material properties of the table.
If metallic parts are coupled to the table top, as is the case for the type of
tables used by Baca and Kornfeind (2004), vibration damping material
has to be used for a mechanical decoupling of the table top and the metallic
parts. Thus, faster signal propagation towards the sensors through the metal
resulting in noise signals can be prevented.
The program developed displays the reconstructed impact points immedi-
ately after the impact. A circle representing the ball is drawn onto the
Figure 29.1 Setup for detection of ball impact positions. S1–S4 denote the positions
of the accelerometers fixed on the underside of one half of the table.
210 A. Baca and P. Kornfeind
calculated position into a graphic presentation of the table half. In addition,
the numerical values of the coordinates are shown (Figure 29.2).
An average error of 0.020 ± 0.011 m was obtained by Baca and Kornfeind
(2004) within the area of the table at least 0.25 m away from the net.
Impact time interval detection

A low cost system has been developed to determine time intervals between
ball impacts after the serve in table tennis. In the case of long serves the time
interval between first (own side) and second (opponent’s side) impact is
determined. In the case of short serves, the ball bounces on the opponent’s
side twice resulting in a second time interval to be calculated.
Two microphones are used for recording the acoustic signals caused by the
ball impact on the table. Both are fixed in metallic boxes. The boxes are
put onto both halves of the table. The signals from the microphones are
preprocessed electronically and then fed to a microcontroller (PIC16F628;
Microchip, USA), which is also connected to the serial port of a PC,
notebook or PDA (Figure 29.3).
A LabVIEW® application program acquires the data from the serial port
and displays the results on the computer screen. In addition to a numerical
presentation of the time intervals a speedometer informs on the player’s
performance graphically (Right area – good; Left area – bad; Figure 29.4).
The overall system is not bound to a specific table tennis table and can
easily be transported to the environment (table, hall, etc.), where it is used.
The system operation is self-controlled. Because of an automated system
reset into a ‘wait state’ after a short period without acoustic impact signal, no
user intervention is required between successive serves. If connected to two
monitors, the system may be used by two players standing on both sides of
the table, who serve alternately.
Figure 29.2 Computer screen presenting a series of ball impact positions.

Figure 29.3 Left: Schematic presentation of the system for calculating impact time
intervals. Right: Complete system without PC/PDA.
Figure 29.4 Presentation of impact time intervals. Time 1: First to second impact,
Time 2: Second to third impact (short serves only).

Both types of systems have successfully been applied to give feedback in
youth training. Usability and system stability were considered satisfactory by
the users.
Feedback based on impact position detection

The feedback system neither disturbs the players nor does environmental
noise influence the system. Feedback on the accuracy of the placement when
performing certain tasks may be given. In addition, a series of trials may be
evaluated and summary feedback may be given.
In a typical application of the system in training a table tennis robot serves
the ball in short intervals. The player has to return each ball into a marked
area or to return one ball cross and the following into the marked area
212 A. Baca and P. Kornfeind
alternately. After each series of trials the player gets visual feedback on the
ball impact positions (Figures 29.2 and 29.5).
The system may also be used to give feedback on impact positions and
impact time intervals in serve training. Players are thereby able to study the
variability of different serve techniques.
Feedback based on impact interval detection

Typical exercises performed by the players include the task to minimize the
impact intervals in order to decrease the time of the opponent to react prop-
erly. Obviously the time interval is strongly affected by the degree of spin of
the serviced ball. Youth players utilizing the system in serve training enjoyed
this kind of aid and were highly motivated. A kind of competition situation
can be observed. A first study showed tendencies that training with the sys-
tem might be useful in shortening the impact time intervals of short services
(i.e. Time 2 in Figure 29.4).
Conclusion
Rapid feedback systems utilizing powerful sensor and information technol-
ogy provide innovative and effective support to coaches and athletes. Mighty
IT-tools facilitate the development of user-friendly systems, which are specif-
ically oriented towards their needs.
In the development of the systems used to give feedback in table tennis
special care has been taken to measure and/or calculate the characteristics
of interest accurately and to present the results to the users (coaches and
athletes) fast and comprehensive. Graphic visualization forms have therefore
been implemented in both cases in addition to the presentation of the numer-
ical values (Figures 29.2 and 29.4).
It is expected that novel and rapid performance measurement and feedback
tools based on modern information technology will become more and more
pervasive in daily table tennis training.
Figure 29.5 Feedback training using impact position detecting system.

References
Baca, A. and Kornfeind, P. (2004). Real time detection of impact positions in table
tennis. In The Engineering of Sport 5, Vol. 1 (edited by M. Hubbard, R.D. Mehta
and J.M. Pallis), Sheffield: ISEA, pp. 508–514.
Baca, A., Baron, R., Leser, R. and Kain, H. (2004). A process oriented approach for
match analysis in table tennis. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees,
J.-F. Kahn and I. Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 214–219.
Farfel, W.S. (1977). Control over Movement in Sport [In German: Bewegungssteuerung
im Sport]. Berlin: Sportverlag.
Hohmann, A., Zhang, H. and Koth, A. (2004). Performance diagnosis by mathemat-
ical simulation in table tennis in left and right handed shakehand and pen-
holder players. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees, J.-F. Kahn, I.
Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 220–226.
30 Practice oriented match
analyses in table tennis as
a coaching aid
R. Leser and A. Baca
Introduction
Baca et al. (2004) introduced a process oriented approach to analyse and
improve the behaviour of table tennis players. Through reducing the game
characterizing parameters of the data collection system to the very essential
ones for the coaching process this method was adapted for the implementa-
tion in practice.
The paper gives an overview of the modified system and exemplifies one
possible scenario for using this system to support coaches and athletes in
preparing for a competitive opponent (e.g. whilst in a tournament).
The basic ideas of the method have also been used to realize a table tennis
specific game analysis software. Some screenshots and explanations describing
this tool illustrate how the analysis concept is used in practice.
In today’s world of sports, computer-aided video and game analysis pro-
grammes have become standard tools for preparing and analysing competi-
tions, and for training use. Lames and Hansen (2001) discuss the methodical
way of day-to-day use of such systems for game sports in general, while
Dufour (2000) and Leser (2006) give concrete examples of how these systems
can be used in soccer and handball. Depending on the approach chosen,
the analysis processes focus on different criteria. All these concepts share,
however, some fundamental elements.
The aim of this paper is to illustrate a method for game analysis in table
tennis where these fundamental elements are integrated in a proven and
tested workflow.
Method
Figure 30.1 illustrates the procedure for analysing table tennis matches by the
method presented in this paper. Matches are recorded on video and, if pos-
sible, observed on location. In shooting the video a standard perspective from
the long side of the table including an adequate view of the players’ action
areas is recommended (see coverage angle in Figure 30.2 from the video
window).
Practice oriented match analyses in table tennis 215
Figure 30.1 Flowchart of applied match analysis in table tennis.
The completed game video is used for quantitative data collection whose
results, together with the impressions of the match observer, are proper used
in the analysis. Finally the results are translated into a training plan during a
video-aided meeting with the player.
Data collection
Figure 30.2 shows the data collection screen comprising three areas: form for
point information, form for stroke information and video window. Special
attention was given to the usability of the system – e.g. using graphical input
assistances for some parameters instead of having to write long attribute lists.
Only few of the game and performance parameters, which are necessary to
describe a table tennis match, have to be gathered manually by mouse action
or alternatively by keyboard-shortcut:
• type of stroke (forehand/backhand, topspin, counter, block, defence, etc.)

• impact position of the ball on the table
• instant of service and moment when the point is finished
• type of error (out, net, etc.).
All other parameters that are required for the analysis are added auto-
matically after entering some initial information at the beginning of the
match respectively from the parameters entered manually (e.g. by marking
the type of error on the correct side of the interactive table the system
‘knows’ which team made the point):
216 R. Leser and A. Baca
• number of set
• number of point
• current score
• number of stroke
• server
• receiver
• length and direction of the stroke (short/long, left/right)
• winner of the point.
Video capturing and entering the information into the point form may be
done during the game. Consequently, video feedback (selective access to all
rallies/points) and elementary statistics (regarding to point information) are
available immediately after the game. Further analyses (regarding to stroke
information) require entering the parameters characterizing each stroke.
Since this process is very time consuming it can only be done offline (after the
match, using the digital game-video). Depending on the duration of the game
this procedure lasts between one and two working hours.
Figure 30.2 Data collection screen.

Analysis process
In the next step, a standard evaluation of the collected data is presented in a
clear manner (figures, tables, diagrams, etc.) that is easily comprehensible for
the user. Evaluations relate primarily to some structural features of the match
(e.g. distribution of stroke types used) and success and failure-related stat-
istics (e.g. type and number of faults, type and number of scoring strokes,
etc.). A comparison of results against reference values allows to filter differ-
ing results automatically and to be studied in greater detail. The diagram in
Figure 30.3, for instance, contains the success rate of an athlete (player A)
showing that he scored a point in 90 per cent of all rallies he had started with
a long service.
Assisted by the video feedback tool a qualitative analysis to access the
playing pattern of the player/players of interest is performed. Simultaneously,
conclusions from the quantitative evaluations are drawn. Figure 30.4, for
instance, shows that for this purpose the sequences, relevant for the facts
described above (Figure 30.3), were filtered from all rallies (‘Player A serving’
and ‘Player A scoring’) to examine the possible causes of this significant
result.
In addition, attention is paid to any of the on location observer’s assump-
tions about specific player actions, and the video is studied intensively to find
other significant scenes. When this process is completed, the subjective dis-
coveries are worded as hypotheses, e.g. ‘The player returns fast topspin
strokes to the side very well but he has problems when they are placed in the
centre.’
The software tool used for video analysis provides selective access to all
Figure 30.3 Success and failure of player A when starting a rally with his own service.
218 R. Leser and A. Baca
Figure 30.4 Video feedback screen.
scenes of interest and has the benefit of saving about two thirds of total video
time by replaying only the net playing time as the start and end points of each
rally can be accessed directly. This economic aspect is most beneficial when
the system is used in situations where little time is available for analysis (e.g.
between two rounds of a tournament).
Practical training
The first step in practical training is a video-aided meeting of the coach with
the athlete. Again, the video feedback tool with the above-mentioned benefits
can be extremely helpful. However, in order to save time and because inten-
sive study of video content quickly causes fatigue of the central nervous
system, the trainer should not use all the video sequences used for the pre-
liminary analysis but rather selected sequences with comments by the trainer
(refer to Figure 30.4 for the comment function provided by the software).
For didactic reasons, the trainer and player should jointly work out the
analysis that is part of the second step and the consequent strategy (e.g. for
the match against the next opponent). Concrete instructions that might result
from the analysis of the examples given earlier might be, ‘Respond to long
services of your opponent as passively as you can because he usually scores
on active returns! Then try to place topspin strokes right in the centre!’
If there is enough time between completing the entire match analysis
and the next competition, the competition strategy and concrete tactical
instructions for the various game situations may be appropriately drilled with
practice and playing exercises during the training sessions.
Summary and outlook
The described workflow for match analysis can be seen as practice-proven
way to support table tennis players with helpful information about game
competitions. At the end of this process the results of the analysis are imple-
mented into the training, e.g. positioning fast topspin strokes rather to the
middle of the table than to the side.
It is expected that the method introduced here combining expert know-
ledge with a quick and feasible quantitative analyses by using an integrated
and efficient game and video analyses tool is very helpful to develop promis-
ing competition strategies – future use will show if this process turns out to be
useful.
References
Baca, A., Baron, R., Leser, R. and Kain, H. (2004). A process oriented approach for
match analysis in table tennis. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees,
J. Kahn and I. Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 214–219.
Dufour, W. (2000). Computer assisted scouting in soccer. In Science and Football
3 (edited by T. Reilly, J. Bangsbo and M. Hughes), London: E&FN Spon,
pp. 160–166.
Lames, M. and Hansen, G. (2001). Designing observational systems to support
top-level teams in game sports. International Journal of Performance Analysis, 1,
85–91.
Leser, R. (2006). Zum Einsatz eines computergestützten Spielbeobachtungssystems
im Leistungs-Faustball [The application of computer-generated observations of
elite fistball]. Sporttechnologie zwischen Theorie und Praxis IV (edited by K. Witte,
J. Edelmann-Nusser, A. Sabo and E. Moritz), Aachen: Shaker, pp. 209–214.
31 Quantitative analysis of
playing efficiency in squash
G. Vučković, B. Dežman, S. Kovačič and J. Perš
Introduction
A high-level performance in squash depends on many factors or elements
of the game, among which appropriate playing tactics are clearly of great
importance. It manifests itself in a variety of strokes executed by the player or
group of players in a match. Given the great number of different strokes and
their execution in various parts of the court, a player may select and use
different strokes in identical or similar circumstances or the same strokes in
different circumstances. The proper choice of stroke depends on the player’s
tactical assessment that leads to the choice of the most efficient stroke in the
given circumstances.
The scientific literature abounds with studies dealing with playing tactics in
squash. These studies have applied various data collection methodologies
based on the notation of different tactical indicators obtained by analyses of
video recordings. Hong et al. (1996a) and Hughes and Robertson (1998)
analysed the structure of strokes in the court divided into a small number of
equivalent segments. Similarly, Hong et al. (1996b) and Hughes (1985, 1986)
analysed the differences in patterns of play between players at different com-
petitive levels. A more detailed analysis of playing tactics used in squash was
provided by McGarry and Franks (1994). They used a stochastic Markov
model as a descriptor of empirical athletic behaviour and predictor of future
sport performance. McGarry and Franks (1995) used a slightly modified
stochastic model in their subsequent studies. They found that the player’s
tactics do not change in a match against the same opponent, which is not
true when playing against different opponents. The authors reported similar
findings even after they had changed their stroke tracking methodology by
taking into consideration the player’s previous stroke besides the stroke of
the opponent and by observing the backhand and forehand of each stroke
separately (McGarry and Franks, 1996a, 1996b).
In spite of the large number of investigated tactical indicators, such studies
bring up the question of how accurate is the determination of the stroke
location. Most often the problem concerning the accuracy of the result has
been resolved by establishing reliability (Wells et al., 2004) and the validity of
Quantitative analysis of playing efficiency 221
the measurement procedure (repeated determination of the stroke location)
which, however, should not be interpreted as measurement accuracy.
Moreover, the division of the court has failed to correspond to the playing
conditions and the ensuing bouncing of the ball off all court walls.
To avoid the above-mentioned deficiencies, our study took into consider-
ation specific playing conditions (bouncing of the ball off all walls), which is
why the court was divided into 29 segments. The efficiency of individual
playing tactics was established on the basis of the positioning of all strokes in
a two-dimensional space.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish stroke distribution and,
consequently, stroke efficiency as well as to investigate differences in the per-
centage of strokes executed in specific segments of the court by two groups of
players of different quality.
Methods
Data was collected during two competitions, the World Team Champion-
ship (Vienna, 2003) and the Slovenian National Championship (Ljubljana,
2003). Eleven matches were recorded in both competitions, and the players
played until they won their third game. In total, 42 games at the World
Team Championship and 44 at the Slovenian National Championship were
recorded. As an individual game is in itself a separate part of the match and
not related to other games in terms of time or result, all variables were exam-
ined at the level of a game and the results of both players (the winner and the
loser) were considered. The sample of variables included the number and
percentage of strokes in individual segments of the court.
Sixteen of the world’s top squash players played in the world champion-
ship and 14 top Slovenian squash players in the national championship.
All matches were recorded with a fixed SVHS video camera (JBL, UTC –
A6000H, Korea) with the frequency of capturing input pictures of 25 Hz.
The camera was mounted on the ceiling in the centre of the squash court and
its wide-angle lens (JBL, SCV 2982D, Korea) covered the entire court. The
wide-angle lens did not affect the measurements (Perš et al., 2002). The video-
recordings were digitized using the Video DC30+ video digitizer hardware
(Miro, Germany) with a resolution of 384 × 576 pixels at a data rate of
2 MB.s−1, while the processing was carried out at a resolution of 384 × 288
pixels. The second camera (Sony, DCR-TRV17E, Japan) was positioned out-
side the court, a few metres behind the back (glass) wall of the court. It was
used to measure the height of individual strokes (the distance between the
floor and the point of striking). The data obtained were entered manually in
the Sagit/Squash software.
The Sagit/squash tracking system (Vučković et al., 2004) was used to divide
the court into 29 segments (Figure 31.1) to determine the positions of the
strokes. Each segment represents one variable. The size of the segments cor-
responds to specific playing conditions (bouncing of the ball off the front,
222 G. Vučković, et al.
Figure 31.1 The court divided into 29 segments.
side and back walls of the court). Canonical discriminant analysis and a one-
way analysis of variance with the level of significance of P < 0.05 were
applied to establish differences between the groups of players of different
quality in terms of the percentage of strokes made in an individual segment.
Results
Table 31.1 shows the percentage of strokes executed by both groups of play-
ers by segment. To allow for better transparency, only those variables were
taken into account whose resulting values are normally distributed. All
strokes were taken into consideration, less the serves. With the initial stroke,
the point of striking is often in the central part of the court and therefore
recording these points (strokes) would certainly affect the results and/or the
number and percentage of strokes in those segments of the court which are
considered disputable from the point of view of playing quality and point to
playing imprecision.
The world’s top players executed the majority of strokes in segment 26,
followed by 27, 25, 4, 2, 3 and 28. In these segments the percentage of strokes
exceeded 4 percent. The top Slovenian players also executed the highest per-
centage of strokes in segment 26. More than 4 percent of all strokes were
executed in segments 27, 25, 19 and 28. In both groups of players, the highest
number of strokes was recorded in the back area of the court (segments 22,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29), namely top world players 52.7 per cent and top
national players 52.3 per cent of the total.
The values of the correlation coefficients show the highest discriminant
Table 31.1 Percentage of strokes executed by top world (W) players and top Slovenian
(N) players by court segment
Segment mean-W mean-N F (170) P (≤ 0.05)
1 3.05 2.40 5.854 0.017

2 4.68 3.59 7.379 0.007
3 4.48 2.87 29.572 0.000
4 5.02 2.94 37.269 0.000
9 2.36 2.35 0.001 0.971
12 1.71 2.12 4.289 0.040
14 3.12 3.05 0.052 0.820
16 2.90 2.42 4.103 0.044
19 3.45 5.31 26.622 0.000
22 1.40 3.29 52.331 0.000
24 2.71 3.84 19.915 0.000
25 5.95 7.26 11.490 0.001
26 25.20 19.42 36.192 0.000
27 11.12 10.10 2.392 0.124
28 4.02 4.91 6.571 0.011
29 2.26 3.46 17.736 0.000
Table 31.2 Results of discriminant analysis in terms of the percentage of strokes

executed by both groups of players in various segments of the court
Function 1
canonical correlation coefficient 0.756

% of explained variance 100.0
Wilks’ lambda 0.429
Chi-square 137.114
Degrees of freedom 16
Degree of significance < 0.001
power with the function of segments 3, 4, 19, 22, 24 and 26, while the negative
values seen in the variables 19, 22 and 24 show that the nationally ranked
players probably executed a higher percentage of strokes in the above seg-
ments of the court. The results of the analysis of variance (Tables 31.2 and
31.3) confirm this.
Discussion
Despite the fact that players from both groups executed the highest and an
almost identical percentage of strokes in the back area of the court, a detailed
analysis of the strokes in this part of the court reveals statistically significant
differences. The percentage of strokes executed by the world ranked players
was statistically significantly higher in segment 26 (P < 0.001) and that of the
Slovenian players in segments 22, 24, 25, 28 and 29 (P < 0.05, see Table 31.1).
Table 31.3 Standardized correlation coefficients
Segment SCC
1 0.161
2 0.181
3 0.361
4 0.406
9 0.002
12 −0.138
14 0.015
16 0.135
19 −0.343
22 −0.481
24 −0.297
25 −0.225
26 0.400
27 0.103
28 −0.170
29 −0.280
In terms of squash playing tactics, the strokes in the back area of the court
consist of the basic tactical principles of defensive play (McKenzie, 1994)
which could also be named basic play. In this part of the court the player
has the least possibilities of hitting a winning return. It is evident that both
groups of players are well aware of this fact, nevertheless, the world ranked
players play much more precisely and efficiently. Similar results were found
when reviewing patterns of play at different competitive levels (Hughes, 1986)
Such conclusions are underpinned by the statistically significant difference
(p < 0.05, see Table 31.1) between the strokes executed in segments 1, 3, 4 and
16 by both groups. Irrespective of the playing tactics the ball has to be hit as
closely as possible to the side wall to prevent the opponent from delivering a
simple return or even starting an offensive action. Moreover, these segments
(3, 4 and 16) are located in that part of the court where the players often
execute volleys. The higher percentage of strokes seen in these segments with
top players could thus indicate more offensive tactics. In the said (central)
part of the court, the nationally ranked players executed the highest percent-
age of strokes in segment 19. It constitutes a strategic position (T-position)
which the player wishes to take at the time the opponent strikes the ball,
which is very important from the point of view of playing performance
(Vučković et al., 2004). This group of players recorded a statistically signifi-
cantly higher percentage of strokes in segment 12 (P = 0.040), located in the
direct proximity of the abovementioned segment. All this manifests the very
inefficient employment of playing tactics by the nationally ranked players.
The more aggressive tactics of the top players is manifested in the values
for segment 2, which is located in the outermost front left part of the court.
The strokes in this segment are correlated with offensive strokes whose
purpose is either to deliver a winning return or force the opponent to make
a mistake. Clearly the higher percentage of strokes of world ranked players
(P <0.001) indicates their more offensive playing tactics, which is probably
due to their more precise and thus more efficient basic play.
Conclusions
It may be concluded from the results that the playing tactics of players of
different quality are quite similar. Both groups executed the highest percent-
age of those strokes whose aim was to hit the ball to the back area of the
court. Consequently, the highest percentage of strokes was executed in seg-
ments located in the back of the court. This points to the fact that players
from both groups are aware of the significance of the fundamental tactical
principles for achieving a high performance, namely that the ball has to be hit
as close as possible to the side wall and back corner of the court. Apparently
the precision of strokes and related application of individual tactical prin-
ciples and tactics are the main factors distinguishing the groups of players.
References
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Perš, J., Bon, M., Kovačič, S., Šibila, M. and Dežman, B. (2002). Observation and
analysis of large-scale human motion. Human Movement Science, 21, 295–311.
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time and frequency of players staying on the basic T-position in squash. In Science
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Vučković, G., Dežman, B., Erčulj, F., Kovačič, S. and Perš, J. (2005). Position error
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32 A comparison of whole match
and individual set data in order
to identify valid performance
indicators for real-time
feedback in men’s single
tennis matches
H. J. Choi, P.G. O’Donoghue and M.D. Hughes
Introduction
Within performance analysis of sport, discriminations between winning and
losing teams have been used to identify the key performance indicators in
particular sports such as football (Choi et al., 2006a), badminton (Blomqvist
et al., 1998; Hong and Tong, 2000) and basketball (Tina, 1998; Evangelos
et al., 2005; Tavares and Gomes, 2003). The selection of the most valid per-
formance indicators is also important when performance analysis is used
within coaching contexts. Performance indicators in the field of performance
analysis of sport (Hughes and Bartlett, 2002) are valid elements that explain
the performances of successful performers within matches. Outcome indica-
tors (Hughes and Bartlett, 2002) are rationally useful for coaches to evaluate
performances and to plan and conduct further training for athletes.
In recent years, performance indicators have been selected and utilized in
the analysis of sports performances in order to enhance the performance of
individuals and teams (Hughes and Franks, 2004). Performance indicators
have traditionally been derived from the data for whole matches, which
include periods of matches where successful teams may have been performing
worse than unsuccessful teams (Choi et al., 2006b). The fact that winners do
not perform better than losers in all subsections of matches means that some
valid performance indicators will not be recognized when using whole match
data to determine the factors distinguishing between winning and losing per-
formances. In tennis, in particular, performance within the whole match
would not always be reflected within each set of the match.
Therefore, the consideration of valid performance indicators needs to use
smaller separated time scales, such as sets in tennis, in order to discriminate
winning and losing performances. The identification of valid performance
indictors within the valid sets of data is an important step in establishing the
construct validity of performance indicators. The purpose of this study was
to determine use both whole match data as well as match section data to
228 H. J. Choi, P.G. O’Donoghue and M.D. Hughes
establish the performance indicators that most discriminated between win-
ning and losing performers.
Methods
The results of tennis matches in the men’s singles event of the 2005 Wimbledon
Tennis championship were used within the current investigation. There
were 127 matches in total, but the data included in this study was from
126 matches because one match was missing from the official web site of
Wimbledon Tennis championship (IBM Corp., 2005). Two data sets were
produced from the statistics reported on the official tournament website; one
based on whole match performances and the other based on individual set
performances. SPSS version 12.0 was used to perform statistical tests on the
data. The following performance indicators were recorded for winning and
losing performers within each match and within each set of the 126 matches
included in the current investigation.
1 Total numbers of participations within the Wimbledon tennis

championship
2 World ranking
3 per cent of 1st serves that were in
4 Number of aces
5 Number of double faults
6 Number of unforced errors
7 per cent of points won when 1st serve was in
8 per cent of points won when relying on a 2nd serve
9 Number of winners played
10 Number of points played when receiving serve
11 Number of break points played
12 per cent of points where the net was approached.
A series of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests were used to compare winning and
losing performers within the matches of the whole match data and within the
sets of the individual set data.
Results
Within the 126 matches, there were 446 individual sets of tennis. Table 32.1
summarizes the performances of the match winners within each data set.
There were a considerable number of individual sets in which the match
winners were not successful.
All of the performance indicators were significantly different between the
winning and losing performances in both data sets except for the per cent of
successful first serves within the whole match data set (z = −0.568, P > 0.05).
The level of significance of the differences found between winning and
Performance indicators for real-time feedback 229
Table 32.1 Summary of the winning and losing performances
Whole match data Individual set data
Winning Losing Winning Losing

performances performances performances performances
Won 126 0 288 158

Lost 0 126 158 288
Total 126 126 446 446
Table 32.2 The results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test
Whole data Individual Data
Z value P Z value P
Total numbers of participations −1.67906a 0.09 −2.18722a 0.03

World ranks of players −4.88121a <0.01 −5.76249a <0.01
% of 1st serves in −0.56816 0.57 −2.77023a 0.01
Aces −5.38446a <0.01 −7.818a <0.01
Double faults −2.18558a 0.03 −4.33034a <0.01
Unforced errors −4.37713a <0.01 −8.21245a <0.01
%won on 1st serve −8.5329a <0.01 −14.1653a <0.01
%won on 2nd serve −7.38885a <0.01 −12.0444a <0.01
Winners −6.73284a <0.01 −11.1387a <0.01
Received points −9.39056a <0.01 −16.4804a <0.01
Break points −6.0432a <0.01 −12.6664a <0.01
% of net approaches −5.52837a <0.01 −7.45767a <0.01
Note: a Significant difference found
losing performers was greater in the individual set data than in the whole
match data for all performance indicators.
Discussion
Significant differences between the winning and losing performances revealed
by the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests have often been used in order to deter-
mine the key performance indicators to be used (Choi, 2004; Choi et al.,
2006b; Choi et al., 2006c; O’Donoghue, 1998). The current investigation has
used the same approach except with individual set data. Although most of
the performance indicators significantly distinguish winning and losing per-
formances, it is not possible to collect all performance indicators during real
time match analysis. Therefore, it is important to recognize the subset of key
performance indicators (Tina, 1998; Hughes and Bartlett, 2002). The use of
individual set data provides a different priority order of the performance
230 H. J. Choi, P.G. O’Donoghue and M.D. Hughes
indicators than if whole match data was used; for instance the most dis-
criminating indicator in the individual set data was the percentage of points
won on second serve which was different to break points which was the third
most important indicator according to the whole match data. This shows
that using whole match data can provide a distorted picture of the relative
importance of performance indicators. It has been suggested that statistical
analysis can prioritize performance indicators when only a few can be
incorporated into a real-time system (Choi et al., 2006b; Choi et al., 2006c). It
is recommended that such decisions are not based on whole match data that
conceal winning performances within match sub-sections.
The approach recommended in the current research should be used along
with other approaches to improving the quality of performance indicators.
Such an approach is the dimensionalizing of performance indicators; for
example the productivity of possessions of different numbers of passes in
soccer is best determined by relating the number of opportunities for each
type of possession to the total number those possessions that occur. The
current research used broad sub-sections of tennis matches (sets), but further
research should look at finer sequences of play in order to be fully representa-
tive of successful passages of play. The selection of key performance indicators
(Choi et al., 2006b), in addition, has already emphasized the application of
those key performance indicators within real-time analysis (Choi et al., 2006b).
This supports real-time feedback within a match due to the feasibility of
gathering data for a small but highly valid subset of performance indicators.
Conclusions
The individual set data reveals a greater discrimination between winning and
losing performances for each performance indicator than the whole match
data. The order of importance of the performance indicators is also different
when using individual set data meaning that different decisions will be made
about the most valid performance indicators when using individual set data.
References
Blomqvist, M., Luhtanen, P. and Laakso, L. (1998). Validation of a notational analy-
sis system in badminton. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 35, 137–150.
Choi, H.J. (2004). A study of formations and roles of gender between winning and
losing team in an international level of mixed double badmintons. MSc. Disserta-
tion, Cardiff: University of Wales Institute.
Choi, H.J., Kim, J.H. and Lee, W.H. (2004). The analysing system of broadcasting in
real time. In Performance Analysis of Sport VI (edited by P. O’Donoghue and M.D.
Hughes), Cardiff: Centre for Performance Analysis, UWIC, pp. 245–252.
Choi, H.J., Kim, J.H., Kim, J.H., Hong, S.J. and Hughes, M. (2006a). A study of valid
contents for an evaluation of team performance in Soccer. In Performance Analysis
of Sport 7 (edited by H. Dancs, M. Hughes, and P.G. O’Donoghue), Cardiff: CPA,
UWIC, pp. 90–97
Performance indicators for real-time feedback 231
Choi, H.J., O’Donoghue, P. and Hughes, M. (2006b). A study of team performance
indicators by separated time scale using a real-time analysis techniques within
English national basketball league. In Performance Analysis of Sport 7 (edited
by H. Dancs, M. Hughes, and P.G. O’Donoghue), Cardiff: CPA, UWIC,
pp. 125–128.
Choi, H.J., Reed, D., O’Donoghue, P. and Hughes, M. (2006c). The valid numbers of
performance indicators for real-time analysis using prediction models within men
singles in 2005 Wimbledon Tennis Championship. In Performance Analysis of
Sport 7 (edited by H. Dancs, M. Hughes, and P.G. O’Donoghue), Cardiff: CPA,
UWIC, pp. 207–213.
Evangelos, T., Alexandros, K. and Nikolaos, A. (2005). Analysis of fast breaks in
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ance analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 739–754.
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London: Routledge.
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Official site by IBM. http://www.wimbledon.org (last accessed 4 April 2008).
O’Donoghue, P. (1998). Notational analysis of rallies in European club champion-
ship badminton. In Notational Analysis of Sport IV (edited by M. Hughes and
F. Tavares), Portugal: Centre for Team Sports Studies, University of Porto,
pp. 225–228.
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winnings. In Notational Analysis of Sport IV (edited by M. Hughes and F. Tavares),
Portugal: University of Porto, pp. 123–126.
33 Variability in men’s singles
tennis strategy at the US Open
P.G. O’Donoghue
Introduction
Variables used in performance analysis have some key differences to those
used in other sports science disciplines. In kinanthropometry for example,
variables such as height, body mass and even fitness test performances
are relatively stable with changes occurring only over long-term periods.
Variables used in performance analysis, on the other hand can vary consider-
ably from match to match as well as within the same match (O’Donoghue,
2004). The main source of variability in performance is opposition effects
(McGarry and Franks, 1994), with other sources of variability in perform-
ance including scoreline effects within games (Shaw and O’Donoghue, 2004)
and match venue (Devlin et al., 2004). Further evidence of match to match
variability was provided by an exercise that compared independent samples
of tennis players from different regions (Wells et al., 2004). When each play-
er’s performance was represented by a single match, there was much greater
within sample variance than when two, three, four or five matches were used
to derive a typical performance for each player.
It is worth considering the differences between performance indicators
(Hughes and Bartlett, 2002) in sports performance and variables. All per-
formance indicators are variables but not all variables are performance indi-
cators. In other disciplines such as computer science, performance indicators
are individual raw measurements or metrics derived from combinations of
raw measurements (Jain, 1991) that have the following metric properties
(Bevan et al., 1991):
1 There is an objective measurement procedure.

2 The measure is a valid of the aspect of performance of interest.
3 There must be a means of interpreting the values made using the
measurement.
These properties, together with reliability, are essential for a sports perfor-
mance variable to be considered a performance indicator. Even when perfor-
mance indicators possess these properties, values are often unrepresentative
Variability in men’s singles tennis strategy 233
of typical player or team performances. Sometimes this is not an issue as the
purpose of a performance analysis exercise might be to report on an indi-
vidual performance. However, for scientific purposes unrepresentative data
can effect the conclusion of a study (Wells et al., 2004). The purpose of the
current paper is to explore the nature of variability in sports performance.
The example performance indicator used is the percentage of points where
a player goes to the net. The scope of the paper will be restricted to men’s
singles tennis at the US Open between 2002 and 2005 inclusive.
Methods
Matches
The percentage of points where a player went to the net was used as an
indicator of strategy within the current study. Data from 319 US Open men’s
singles matches played between 2002 and 2005 inclusive were gathered from
the match statistics pages of the official tournament website (www.usopen.org,
accessed on 9/9/2002, 8/9/2003, 13/9/2004, 12/9/2005) allowing the percentage
of points that each player went to the net within each match included to be
determined. Matches were included if they were completed without players
withdrawing or being disqualified and if the number of net points was included
in the match statistics provided on the official tournament website. This
provided a total of 638 values for 171 different players.
Reliability
The 2002 US Open men’s singles final between Pete Sampras and Andre
Agassi was observed by the author with points being recorded as net points
where a player crossed the service box line and there was at least one more
shot played during the rally. The author’s totals of 105 net points for Pete
Sampras and 13 for Andre Agassi agreed with the totals reported for in
the match statistics on the official tournament internet site. There was also
agreement that the match contained 277 points.
Data processing
The frequency of net points played by the winning and losing players and the
total number of points played in the match was recorded for each match
allowing the percentage of net points to be determined for the winning and
losing players within the match. These 638 values from the 319 matches did
not come from 638 different players but from 171 individuals. Therefore, the
values recorded were arranged into sets for the 171 individual players. A
record summarizing the percentage of net points was produced for each
player. This record consisted of the player name, the number of matches he
234 P.G. O’Donoghue
played in within the data set, the mean percentage of net points played and
the standard deviation of net points played.
Analysis of variability
Intra-player variability was evaluated using the sets of values for the four
players who played more than 15 matches within the data set. Table 33.1
shows that in each case the player’s values were normally distributed (−1.96 <
zSkew < +1.96; −1.96 < zKurt < +1.96). The mean and standard deviation for
the percentage of points where each player went to the net was determined
for these players.
Inter-player variability was evaluated using the mean values recorded for
each of the 171 players in the data set. The distribution of the player mean for
percentage of net points was positively skewed (zSkew = +7.31) and lepokurtic
(zKurt = +3.91). However, the distribution of the player mean for the natural
logarithm of the percentage of net points was normal (zSkew = +0.64, zKurt =
+0.38).
Pearson’s r was used to explore if there was any association between vari-
ous derivatives of the mean and standard deviation for players’ percentage
net points. This was done using the data for those 42 players who had played
five or more matches within the data set. The coefficient of determination,
r2, indicated the proportion of the standard deviation that was explained by
any derivative of the mean. Regression analysis was then done to model the
standard deviation in terms of the mean.
Results
The mean value for percentage net points for the 171 players was determined
and was found to be positively skewed (15.95±9.17 per cent, zSkew = +7.31,
zKurt = +3.91). Figure 33.1 illustrates the leptokurtic nature of the variable
as well as the positive skew that exists. However, the natural logarithm
of player mean values was found to be normally distributed (2.62±0.54, zSkew
= +0.64, zKurt = +0.38).
The mean and standard deviation (SD) of the percentage of points a
player went to the net was determined for the 42 players who were involved in
Table 33.1 Skewness and kurtosis of percentage net points for the
four players who played in more than 15 matches
Player Matches zSkew zKurt
Andre Agassi 24 +0.05 +0.17

Roger Federrer 19 +0.23 −1.74
Leyton Hewitt 23 +0.73 −0.59
Andy Roddick 18 +0.72 −0.19
Figure 33.1 Distribution of percentage net points for different players.
Figure 33.2 Relationship between the mean and SD for percentage net points.
five or more matches within the data set. A relationship was found between
the natural logarithm of the mean and the standard deviation (SD = −3.93 +
3.50 ln(Mean), r2 = 0.487) with no relationship between ln(Mean) and
residual values (r = 0.000) and the residuals being normally distributed
(0.00±1.66, zSkew = +1.25, zKurt = −0.30). Figure 33.2 shows the relationship
between the mean and SD. Thirty nine of these 42 players had a lower intra-
player SD than the inter-player SD of 9.17 per cent. The data for the
four players who played 15 or more matches of the data set is summarized in
Table 33.2.
Table 33.2 Percentage of points where four players went to the net during a series of
men’s singles matches at the US Open between 2002 and 2005 inclusive
Player Matches Mean Standard Deviation
Andre Agassi 24 6.87 2.36

Roger Federrer 19 18.89 6.42
Leyton Hewitt 23 11.53 4.78
Andy Roddick 18 11.45 4.48

The current investigation has provided evidence that there is less intra-player
variability for the percentage of net points in men’s singles tennis at the US
Open players than inter-player variability. This is not the case for all perform-
ance indicators in all sports, as O’Donoghue (2004) provided examples of one
soccer player (David Beckham) whose work rate varied between matches
more than that of the player means between different midfielders and another
soccer player (Michael Owen) whose variability in work rate within the same
match was comparable with the variability in player mean work rate between
different players. However, the inter- and intra-player variability for this
indicator of player strategy is distributed in fundamentally different ways.
Match to match variability within individual players is normally distributed
in contrast to the skewed distribution between different players. This infor-
mation should be taken into account when evaluating player performances
from individual matches.
Knowledge of inter-player and intra-player distributions for the values of
performance indicators allow realistic synthetic data to be produced. There
are legitimate purposes of synthesizing data, especially where investigations
are testing profiling techniques (O’Donoghue and Ponting, 2005). Such
investigations purposely and openly use synthetic data because the volume
of data required cannot feasibly be collected though observational tech-
niques or even from internet sources. A performance indicator may require
over 30 matches to stabilize (Hughes et al., 2001) but a tennis player will play
a maximum of seven singles matches at a given Grand Slam tournament each
year. The analysis undertaken of inter-player and intra-player variability in
percentage net points has allowed a procedure for synthesizing realistic data
to be devised. The steps of the procedure are described as follows:
1 Randomly determine the natural logarithm for the player’s mean value.
This is done by first generating a random probability (between 0 and
1) and looking up the associated z-score from the standard normal
distribution. Second, the ln(mean value) value is calculated as being
2.62 + 0.54 z.
2 The exponential of ln(mean value) will be the player’s mean value for
percentage net points. The first two steps need to be repeated if a value of
less than 0 per cent or greater than 100 per cent is produced.
3 The expected SD for the player’s value will be determined from the
regression equation; SD = −3.93 + 3.50 ln(mean value).
4 The actual SD for the player will be synthesized by determining a ran-
dom residual value and adding this to the expected SD. First, a random
probability (between 0 and 1) is produced and the associated z-score is
looked up from the standard normal distribution. Second, the residual
is determined as being 1.66 z. Third, the actual SD will be the sum of the
expected SD and the residual. This step needs to be repeated if a SD of
less than 0 per cent is produced.
5 A random value for percentage net points can now be synthesized for an
individual match for the synthetic player. First, a random probability
(between 0 and 1) is produced and then the associated z-score from the
standard normal distribution is used; individual performance value =
player’s mean value + z × player’s SD. This step needs to be repeated if a
value of less than 0 per cent or greater than 100 per cent is produced.
There are a number of different studies that can be undertaken using data
that can be synthesized using the kind of procedure described here. First, the
effect of limited reliability on the results of investigations can be determined.
Reliability is a critically important issue in performance analysis (Hughes
et al., 2004). This is not only the case in scientific research but also in coach-
ing contexts where player, coach and team decisions need to be supported by
reliable data (O’Donoghue and Longville, 2004). The additional variability
due to measurement error may mean that a significant difference is produced.
Therefore, any significant result found in the presence of measurement error
is one in which there can be confidence. Synthetic data can be used to repre-
sent true values for athletes as well as measured values that synthesize the
effect of measurement error. The results of inferential statistical procedures
can be compared when applied to synthesized true and synthesized measured
values. Future investigations should analyse the impact of measurement error
in independent sample comparisons, related sample comparisons and cor-
relation studies. A second area for future research is the effect of using
unrepresentative data. Wells et al. (2004) used real performance data to show
the impact of using individual and multiple match data to derive values for
players within a study. Using synthetic data would allow greater investigation
of this problem. For different types of performance indicator it would be
useful to understand how many matches are required to produce a typical
profile for a player. The combined effects of limited reliability of measurement
and unrepresentative data can also be investigated using synthetic data.
In conclusion, player strategy in tennis can be indicated by the percentage
of points where they go to the net. The value for this performance indicator is
influenced by the player’s typical strategy but also by individual match effects
especially opposition effects. The amount of between-player variability is
greater than within-player variability for most players. The distribution of
this performance indicator is normal for an individual player’s performances
but is not normal between different players.
References
Bevan, N., Kirakowski, J. and Maissel, J. (1991). What is usability? In Human Aspects
in Computing: Design and use of Interactive Systems with Terminals (edited by
H.-J. Bullinger), Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 651–654.
Devlin, G., Brennan, D.A. and O’Donoghue, P.G. (2004). Time–motion analysis of
work-rate during home and away matches in collegiate basketball. In Performance
Analysis of Sport 6 (edited by P.G. O’Donoghue and M.D. Hughes), Cardiff: CPA,
UWIC, pp. 174–178.
Hughes, M. and Bartlett, R. (2002). The use of performance indicators in performance
analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 739–754.
Hughes, M., Evans, S. and Wells, J. (2001). Establishing normative profiles in per-
formance analysis. International Journal of Performance Analysis of Sport (e), 1,
4–27.
Hughes, M., Cooper, S.M. and Nevill, A. (2004). Analysis of notation data: reliability.
In Notational Analysis of sport, 2nd edn (edited by M. Hughes and I.M. Franks),
London: Routledge, pp. 189–204.
Jain, R. (1991). The Art of Computer Systems Performance Analysis: Techniques for
Experimental Design, Measurement, Simulation and Modelling, New York: Wiley.
McGarry and Franks, I.M. (1994). A stochastic approach to predicting competition
squash match-play. Journal of Sports Sciences, 12, 573–584.
O’Donoghue, P.G. (2004). Sources of variability in time–motion data; measurement
error and within player variability in work-rate. International Journal of Perform-
ance Analysis of Sport(e), 4(2), 42–49.
O’Donoghue, P.G. and Longville, J. (2004). Reliability testing and the use of statistics
in performance analysis support: a case study from an international netball tour-
nament. In Performance Analysis of Sport 6 (edited by P.G. O’Donoghue and
M.D. Hughes), Cardiff: CPA, UWIC, pp. 1–7.
O’Donoghue, P.G. and Ponting, R. (2005). Equations for the number of matches
required for stable performance profiles. International Journal of Computer Science
in Sport(e), 4(2), 48–55.
Shaw, J. and O’Donoghue, P.G. (2004). The effects of scoreline on work-rate in
amateur soccer. In Performance Analysis of Sport 6 (edited by P.G. O’Donoghue
and M.D. Hughes), Cardiff: CPA, UWIC, pp. 84–91.
Wells, J., O’Donoghue, P.G. and Hughes, M.D. (2004). The need to use representative
player data from multiple matches in performance analysis. In Performance Analysis
of Sport 6 (edited by P.G. O’Donoghue and M.D. Hughes), Cardiff: CPA,
UWIC, pp. 241–244.
34 Time analysis of three decades
of men’s singles at Wimbledon
H. Takahashi, T. Wada, A. Maeda, M. Kodama,
H. Nishizono and H. Kurata
Introduction
Tactics are an important factor in racket sports. The main characteristics of
racket sports are continuous play and changing situations. Match analysis
contributes to tactical coaching. Hughes (1994) outlined one of the purposes
of notation as ‘tactical evaluation’. Franks et al. (1983) also showed that
a computerized system can be used for the purpose of gaining immediate
feedback and the development of a database. A computerized system pro-
vides benefits for tactical coaching. Although computerized systems have
been developed by some researchers (Kudo, 1995; O’Donoghue and Ingram,
2001), these systems are not in common use.
The authors developed a new computerized scorebook for tennis. The
characteristic of the scorebook was in getting a time factor immediately. The
scorebook can analyse not only the frequency of shots and classifications
of results but also time duration of playing, time duration of out-of-play and
the time duration of each shot.
Historical comparison of match analysis is important on tactical coach-
ing. There is some research about match analysis. The tactical difference
among court surfaces were reported by O’Donoghue and Ingram (2001) and
O’Donoghue and Liddle (1998). These are not historical researches. A
historical comparison of physical factor was reported by Kovacs (2004).
The purpose of this study was to clarify the historical characteristics of
playing time in tennis using a computerized scorebook for tennis.
Methods
Data collection
Data were collected from Wimbledon finals held in 1980, 1981, 1993, 1994,
2004 and 2005. All of the players were ranked number one or two in world
ranking at that time. Those matches were defined as a group of 80s (1980 and
1981), 90s (1993 and 1994) and 00s (2004 and 2005). The number of points
of all matches was 1,593.
240 H. Takahashi, et al.
Computerized scorebook for tennis
The computerized scorebook for tennis was developed by the authors. It
records a time factor using the internal computer clock in 1/100s intervals.
The scorebook records time data when the scorer clicks a shot button at
the same time as a player contacts the ball. Time data can clarify the timing
of tennis such as time duration per point, time duration of shots and time
duration between points. The accuracy of time duration of shots was verified
by Takahashi et al. (2006). The error between the data from the scorebook
and the data from the recording of high-speed video was verified by a one-
sample t-test. The null hypothesis was rejected at the 95 per cent limits
of agreement. The average error was 0.003 ± 0.05 s. In order to record the
data accurately the scorer needs to be well trained in its operation and to
be able to see the match clearly.
Data analysis
The scorebook was used for data collection. The scorer recruited for this
study was a member of the developing team of the scorebook and adequately
trained on scorebook operation. The matches were recorded broadcasts. The
scorer could see the matches clearly.
Timing data were obtained from the scorebook: time duration per point,
rally numbers per point, time duration of service, time duration of ground
stroke and time between points. Time duration per point was defined as the
time between the impact of service and the impact of the last shot. Rally
numbers per point were defined as shot numbers from the service to last
shot of point. Service aces were defined as rallies of one shot. The faults of
service were defined as rallies of zero shots and was excluded from the analy-
sis. Time duration of service was defined as the difference between the clock
time of return of service and the time of service. Time duration of ground
strokes was defined as the difference between the time of shot by one player
and another. This was only calculated when both players played ground
strokes. Time between points was defined as the difference between the time
of first service and the time of last shot of previous point. The time of
changing ends was excluded from the analysis.
Timing data were compared by groups of the matches. An ANOVA test
was used to compare those timing data between groups of the matches, and
Tukey’s HSD test was used for pair-wise comparisons. The limitation of this
study was that the data came from three groups of two matches. It was not
independent as required by the ANOVA test.
Time analysis of three decades of men’s singles 241
Results
Time duration per point

A comparison of time duration per point among match groups is shown in
Figure 34.1. The numbers shown in the columns are the point numbers
(or shot numbers) of the groups. This applies to all the figures. Significant
differences existed between 00s and other groups. Time duration per point
was longest in the 00s.
Figure 34.1 A comparison of time duration per point among match groups.
Note: **p<0.01
Figure 34.2 A comparison of rally length per point among match groups.
Note: **p<0.01
Rally length per point
A comparison of rally length per point among match groups is shown in
Figure 34.2. Significant differences existed among all match groups. Rally
length per point was longest in the 00s and shortest in the 90s.
Time duration of service

A comparison of time duration of first service among match groups is
shown in Figure 34.3. Significant differences existed between the 80s and
other groups. Time duration of first service was longest in the 80s.
A comparison of time duration of second service among match groups
is shown in Figure 34.4. Significant differences existed among all match
groups. Time duration of second service was longest in the 80s and shortest in
the 90s.
Time duration of ground strokes

A comparison of time duration of ground strokes among match groups is
shown in Figure 34.5. Significant differences existed between the 00s and
other groups. Time duration of ground stroke was shortest in the 00s.
Time between points

A comparison of time between points among match groups is shown in
Figure 34.6. Significant differences existed between all match groups. Time
between points was longest in the 90s and shortest in the 00s.
Figure 34.3 A comparison of time duration of first service among match groups.
Note: **p<0.01
Figure 34.4 A comparison of time duration of second service among match

groups.
Note: **p<0.01
Figure 34.5 A comparison of time duration of ground stroke among match

groups.
Note: **p<0.01
Discussion
Time duration and rally numbers per point

Time duration and rally numbers per point was longest in the 00s. Rally
numbers became longer, time duration per point became longer. Several
reports showed time duration per point at Wimbledon. O’Donoghue and
Liddle (1998) reported that time duration per point was 3.69 ± 2.54 s in the
1996 tournament. O’Donoghue and Ingram (2001) reported that time dur-
ation per point was 4.3 ± 1.6 s in the 1997 and 1998 tournaments. In this
Figure 34.6 A comparison of time between points among match groups.

Note: **p<0.01
study, it was 2.70 ± 3.22 s in the 90s and 3.99 ± 4.00 s in the 00s. Time
duration per point became longer from the middle of the 1990s.
Time duration and rally numbers per point on grass courts were shorter
than other court surfaces (O’Donoghue and Ingram, 2001). However, these
indicators became longer in the 00s. The rule about the ball was changed by
International Tennis Federation (ITF) in 2002. It regulated that the type 3
ball, high bouncing and slower, was used on grass courts. It influenced the
results of time duration and rally numbers per point in the 00s.
Time duration of service and ground stroke

Time duration of the first service was shorter in the 90s and the 00s than
in the 80s. Time duration of the second service was shortest in the 90s
and longest in the 80s. It is affected by the innovation of rackets and also
changing ball regulations.
In the matches of the 90s, the rate of service winner was 16.5 per cent and
rally numbers per point was shorter than in the 80s. It confirmed players
selected ‘serve-and-volley’ in the 90s. Players needed a strong service for
‘serve-and-volley’. On the other hand, time duration of the first service was
not significantly different between the 90s and the 00s. However, the rate of
service winner was decreased in the 00s (9.3 per cent). It is considered that the
players’ ability of service return was improved in the 00s. This influenced the
decrease of ‘serve-and-volley’ in the 00s.
Time duration of ground stroke was shortest in the 00s. Rally numbers per
point were also highest in the 00s. Players needed effective baseline-play in the
00s. It is considered that ball speed of ground stroke became faster and
players played ground strokes inside the baseline in the 00s. These are affect-
ing both point-winning and time duration.
Time duration of shot was influenced by the ball speed, direction of
shots and hitting position. So, time duration of shot evaluates the tactical
validation of each shot. It is considered a new approach for evaluating
player’s performance.
Time between points

Time between points was shortest in the 00s. The rule about continuous play
had changed several times. It was determined in 1991 that the time between
points should not at any time exceed 25 s. Furthermore, it was changed to
20 s in 1994. Results showed that players obeyed the rule about time between
points. In the matches of 00s, time duration and rally numbers per point
were longest and time between points was shortest. This indicates that play-
ers’ physical load becomes higher. Players used the maximum time interval
between points. It is considered that players attempt to recover physical
strength during interval time.
In the 00s, results showed that many points took intervals over 20 s. This
was influenced by the definition of time between points. In this study, time
between points was defined as the difference between the time of first service
and the time of last shot of previous point. On the other hand, the rules of
tennis define that the ball is in play from the moment the server hits the
ball and until the point is decided. The difference between these definitions
affected the results of this study.
Conclusions
Over the years, time factors changed historically in the Wimbledon finals.
From 80s to 00s, time duration per point became longer, time duration of
shot became shorter and time between points became shorter. Players have
needed increased physical strength in recent years.
A computerized scorebook for tennis is useful for analysing time factors.
In particular, the time duration of shots evaluates the tactical importance
of each shot. This is considered a new approach for evaluating player’s
performance.
References
Franks, I. M., Goodman, D. and Miller, G. (1983). Analysis of performance: qualita-
tive or quantitative. Science Periodical on Research and Technology in Sport,
March, 1–8.
Hughes, M. (1994). Computerised notation of racket sports. In Science and Racket
Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes, and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon,
pp. 249–256.
Kovacs, M. (2004). A comparison of work/rest intervals in men’s professional tennis.
Medicine and Science in Tennis, 9, 10–11.
Kudo, T. (1995). Development of score system for singles match: Tean.exe (Tennis
analyzer for singles). In Proceedings of the First Asian Congress of Tennis Science,
pp. 7.
O’Donoghue, P. and Ingram, B. (2001). A notational analysis of elite tennis strategy.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 107–115.
O’Donoghue, P. and Liddle, D. (1998). A notational analysis of time factors of elite
men’s and ladies’ singles tennis on clay and grass surfaces. In Science and Racket
Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN
Spon, pp. 241–246.
Takahashi, H., Wada, T., Maeda, A., Kodama, M., Nishizono, H. and Kurata, H.
(2006) The relationship between court surface and tactics in tennis using a com-
puterized scorebook for tennis. In Proceedings of World Congress of Performance
Analysis, pp. 595–603.
Part 5
Pedagogy, sociology and
coach education in
racket sports
35 New perspectives and research
applications in tennis
M. Crespo
Introduction
Tennis is a sport played by more than 60 million people worldwide in more
than 200 countries. It is one of the top individual sports and racket sports and
has a long tradition as international and Olympic sport (ITF, 2006).
Sport science based research focusing on tennis has been discussed previ-
ously (Crespo, 2004) and it has stated that research in tennis is an indispens-
able element in the quest to link tennis and sport sciences. The main goal of
this research process is clear: to increase our scientific knowledge and to
consequently increase the number of people playing tennis and the standard
of tennis players. Below are some of the more significant areas of tennis
research made during recent years that have attempted to achieve this.
In tennis medicine they are: overuse injuries; injury pathology at Grand
Slams and in the men’s and women’s professional tennis circuits; ACL treat-
ments; medical issues of junior tennis players; specific medical issues of
female tennis players; physical conditioning and its role in injury prevention;
isokinetic profile testing; shoulder rotator cuff issues; tennis elbow; injuries
related to surfaces and equipment; stress fractures in tennis.
In tennis physiology they are: energetic characteristics of singles tennis;
physiological and kineanthropometric indicators of junior performance; fluid
ingestion; physiology of on-court drills; physiological adaptations and energy
metabolism during tennis play; bone content, growth and recovery in tennis
players; specific fitness testing for tennis players.
In tennis biomechanics they are: techniques and footwork in all strokes;
correctional methods; observational patterns; muscular activity during play;
kinematic variability during different strokes, kinematic characteristics of
players with and without tennis elbow; forces in the hand at impact; factors
affecting the physical load of strokes; power development in strokes; wrist
kinematics in beginners and advanced players; kinematic adaptations in the
coordination of different strokes.
In tennis psychology they are: personality; goal-setting, visualization, rou-
tines, anxiety and self-confidence; pychological training programmes, self-
efficacy, self-talk; psychological implications for retired players; coach-player
250 M. Crespo
compatibility, psychological momentum during match-play; leadership; tennis
parents; players’ and coaches’ ‘burn out’.
In tennis motor control and learning they are: differences between begin-
ner and advanced players; visual search strategies; expertise; vision train-
ing; cognitive strategies; information processing in tennis; effect of practice
organization.
In tennis equipment they are: vibration and rebound characteristics of
conventional and oversized rackets; racket flexibility and string tension and
its influence on ball bounce characteristics; selection criteria of tennis rackets,
optimal racket performance; effects of grip models in impact precision; effect
of oversized ball on serve performance; tennis surfaces and shoe
characteristics.
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the role of tennis research to the
game of tennis and to provide some perspectives of where future research
should be directed in order to best support tennis at all levels.
Why perform tennis research?

Several reasons have been given to justify the need for performing sport
science research in tennis. The need for a better understanding of the game
that will benefit players and the image of tennis by the application of the
most updated research methods and technologies is at the forefront (Woods,
1995).
The importance of having sport science at the core of the programmes and
policies of tennis organizations by effectively creating links between tennis
and science to further motivate research and stimulate researchers has been
stressed. Facilitating access to the most up-to-date information on sport sci-
ences and tennis to all those involved is also considered important (Crespo,
2004).
Crespo et al. (2000) commented on how scientific research can result in new
and effective plans, models and training systems that contribute to increased
performance, improved injury prevention and safe practice of the game. They
suggested that prevention and avoidance of drop-out and burn-out through
the facilitation of fun, enjoyable and lifetime experiences will help the overall
improvement of the game.
Some research perspectives in tennis

Future research perspectives in tennis will face a series of important chal-
lenges such as the study of key topics of interest for all those involved in the
game and the viability of its application to daily practice and training in
competitive, developmental methodological and other contexts of the game
(Woods, 1995).
Research in tennis should apply the most modern scientific methods
and technologies to study the game with the aim of gathering a broader
New perspectives and research applications 251
understanding of the different processes and phenomena that define our
sport. Tennis research and development are, thus, closely related (Elliott
et al., 2003). A crucial aspect in the progress of our game is the use of the
scientific knowledge acquired through research. This can be used to propose
the use and application of evidence based models, plans and training sys-
tems that will help player and coach development at all stages of the game.
It would also be able to guide the policies and programmes of all tennis
organizations worldwide (Reid et al., 2003).
Facilitating access to the most up-to-date information on sport sciences
applied to tennis for all those involved in tennis coaching and teaching is an
all-important aspect of coaches’ education and research practice. It helps to
share best practice and motivate tennis research and application in the differ-
ent areas of sport sciences applied to the game (Crespo et al., 2001).
After a comprehensive analysis of the different research conducted in ten-
nis it is possible to identify several important areas in which efforts should be
focused to increase our understanding of the characteristics and needs of
the game.
Table 35.1 summarizes some of the sport science areas and the specific
issues in each of them that would be relevant to tennis.
Table 35.1 Research areas suggested for scientific research in tennis
Sport Science Advancements, trends and research areas to study
Medicine • Injury prevention

• Role and training of vision in tennis
• Improvements in speeding up the rehabilitation process
• Less invasive surgery methods
• Application of scientific knowledge to clinical knowledge
• Increased relevance of preventive techniques
• Concern on developmental processes and overuse injuries in
juniors
• New diagnostics, treatments, injury prevention and recovery
procedures (i.e. Injury Tracker)
• Guidelines for specific treatments
• Growth, development and health care of players (overtraining)
• Nutritional needs
• Reasons for disordered eating habits
• Female athlete triad
• Weight and body image concerns
Biomechanics • Biomechanical models for beginner players
• Study of ‘new’ technical solutions for tennis strokes
• Optophotogrammetry
• Performance models
• Comparison of mechanical determinants of junior and pro
players
• Biomechanical interventions
Continued
252 M. Crespo
Table 35.1 Continued.
Sport Science Advancements, trends and research areas to study
Psychology • On-court psychological training

• Behaviours of players, coaches, relationships
• Burn-out, drop-out
• Psychological routines
• Parents’ role in tennis: working with the parents of tennis
players
• Practical intervention models off-, and most importantly, on-
court
Physiology • The female athlete triad
• Physiological control of training
Training theory • Planning of the tennis training at the different levels of the
game: periodization:
• No. matches/year/age
• Adequate training intensity/volume
• Competition schedule
• Quantification of long-term player development (contents and
loads)
Physical • Dynamic warm-up
conditioning • Importance of core stability for tennis
• Strength training with young players
Motor control/ • Discovery vs. prescriptive
learning • Game based approach (tactics)
• Load of typical on-court drills
• Methodology of error diagnosis and improvement
• Tactical decision process
• Increasing demands of modern competitive tennis:
• Speed of perception and execution
• Time pressure
• Observation strategies
• Vision in tennis
Technology • Computer aided line-calling ‘Hawk Eye’
and materials • Evaluation of new materials (surfaces, clothing, shoes)
• Rules of tennis
• Quality control, performance, equipment safety
• Protecting the nature of the game
• Adapted equipment (balls, rackets)
Multi- • Burn-out
disciplinary • Long-term player development and long-term coach
development
• Competency based coach education
• Talent ID / selection vs. talent development
Sociology • Prevention of drop-out
• ‘Marketing’ strategies for tennis
Doping • Player, coach and entourage education
Statistics • Applications of notational analysis to tactics
• Data interpretation in matches
New perspectives and research applications 253
Importance of applied research
One relevant issue that has been stressed previously (Crespo, 2004) is the need
for applied studies that could be meaningful to researchers but also to players,
coaches and officials of the game. This will help tennis practice to be
scientific-based, safe, modern and more comprehensive.
To this end the role of coach educators is fundamental since their main
duty is to be ‘translators’ of the research findings with the aim of building
communication bridges between the scientific and the applied world. Coaches
need to be able to understand the benefit of the studies on sport sciences and
make all possible efforts to apply the research results in their daily practice
with players. On the other hand, researchers should get closer to the real
needs of the game to investigate issues that will substantially affect the prac-
tical implications of tennis practice. A two-way effort is needed by both
parties with a great degree of open-mindedness (Crespo and Reid, 2002).
Research grants offered by institutions such as the International Tennis
Federation or the United States Tennis Association show the interest of some
tennis organizations in co-operating with researchers in this quest to increase
the scientific knowledge of the game. Experience and evidence have shown
that these grants are uncommon at Federation level since immediate results
are expected and funds are always less than what is needed.
In this scenario, the ITF’s role is to act as a catalyst of research initiatives
covering not only the direction in which studies are heading but, some-
times more importantly, the process of disseminating and ensuring that the
information reaches all those interested and the application of research find-
ings to the daily practice of tennis play.
Hopefully the future will see an increase in the number of institutions
undertaking tennis research (federations, universities, private companies) as
well as in the amount of funding dedicated to these studies for the benefit of
the players and the game (Wood, 2006).
Conclusions
Crespo and Reid (2002) noted that sport sciences have greatly contributed
to the increase in tennis knowledge during recent times. Despite the efforts
of the International Tennis Federation, some National Associations as well
as academic and private institutions, it has become apparent that more
investment in tennis research is required.
The application of sport science to health, training and development of
tennis players at all levels of the game has, in our opinion, a promising future
but it should be seen as a joint venture between the applied world and the
research institutions. We are immersed in a challenge of knowledge and
practical application of research findings that will contribute to the general
improvement of the game (Crespo et al., 2000).
Even though in this paper the considerable and gradual increase in tennis
254 M. Crespo
research has been highlighted, also noted has been the research fields in which
more effort and focus is needed to improve our scientific knowledge. The
main challenge of all those involved in research and teaching remains, how-
ever, in the ‘transformation’ of scientific findings into knowledge, tools,
methods and systems that can be effectively used in daily practice at all levels
of the game.
The application of scientific knowledge will help more people worldwide
benefit from a healthy involvement in a sport for a lifetime; tennis.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the assistance of Mr Patrick McInerney in
the preparation of this paper.
References
Crespo, M. (2004). Panorama mundial de la investigación en el tenis. Congreso
Nacional de Ciencias Aplicadas al Tenis [Research in tennis: a worldwide overview.
National Congress on Sport Sciences Applied to Tennis]. Murcia: Universidad
Católica de Murcia
Crespo, M. and Reid, M. (2002). ITF involvement in tennis medicine and science. In
Tennis (edited by P.A.F. Renstrom), Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 291–295.
Crespo, M., Miley, D. and Cooke, K. (2000). Modern day tennis coaching: the impact
of the Sport Sciences. In Tennis Science and Technology (edited by S.J. Haake ad
A.O. Coe), Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 361–375.
Crespo, M., Pluim, B. and Reid, M. (2001). Tennis Medicine for Tennis Coaches.
London: ITF Ltd.
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part of player development. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6, 1, 1–3.
ITF (2006). The ITF Year. Roehampton, London: ITF Ltd.
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Roehampton, London: ITF Ltd.
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Medicine, 40, 5, 379–381.
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by R. Lehman), Philadelphia: Saunders, pp. 277–281.
36 Sport identity of Polish
badminton players in the
context of other selected
sport disciplines
M. Lenartowicz and P. Rymarczyk
Aims and theoretical premises of the research

The main theme of this paper is the notion of sport identity and identity
reinforcement of top Polish badminton players in comparison to representa-
tives of other sport disciplines at various levels of social recognition and
popularity in Poland.
The desire of recognition from one’s own social setting constitutes undoubt-
edly one of the most important human psychological needs. The afore-
mentioned desire can be explained by the fact that social recognition is the
main factor enabling a person to achieve a feeling that his or her life is
meaningful and valuable. A person obtains such recognition of his/her activ-
ities when they are consistent with the scenarios of the social roles he/she is
expected to play. Thus, the feelings of meaningfulness and valuableness of
someone’s own life appear when a person plays the social roles he/she is
demanded to play, and that is without any doubt the basic reason why people
internalize their social roles, which means that they identify themselves with
them and make them elements of their identity.
The assumption that the need of social recognition exerts a decisive influ-
ence on the formation of human identity is probably the most important of
the assumptions we formulated before doing our research on sport identity
in contemporary Poland. We carried it out following the example of Weiss,
who used the above-mentioned assumption as a basis for his research on
sport identity, which he carried out in Austria (Weiss, 1999). However, this
was not the only assumption we made. According to the second of our
assumptions, people tend to increase the feeling of meaningfulness of their
lives by carrying out a peculiar psychological hierarchization of the social
roles which they play – a person increases above the average level his or her
identification with the roles which are the source of relatively large social
recognition and he/she distances himself/herself from the rest of his/her
roles, perceiving them as such aspects of his/her life which do not express
his/her ‘real self’.
While particularizing this assumption, we put forward a supposition that
a person displays inclinations to identify him/herself with those of his/her
256 M. Lenartowicz and P. Rymarczyk
social roles, which are perceived by his/her social setting as more valuable
and which are played by this person more successfully. Thus, individual
inclinations to identify oneself with a given social role would be directly
proportional to the product of two factors: individual abilities to play it
successfully and social recognition, which is enjoyed by a given sphere of
activity.
Inspiration for the second of our assumptions was also provided by Weiss,
who undoubtedly assumed it implicitly while carrying out the above-
mentioned research. We were also inspired by the theoretical conceptions of
Turner, R.H. (1978) and Homans (1961). The first maintained that an indi-
vidual builds his/her identity by identifying him/herself with some of his/her
roles and distancing him/herself from others. Thus, he assumed that ‘indi-
viduals tend to merge positively evaluated roles with their persons’ and ‘to
locate their persons in the roles they enact most adequately’ (Turner, R.H.,
1978, p. 14). The latter perceived man as a rational and calculating being and
hence he presupposed that human behaviour (which, in our case, means:
human auto-defining) is ‘a function of its pay-off’ (Homans, 1961, p. 13), so
that ‘in choosing between alternative actions, a person will choose that one
for which, as perceived by him at the time, the value of the result multiplied
by the probability of getting the result is greater’ (Turner, J.H., 1978, p. 228).
The third of our assumptions regarded relations between the investment of
time and effort and the strength of identity. Inspired by one of Turner’s
propositions (Turner, R. H., 1978, p. 15), we assumed that the greater the
investment in some form of activity, the stronger the identification with a
suitable social role.
The fourth of our assumptions regarded factors determining inclinations
of one’s own social setting to identify a given person with particular social
roles this person plays. We assumed that the high social prestige of a role and
its successful performance are factors which cause not only that an actor is
inclined to identify himself (or herself ) with it, but also that such inclinations
appear in his (or her) social setting, which treats prestigious and well-played
roles as more important – and, in this sense, more ‘real’ – than low prestige
roles that are played badly. Formulating this assumption we also followed the
traces of R. H. Turner, who maintained ‘roles that are quite positively evalu-
ated and those that are quite negatively evaluated attract more attention than
neutral roles. Because appearances are more striking, inferences about the
person are likely to be stronger’ (Turner, R.H., 1978, p. 8).
The above-mentioned assumptions served as a basis to formulate our
working hypotheses. Namely, we presumed that sports identity should be
expected to be stronger in the case of persons who achieve successes in sports
and whose sporting activities meet the recognition of their settings. On the
other hand, it should be expected to be weaker in the case of persons whose
level of sports performance is not high and whose sporting activities do not
meet their settings’ recognition.
Sport identity of Polish badminton players 257
Research approach
We assumed that persons who spend a relatively large amount of time on
their sporting activities should have stronger sport identity than persons who
spend relatively little time on them. We also assumed that persons who per-
form their sporting activities at relatively high levels and achieve successes in
sports will be more often and to a greater extent perceived by their social
settings as athletes than those who perform sports at relatively low levels and
without successes. The sporting successes of our respondents were measured
by us based on answers for question 7 from part I of the applied question-
naire (Curry and Weiss, 1989), in which the responding persons characterized
the level of their sporting activities. The measurement of social recognition
experienced by the respondents because of their sporting activities was made
by us on the basis of their answers for questions included in part III of the
questionnaire, where the respondents assessed, inter alia, whether their sport
commitment is important for their friends and families. It seems probable
that financial rewards received by athletes through their sporting activities are
also perceived by them as a form of recognition of their sporting activities.
Thus, we formulated a hypothesis that the strength of sport identity is posi-
tively correlated with the receiving of financial gratification for sport partici-
pation and that the higher percent of the respondent’s income coming from
this source, the stronger the sport personality should be expected to be. We
measured the investment of time and effort in sporting activities with the help
of question 6, part I: ‘How much time do you spend every week on the
practising of your sports discipline?’ We measured the strength of sports
identity with the help of the question which appears in part II of the applied
questionnaire. It asks the respondent to rate on a scale of zero to one hundred
the importance of different aspects of his/her life, sporting activities being
mentioned here as one of these aspects. Our respondents made the evaluation
of the importance of sporting activities in their own life also by answering
questions from part IV of the applied questionnaire. Our respondents were
asked there, for example, if they usually organized their day in connection
with their sporting activities and if they often dreamed of sporting successes.
Finally, some questions included in part III of the questionnaire – where
the respondents were asked, for example, whether they were perceived by
many people mainly as athletes – were used to measure to what extent our
respondents were identified with their sport roles by their social settings.
Methods
A total 238 athletes from different sport disciplines were investigated. The
sample included 33 top Polish badminton players. They were asked to fill in a
standard questionnaire on sport identity developed by Curry and Weiss
(1989). A pilot study was carried out in order to check the validity of the
research tool. There were 80.7 per cent men and 19.3 per cent women in the
sample. The mean age was 22.58, while 82 per cent of respondents were
between 18–29 years of age. The sample included both national team players
(e.g. in badminton) and amateur athletes, whose sport involvement might be
defined as recreational. They represented 19 sport disciplines. The majority
of respondents practiced football (20.1 per cent), basketball (20.8 per cent),
followed by badminton (14 per cent), handball (9.7 per cent) and swim-
ming (5.5 per cent). Other disciplines’ representatives groups did not exceed
10 persons. In our sample we have included team and individual, indoor and
outdoor, very popular and less recognized sports in Poland. The popularity
level of investigated sport disciplines in Poland was estimated based on
Charzewski (1997) and GUS (2000) research on sport disciplines most often
practised by the Poles. From his point of view the most popular would be
swimming, basketball and football, while relatively unpopular sports repre-
sented also in our research would be weightlifting, pentathlon, triathlon,
rugby and badminton, although the latter according to GUS (2000) is well
recognized as a recreational activity. On the other hand, there is also market-
ing research evidence for the social recognition of certain sports with regard
to sport sponsorship. For example, ARC Rynek i Opinia company annual
reports on sport sponsorship market and the marketing value of certain dis-
ciplines, reported low recognition of badminton as a sport discipline in Polish
society.
It was assumed in the research that sport skills and involvement level would
differentiate research results on the strength of sport identity of respondents.
Almost half of the sample (43.7 per cent) included athletes representing the
national first division level. The second biggest group was amateur athletes
playing sport at a local competition level. Swimmers, pentathletes and part
of the badminton group, represented the highest sport level (national team).
Female basketball, handball and badminton players also presented a high
sport level (1st division). The lowest competition level included mainly the
representatives of team games: football and male basketball players. Signifi-
cant differences in sport competition level and the character of specific sport
disciplines differentiated sport involvement of respondents with regard to the
number of training sessions and hours per week. Half of the respondents
devoted to sport training over 10 hours per week. The mean number of hours
per week spent on sport training for the whole sample was 11.2 hours, while
the mean number of training sessions per week was 6.2. The highest number
of training hours was reported by swimming, pentathlon, female basketball
and badminton players, who declared 25 to 35 hours of training per week (up
to 21 training sessions per week in the case of pentathlon). Low competitive
level football players and male basketball players indicated the lowest amount
of sport training time.
Our sample was also heterogeneous with regard to receiving financial sup-
port or remuneration because of their sport involvement. Over half of them
reported they do receive some form of financial support, while 45.1 per cent
reported no financial support of any kind. It was clear that financial rewards
from playing sports would be closely related to sport competition level: the
higher was the sport level, the more frequently respondents reported receiving
them (correlation of 0.328, P=0.01). Yet, it should be noticed that over
26 per cent of local leagues players also declared receiving financial benefits
through sport. This may be related to the fact, that in this group of athletes,
more commercialized sports such as football and basketball were represented.
In the case of badminton, three quarters of players reported receiving finan-
cial benefits, which is most likely the result of their high sport competition
level (national team and first division).

Investigated players were quite positive about their sporting achievements:
7.3 per cent of them estimated their results as very good, almost half of them
reported that they have good sporting results. It was interesting to see that the
correlation between declared sport competition level and assessment of own
sport achievements was very weak: 0.244 at p=0.01. Among 33 investigated
badminton players (including 10 national team members and 19 first division
players) evaluated their sport achievements as good, and 15.2 per cent as very
good, which is twice as much as the sample average.
Among the spheres of life (categories) presented to respondents, the
highest valued was family (mean value of 93.78 points with 100 points as a
maximum) and sport (87.34 points). The third most valued spheres were
friends and education (almost 80 points each). Less important were religion
and Church, arts and music and ethnic or national membership (all categor-
ies of more than 50 points). The least important in the view of investigated
players was politics. The high position of family is in no way surprising. It
complies with general research of the Polish society. It is interesting to see
that, regardless of the 36 per cent representation of lowest competition level,
sport was valued almost as high as family. This result supports the notion that
sport identity and importance of sport in one’s life is (surprisingly) not depen-
dent on sport competition level. It seems strange, but somehow consistent
with other results of our research on sport identity.
Our research does not support the hypothesis on significant differences in
identifying with a role of an athlete and importance of sport in life in the case
of a sample which is highly differentiated with regard to sport competition
level, receiving financial rewards through sport and the type of sport discip-
line represented. This concerns both response to the questions regarding self-
evaluation of sport in the respondents’ life (part IV of the questionnaire) and
perceived social recognition of respondents’ sport involvement (part III of
the questionnaire). In both groups of questions, no significant correlations
between answers category and sport discipline and sport level variables were
recorded. However, that does not mean that there were no correlations and
patterns with regard to sport level and self-evaluated importance of sport
involvement and perceived social recognition. Players representing higher
sport levels more often declared that sport is an important part of their
personality. In spite of this no significant correlations were recorded here.
All national team members gave a positive answer (75 per cent ‘agree’ and
25 per cent ‘rather agree’). With representatives of lower sport levels, answers
varied more, but even at local league competition level over 75 per cent of
respondents declared that being an athlete is an important part of their
personality.
High-level athletes more often declared that they organized their daily time
schedule around sport (over 80 per cent of national team members and only
20 per cent of local league players). Being a good sportsman and permanent
improvement of sport skills were very important for over 90 per cent of
respondents. Over 60 per cent considered themselves mainly as athletes and
over 90 per cent dreamt of sport success. Badminton players more often than
average declared perceiving themselves as athletes (almost 70 per cent), and
all of them reported dreaming of sport success and that sport is an important
part of their lives. With regard to this group of questions, there were no other
differences between badminton and other sport disciplines.
National team members and representatives of the lowest sport competi-
tion level see in the same way how their social environment perceives them.
Again, there was no correlation between sport level and answers to this group
of questions. Respondents (76 per cent) declared they are mainly perceived as
athletes, while 70 per cent claimed their sport involvement is important to
their friends and acquaintances. Over 86 per cent of the sample reported, that
people think sport is very important in their life. In the case of badminton,
players more often (in comparison to general results) declared that they are
perceived mainly as athletes (84.8 per cent).
Analysis of respondents’ motives for playing sports show that for the
whole sample the most important motivation was improving fitness and
health (almost 90 per cent of answers) and emotions related to sport competi-
tion (87.6 per cent). Yet, at the same time, almost half of the sample declared
that because of injuries, sport is more harmful than beneficial to their health.
Answers to these questions are quite inconsistent. Competitiveness as an
important motive for playing sports was reported by 77.5 per cent of respon-
dents. Badminton players were less focused on competitiveness (67.7 per cent)
and paid less attention to the teamwork aspect of sports. The latter is most
likely the result of the individual character of badminton competitions. Half
of the sample expressed their willingness to continue in or to move to a
professional sport career (45 per cent in case of badminton players).
Conclusions
Different sport level, different popularity of certain sports in Poland and
receiving financial benefits from involvement in sport did not significantly
influence the strength of identification with a role of a sportsman and per-
ceived importance of sport in respondents’ lives. The research concerned
both the importance of sport in the life of respondents, and social recogni-
tion of the role of athletes from the social environment. It showed that the
declared strength of sport identity of low sport level athletes was unexpect-
edly high and this group of respondents was also very positive about their
sport achievements. It mainly concerned team games athletes and may be
closely related to the high popularity of football and basketball in Poland. We
may therefore consider that Weiss’ (1999, p. 366) conclusions on stronger
sport identity of athletes representing the most popular sport disciplines and
higher sport level and social prestige are somehow (but not definitively) con-
firmed in our research. This may be the result of a limited number of
respondents, general problems with defining the most popular sport discip-
lines or the general low interest of Polish society in active sport involvement.
Regardless of the relatively low popularity of badminton in Poland, investi-
gated players represented the sample’s higher average sport identity level.
Relatively high sport identity self-assessment in comparison to overall sample
may be the result of high sport level represented by badminton players, which
weakened the impact of discipline popularity.
References
Charzewski, J. (1997). Aktywnosc Sportowa Polakow [Physical Activity of the
Poles]. COS Physical Culture Training Methods Center, Warsaw: Estrella.
Curry, T.J. and Weiss, O. (1989). Sport identity and motivation for sport participation:
a comparison between American college athletes and Austrian student sport club
members. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6, 257–268.
Homans, G.C. (1961). Human Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt,
Brace and World.
GUS (2000). Uczestnictwo Polaków w sporcie i rekreacji ruchowej (w okresie 1.X. 1998
r. – 30.IX.1999 [Sport and Physical Recreation Participation of the Poles (between
Oct. 1, 1998 and Sept. 30, 1999)]. Warsaw: Main Statistical Office (GUS).
Turner, J.H. (1978). The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood, IL: The
Dorsey Press.
Turner, R.H. (1978). The Role and the Person. American Journal of Sociology, 84,
1–23.
Weiss, O. (1999). Identity and Motivation in Competitive Sport. Wychowanie Fizyczne
i Sport [Physical Education and Sport], vol. 43 (Suppl.), 364–368.
37 Coach education
Models, characteristics and views
of Greek tennis coaches
N. Grivas and K. Mantis
Introduction
Coach education is one of the keys for improvement of the training process
and for the achievement of best possible levels of performance. As a result of
rapid progress in sport in the last decades, the training and educational needs
of coaches will continue to grow. The coaches’ education programmes must
be thoroughly evaluated to take into account the findings of all areas of
applied sport research, as well as the personal characteristics, backgrounds
and opinions of coaches in the particular sport.
Most modern coaching programmes consist of three key areas: a) modules
of study in sport science, b) the components related to the skills, techniques
and strategies of the sport and c) practical experience. The balance of these
aspects and the relative importance placed on each depends on the particular
needs of the sport and the level at which the coach operates (Campbell, 1993).
Nowadays, many sport organizations develop different theories or sport-
specific modules for coaches from different backgrounds (Haslam, 1990;
Douge and Hastie, 1993).
In coaching, in most cases, more emphasis should be placed on skill devel-
opment, both physical and social, than the competition result. Because
coaches play such a crucial role in the educational and motivational process,
they should be encouraged to attend seminars and to gather the latest scien-
tific knowledge in various ways, as self-improvement is a key to increase
coach effectiveness (Gratto, 1983; Pflug, 1980). Also, these actions should be
emphasized and a positive approach to coaching developed. The purpose of
this study is to present the Greek model for coach education, as well as
characteristics and views of participant coaches. This will provide further
information to the improvement and development of coach education.
Models of tennis coaches education programmes in Greece

The national systems of coach education are determined mainly by culture,
policy, tradition and the athletic structures of each country. Although some
of the most established tennis nations have started their coaches’ education
Coach education of Greek tennis coaches 263
programmes in the early part of the twentieth century (Crespo et al., 2005), in
Greece this procedure was only put into practice systematically after the
1980s. The situation is similar to the great majority of sports in the country.
The main reason for beginning coach education programmes was the deci-
sion of the state (1983) to declare the Sport Academy to have University
Sport Department status and to provide coaching diplomas in particular
sports. Until then coach education was based around full-time university
training (four-year degree programmes). The development of Physical Edu-
cation as an academic discipline, together with an ongoing demand for an
increase in the knowledge base of that discipline, has certainly served to
improve the quality of teaching in sport.
According to the Greek Athletic Law, there are two ways of receiving a
coaching diploma in Greece – through the full-time four-year studying in
the (five) Universities Sport Departments simultaneously with a Physical
Education teacher degree or through courses organized by the Governmental
Secretariat of Sport in conjunction with the National Federations. The
graduates of University Sport Departments receive directly an A level (higher)
diploma in a particular sport. In the second way, mainly focused on ex-
players and ‘unofficial’ trainers, volunteers are a small minority, every course
is organized for a particular level, starting from the level C (initial) and end-
ing with the level A diploma. From the above it is clear that the vast majority
of tennis coaches in Greece are professionals and are employed on a full-time
or part-time basis mainly by community sport clubs.
The Hellenic Tennis Federation, as well as almost all National Sport
Federations, has no specific formal coach education programme in place
which leads to a diploma. Instead, it participates in the organization of peri-
odic courses in conjunction with the Governmental Secretariat of Sport. This
participation consists of proposals about the level, the year and the organiza-
tion place of coach education programmes, as well as proposals about play-
ing level of participants. Also, the Hellenic Tennis Federation can propose
two out of five members of the Management Committee and the Course
Director. The last one is responsible for the course content.
The Governmental Secretariat of Sport course structure consists of three
levels and the names of the courses are C (initial), B and A (higher). The
minimum time between different level courses is two years coaching experi-
ence after completion of a lower level training. The pre-requisite criteria for
participation in courses are: age, playing level and education level. From these
pre-requisites, age and education level are fixed (at least 22 years old and a
secondary education diploma). The playing level for every course could be
changed, based on the National Federation proposal. For the two tennis
courses carried out in 2002 (Athens, Thessalonica) the pre-requisites for play-
ing level were eight years player’s licence. There are no fees for the partici-
pants, while the cost is financed completely by the Governmental Secretariat
of Sport.
Thirty-one men and seven women took part in the Athens 2002 level C
264 N. Grivas and K. Mantis
tennis coaches’ course. The course duration was three consecutive weeks
(16 days and 150 academic hours). The course subjects were focused on dif-
ferent general modules of sport science and in practical sport skills. The
programme included diverse theoretical and practical assessments. The sub-
jects of the course were focused on different modules of sport science (65 per
cent of the total hours), such as biomechanics, psychology, injuries treat-
ments, sport history, sport law, sport management, communication, nutri-
tion, coaching, planning, methodology, didactics. Fewer hours (35 per cent)
were allocated to the skills, techniques and strategies of the sport, because of
the satisfying playing level of the participants and their experience, acquired
in advance. On-court training was the subject that required the higher num-
ber of teaching hours. Among assessment procedures a project/thesis in a free
choice sport topic with a minimum of 2500 words was required. The classifi-
cation of participants’ papers in thematic areas was the following: Technique
9, Coaching 8, Nutrition 5, Mini-tennis 4, Physical Condition 3, Psychology
3, The Coach 2, Tactics 2, other 2.
Method
The sample consisted of 31 men and seven women. Their age was 32.8
(SD = 8.9, min = 22 max = 54) years old. A questionnaire was used for
the collection of data, which included closed questions, with a scale of evalu-
ation from 1 (lower) to 7 (higher), and open ones (AHTC, 2000). For the
analysis the statistical programme SPSS was used, as well as to provide
descriptive statistics. Chi-square was used to test for significant differences
when appropriate at a significance level of P < 0.05.
Results
The majority of the participants were men, four and a half times more than
women (81.6 per cent and 18.4 per cent correspondingly). Their region of
origin was province (51.4 per cent) and Athens (48.6 per cent), but more of
them lived in Athens (73 per cent) than in a province (27 per cent). Regarding
the educational level of participants, 60.5 per cent had a secondary education
diploma, 21.1 per cent had a tertiary education degree (not Sport University),
10.5 per cent had a sport university degree (or were students) and other
7.9 per cent. Of the coaches, 86.8 per cent were right-handed and 13.2 per cent
were left-handed.
Among the participants 81.6 per cent were full-time coaches, 10.5 per cent
were part time, while 7.9 per cent were current players. Concerning their
working place (n = 26) 38.5 per cent of them worked in Athens private
and high-level (community sport) clubs, 38.5 per cent in the province and
23 per cent in Athens suburban (community sport) clubs. A total of 42.9
per cent of coaches (n = 35) worked more than 30 hours weekly, 34.3 per cent
21–30 hours, 20 per cent 11–20 hours and 22.9 per cent less than ten hours.
Of those that worked more than 30 hours weekly, 80 per cent worked in
private and high-level clubs in Athens with 50 per cent in the suburban clubs,
while those working 20–30 hours, 70 per cent worked in the provincial clubs
(statistically significant difference, P < 0.05). Of the coaches who worked
in the Athens private and high-level clubs, 58.3 per cent were of Athenian
origin, while only 21.4 per cent were of provincial origin (statistically signifi-
cant difference, P < 0.05).
The tennis coaches (n = 35) generally considered their salary as poor
(11.4 per cent), satisfactory (57.1 per cent), good (25.7 per cent) and very
good (5.7 per cent). The coaches who worked 30+ hours were more satisfied
with their salaries. The percentage that considered their salary as good was
40 per cent, and as satisfactory 53.3 per cent. The 25 per cent of coaches born
in the province considered their salary as poor, in comparison to none of
the coaches born in Athens (statistically significant difference, P < 0.5). The
30 per cent of coaches residing in the province considered their salary as poor
(in comparison to the 10 per cent of those of Athens residence) (P < 0.05).
On the contrary, 50 per cent of Athenian private and high-level clubs coaches
estimated their salary as good and 40 per cent as satisfactory.
The great majority of women claim satisfactory salary (66.6 per cent),
while on the contrary, in the men’s field there was a wider variety of answers.
The 34.5 per cent of men considered their salary as good and very good in
comparison to 16.6 per cent of women. The difference was not statistically
important, because of the small sample of women (n = 6). Also, it is interest-
ing to note that 80 per cent of left-handed coaches stated their salary to be
good in comparison to 53.3 per cent of right-handed.
The coaches estimated that they personally have a high level of informa-
tion regarding tennis issues (M = 5.2). The estimation was independent of the
coaches’ working place. Nevertheless, the estimation from those working in
Athens high-level private clubs was a little higher (M = 5.25) in comparison
to those working in Athens suburban clubs (M = 5.1) or in the provinces
(M = 5.05). On the contrary, they generally evaluated the capability of Greek
tennis coaches with a lower mark (M = 4.4) than their own. Generally, the
evaluation of Athens high-level private clubs coaches was higher (M = 4.8)
than the provincial club coaches (M = 4.3) and Athens suburban club
coaches (M = 4). The way of informing players on scientific topics applicable
to tennis is through magazines (81.6 per cent), books (63.2 per cent), a follow-
up of seminars and meetings (55.3 per cent) and only 36.2 per cent through
the internet. Another more ‘unofficial’ way was through the follow-up of
matches and discussions with other coaches (18.4 per cent).
Access to a personal computer was available to 78.9 per cent of the
coaches. Those who had access to the internet amounted to 73.7 per cent, but
only 60.5 per cent of these had a PC at home. From the latter, 56.5 per cent
stated that they used PCs for gathering tennis information and for the
preparation of training, while 43.5 per cent used PCs for other activities.
The percentage which have an email account (57.1 per cent) was lower. The
coaches had a first-hand experience with computers during elementary edu-
cation (2.7 per cent), secondary education (21.6 per cent), and tertiary educa-
tion (10.8 per cent), in private courses and seminars (13.5 per cent) and ‘by
themselves’ (51.4 per cent) The main reasons for not having access to PCs and
the internet were: the lack of relative knowledge, the low estimation and the
high cost. Finally, the number of coaches (n = 35) who speak foreign lan-
guages (92.1 per cent) is particularly high. Among them 60 per cent speak
one, 28.6 per cent speak two and 11.5 per cent speak more than three foreign
languages.
Discussion
Two basic proposals could be made in order to improve the Governmental
Secretariat of Sport courses content. First, the introduction of new subjects,
and mainly the use of a computer. The aim is to help the coaches in the
acquisition of new knowledge and the recording of the training process.
Other proposed subjects are first aid treatment, equipment analysis and nota-
tion. Second, it is very important to increase the duration of courses without
increasing the total hours, so as to provide a bigger period of practical work
under real conditions with different levels and ages players. In this way, it
could be seen at which level coaches put into practice what they have learnt
from the coaches’ education programmes, a fact which seems to be a difficulty
in the development of coaching courses (Douge and Hastie, 1993).
In comparison with similar courses in other countries (Crespo et al., 2005)
the total amount of time for the level C course (150 academic hours) is very
high and it resembles a B Level for them. The organization of Governmental
Secretariat of Sport programmes should be repeated after a certain period of
time (e.g. 3–4 years for C level courses) with a more permanent staff and
contents. Moreover, the operation of B and A levels courses is essential. Par-
ticularly important is the contribution from the National Federation, Coaches
Union and University’s Sport Departments in planning and managing of
modern coaches’ education programmes. It has been proposed that Uni-
versities Sport Departments, or another body, take on the responsibility of the
management of Governmental Secretariat of Sport courses and that their
duration be extended to eight months. Finally, there is a need for harmoniza-
tion with the EC guidelines regarding coaches’ education, as well as the
establishing equivalence between existing coaches’ education programmes.
Although the structure and the content of coach education in University
Sport Departments differs from one University to another, two general pro-
posals could be made in order to improve the quality of University coach
education programmes. First, there is a need for stricter choice of students
who are candidates as tennis coaches based on their playing ability. Second,
ensuring a wider environment for students’ practice and future work by
enhancing the relations among Universities Sport Departments and the
sport clubs.
Particularly worrying is the low rate of attendance by women in the Gov-
ernmental Secretariat of Sport course. This percentage should be increased to
promote equal integration of women in society and for the attraction of a
higher percentage of girls into the sport. It is very satisfactory, in fact, that
among the University Sport Departments alumnus the percentage of women
is much higher than among the programmes of Governmental Secretariat of
Sport. At certain times it exceeded 50 per cent of total graduates. This does not
mean that all women alumnus succeed in finding or keeping a coaching job.
The role of the Hellenic Tennis Federation in coach education should
become more energetic. The creation of a Coach Education Department
according to the standards of leading National Federations is an essential
step. Its aim is to gather, develop and disseminate the latest knowledge to all
coaches’ education programmes providers and coaches all over the country.
This effort will include the creation of educational materials, as well as con-
ducting seminars and workshops for all coaches. The application of the latest
scientific knowledge has been a contributing factor in the increase of world-
class tennis European players (Saviano, 2000). Also, this Department could
be responsible for the lifelong education of players, parents and officials.
According to this study, coaches working in the most prestigious clubs,
which are the private and high-level clubs in Athens, more are of Athenian
than provincial origin. This is due first, to Athens-born coaches having been
players of some of these clubs and members of their family who have been
involved as members in these clubs, too. Second, they are living and playing
tennis in the capital at the same time, which gives them more experience and
challenges, and greater access to private and high-level clubs – factors which
lead to higher salaries.
The findings show also that most coaches are satisfied with their salaries
and verify that generally a tennis coach is a well-paid job in Greek society.
However, the fact that the majority of coaches are at a relatively young age,
probably without family responsibilities may contribute to the acceptance
that salaries are satisfying. The coaches who work more hours are more
satisfied with their salaries. It is common in every job to find more men than
women getting a higher level of salary. This is true generally in coaching, plus
the fact that in Greece the role of a tennis coach as sparring player is
emphasized, a role in which men are considered more efficient. The Athens
private and high-level clubs coaches have a higher estimation regarding their
level of information concerning tennis issues. This may be attributed to the
fact that they work in an advanced working area where they have more
experience and sources of information.
The percentage of coaches who participate and gather information from
seminars is low and may be the result of the small number of seminars which
are organized in Greece. The percentage of people using the internet system-
atically for information purposes regarding tennis issues is lower. The number
(36.2 per cent) is even lower than the number of those who have access to the
internet (73.7 per cent) or have a PC at home (60.5 per cent). It is worth
noting that although the percentage of Greek tennis coaches using PCs and
the internet is relatively low, it significantly outnumbers the proportion of
the Greek population who use PCs and the internet, which is 45 per cent and
32 per cent respectively. In combination with the high percentages of coaches
speaking foreign languages (92 per cent), training in the use of PCs and
the internet could provide an advantage to Greek tennis coaches in gathering
up-to-date information.
Conclusion
From the findings of this study, the improvement and the re-designing of a
national coach education system in Greece becomes a necessity. Any coach
education strategy must be built around the sporting structures and tradi-
tions that already exist in the country. Some basic proposals have been made
regarding the need to ensure the provision of update scientific knowledge by
University Sport departments and the Governmental Secretariat of Sport
Tennis Coach Education Programmes, as well as the role of the Hellenic
Tennis Federation. This research effort should be considered as a step in
planning the most suitable programmes for Greek tennis coaches.
References
Association of Hellenic Tennis Coaches (AHTC) (2000). Questionnaire of AHTC.
Unpublished document.
Campbell, S. (1993). Coaching Education Around the World. Sport Science Review, 2,
62–74.
Crespo, M., Reid, M. and Miley, D. (2005). Tennis coaches education: a worldwide
perspective. ITF Coaching and Sport Science Review, 35, 11–13.
Douge, B. and Hastie, P. (1993). Coach effectiveness. Sport Science Review, 2, 14–29.
Gratto, J. (1983). Competencies used to evaluate high school coaches. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 54, 59–60.
Haslam, I.R. (1990). Expert assessment of the National Coaching Certification
Programme (NCCP) theory component. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 15,
201–212.
Pflug, J. (1980). Evaluating high school coaches: a description of the programme
used at the Beaverton (Oregon) School District. Journal of Physical Education and
Recreation, 51, 76–77.
Saviano, N. (2000). Meeting the worldwide challenges for coaching education. USTA
High-Performance Coaching, 2, (1), 1–2.
38 Modern teaching methods for
tennis
What do they have in common?
P. Unierzyski and M. Crespo
Introduction
Tennis has been changing, but for many decades teaching methods have been
behind the general development of the game. It started to lose the battle
to other, especially ‘new’ or more ‘elite’, sports and other leisure activities.
One of the reasons was that the traditional methods of teaching used in
tennis were based on a technique and stroke production (Crespo, 1999) with-
out understanding the real character of the game. This approach has not
changed for many years. Results of studies undertaken by the International
Tennis Federation (ITF) showed that in some, especially more matured tennis
countries, tennis appeared ‘not to be a fun game to learn and play for the
vast majority of youngsters interviewed’ (ITF, 1998). Children, parents and
coaches acknowledged that ‘games and game-like situations were more fun
than technically oriented drills’ (Stean and Holt, 2000). ‘Having fun’ is the
most important motivator for children’s involvement in sport (Wankel and
Kreisel, 1985; Scanlan et al., 1993) and a need for an alternative, more attract-
ive way of practising was widely identified. Findings of researches (e.g. Bunker
and Thorpe, 1982; Thorpe et al., 1986; Thorpe and Dent, 1999), observations
of the careers of many top tennis players and experience of the most success-
ful coaches have given a basis for a new teaching and training philosophy.
Many national federations have formed their own systems and have used their
own names, but modern training methods follow a similar philosophy and
have many commonalities. The aim of this paper is to describe these com-
monalities and find the characteristic points of the ‘new’ teaching philosophy
in tennis.
Common characteristics of modern teaching methods
Adaptation to specify to the game of tennis: game based, tactical

approach to coaching
Despite the fact that different nations use different terms (e.g. Action Method,
Game-Based Coaching, Tactical Approach, GAG) the commonality is that
270 P. Unierzyski and M. Crespo
teaching process takes into consideration the specific character of the game.
A major shift in teaching methodology has been the catalyst of structuring
the teaching and coaching process with the idea of adapting it to the match
situation – game based, and thus emphasizing the role of strategy and tactics
already in the initial stages of the game (a tactical approach to coaching).
While the ability to perform a skill effectively is critical to performance,
appropriate decisions concerning what to do in the game situation are
equally important. Therefore the aim of the Tactical Approach to coaching
tennis is to improve the overall game performance of the player combining
tactical awareness and skill execution (Crespo and Cooke, 1999). Research
(McPherson, 1991; McPherson and French, 1991; Turner, 2003) has con-
firmed that because of tactical (and game-based) approaches tennis players
demonstrate better game performance (shot precision and decision making)
and have higher levels of specific knowledge than players coached according
to the traditional approach. It is very important to use modified games
(Wright et al., 2005), which engage pupils cognitively, stimulate pupil interest,
allow for more game play and provide pupils with the opportunity to transfer
concepts from one game to another. This methodology may be used with
players of different skills, from beginners to professionals. Level of technical
skills is not a barrier (Thorpe, 1992) because it is possible to have a good
game even with poor technique. Because the criteria of success in practice are
‘wider’ (traditionally, success = the drill was well performed) it is easier to
create a positive motivational climate.
In the game of tennis the methodology is based on the assumption that at
any given moment the player must be in one of five game situations (serving,
receiving, playing at the back of their own court with the opponent at the
back of their court, approaching or at the net, playing at the back of the
court with the opponent approaching or at the net). In each of these situ-
ations players perform certain tactics: e.g. keep the ball in play, try to move
the opponent around, or use own strengths (Tennant, 2004). Therefore the
goal of the coaching process in all modern methods around the world is to
teach players how ‘to deal’ with these five situations. The priority for the
players is to understand the game, develop a game sense and learn practical
competences, e.g. how to attack the net, not just how to hit ‘nice’ shots. It is
important that students rally and, at the same time learn how to solve differ-
ent tactical problems. Coaches working according to this method first try to
develop cognitive skills and later, if necessary, they use technique in closed
drills. In this approach to coaching, the classical analytic methods become
less important. The priority of tactics over technique does not mean that
coaches must not work on shots. Technique taught globally, in a certain
tactical context and with the use of an adapted size of the court, cannot be
only more attractive but also more efficient.
Modern teaching methods for tennis 271
Holistic approach to coaching
Modern tennis training takes into account the importance of tennis as a
whole, a holistic approach to coaching, and the principle of integration vs.
isolation. The relevance of a holistic view of tennis coaching is gaining more
and more recognition worldwide and is promoted by major tennis associ-
ations. Terms like ‘integrated’, ‘total’ or ‘complex’ tennis training are very
close to each other and are increasingly common among coaches of all levels.
These terms refer to a global vision of tennis training in which all com-
ponents are integrated and are put into practice using a ‘complex’ training
approach. The concept of integrated training for tennis states that the trad-
itional distinction between technique, tactics, conditioning and mentality is
more artificial than real. It is practically applied following the principle that
when working on technical aspects, players are also working on tactics, con-
ditioning and mentality, and vice versa, since there is an interrelation and
interdependence between all of them. That is why a lesson should have a
versatile character; its goals should concern more that just tactics and tech-
nique. A good coach will address motor and mental development in almost
every lesson (Crespo, 1999; Schönborn, 1999).
Player-centred coaching, goal (skills)-oriented learning

Modern coaching fully recognizes the player as the centre of the coaching
process and all efforts should be made to provide the best assistance possible
to help the player achieve his goals. The coach is educating a person as a
whole, teaching not just techniques but also skills and the ability to solve
problems. Winning in children/junior categories is not as important as reach-
ing planned goals step by step, and the general development of a player.
Therefore, the role of a coach in modern sport is different. A coach should be
more a guide, who creates a positive motivational climate, rather than being
an authoritarian. Players are taught to be more independent; they often
find their ‘own way’ and learn from their success. A Swedish study (Thorpe
and Dent, 1999) reported that Swedish players who made it to the top as
adults, had childhoods that were typified by play and practice in a supportive
atmosphere, rather than intensive coaching.
Use of sports science and technology, injury prevention

Modern coaching is sport science coaching. It is impossible to understand the
coaching process at any level of tennis without a sound sport science basis,
which implies the use of the sport science fundamentals in daily coaching.
Sport science provides tennis coaching with a much better understanding
of almost all aspects of the game since major scientific contributions have
helped to develop coaching theories and education. The progressive devel-
opments in sports medicine, tennis technology, psychology, training theory
and other major sport sciences are having a major impact in the delivery of
injury-free training programmes for players of all ages and playing levels.
This is the reason why sport science has become a major part of coach
education programmes worldwide.
Development of coordination as a base of technique and the main

motor ability to be improved
As far as coordination is concerned tennis is one of the most demanding
sports. Because every incoming ball is different, reaching it on time and hit-
ting it back effectively requires well developed coordination skills. That is why
it is a base for developing technical skill and optimal use of other motor
abilities as speed and strength. Learning ‘final’ technique (Schönborn, 1999)
must be preceded by the development of general, specific coordination and
the gaining of skills similar to tennis (like catching or throwing). Another
important matter is that all major methods aim to teach both reception (abil-
ity to judge correctly the flight of the ball and move to the position to play a
particular shot) and projection (ability to develop the techniques) skills. If
development of coordination is missed during the mini-tennis stage it is very
difficult to ‘catch up’ (Pankhurst, 2003). Because of its importance, all feder-
ations emphasize the need to work on different aspects of coordination not
only in every lesson, and not only during the warm-up.
Functional and biomechanical approach to movements

Adopting ‘the new methodology’ does not mean that the role of biomechan-
ics and technique in players’ development is less important than before.
Effective implementation of strategy and tactics requires tennis-specific
(technical) skills (Thorpe and Bunker, 1997; Crespo and Reid, 2003). In
today’s tennis, technique (the action) is seen as a function of the correct
biomechanical principles and as a means to implement tactics more effi-
ciently. Each movement should be treated as a tool useful to solve a tactical
problem. Consequently, the perfect (model) stroke does not exist; ‘strict
imposition of certain grips, stances, backswings and follow-through is not
recommended’ (Crespo and Reid, 2003). The goal of technical development
is to structure an individualized model of performance and every player has
a right to execute strokes in an individual way although with respect to bio-
mechanical principles. Looking from this perspective success in teaching
means respecting individuality, the laws of the game and the principles of
science (e.g. biomechanics).
Adapting the equipment, facilities and rules to the pupils

The beginner has to deal and become familiar with new equipment – a racket
and a ball. Using the right equipment supports the learning process; low
Modern teaching methods for tennis 273
compression tennis balls, reduced-size rackets and courts makes the game
easier to play from the first lesson, develops an all-court, all-stroke game,
promotes the use of the correct techniques and reduces risk of injury. The
need to scale down sports equipment, field dimensions and rules was raised
many years ago and has been widely used in many countries. What is rela-
tively new is the importance placed on coordinating methodology with the
equipment and facilities. The methodology uses the natural feature of the
human being, which is the ability to adjust to new situations. Creating certain
situations, coaches support the training goal(s). Therefore the learning pro-
cess is usually divided into stages. The names are different, e.g. mini-tennis
(red/orange/green levels) or micro/mini/midi/maxi tennis but the purpose is
the same: making the game more accessible for beginners. Because, at the
beginning, children start to play from a small distance and slowly, step by step
they form their own strokes. Generally there is a tendency to postpone the
moment of playing on regular court. The majority of federations use midi
tennis programmes (where the court is 18 m long) as a transition between
mini-tennis (in the UK mini-tennis red) and playing on a regular court.
Generally it is agreed that only an extremely gifted player may start to play
regularly on a full court before the age of ten.
Conclusions
Despite obvious national differences, teaching methodologies of leading
countries follow a similar philosophy, which makes the game attractive,
especially to the younger generation. New ideas have come very fast and
already after two to three positive results, the attraction to the game can be
noticed. Because of dynamic action taken by the ITF and leading tennis
nations, the crisis of the game in developed tennis nations has been over-
come. We believe that this is a good moment to increase promotional activ-
ities and advance modern teaching methodology around the racket sport
world.
References
Bunker, D.J. and Thorpe, R.D. (1982). A model for the teaching of games in Second-
ary Schools. Bulletin of Physical Education, 18(1), 5–8.
Crespo, M. (1999). Teaching methodology for tennis. ITF Coaches Review, 19, 3–4.
Crespo, M. and Cooke, K. (1999). The tactical approach to coaching tennis. ITF
Coaches Review, 19, 7–8.
Crespo, M. and Reid, M. (2002). Modern tactics: an introduction. ITF Coaching and
Sport Science Review, 27, 2.
Crespo, M. and Reid, M. (2003). Biomechanics and teaching methodology. In ITF
Biomechanics of Advanced Tennis (edited by B. Elliott, M. Reid and M. Crespo),
London: International Tennis Federation.
International Tennis Federation (ITF) (1998). Tennis towards 2000. London: ITF Ltd.
McPherson, S.L. (1991). Changes in knowledge content and structure in adult beginner
tennis: a longitudinal study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the NASP-
SPA, Pittsburg USA.
McPherson, S.L. and French, K.E. (1991). Changes in cognitive strategies and motor
skill in tennis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 26–41.
Pankhurst, A. (2003). Presentation from Polish Coaches Symposium, 24 April 2003.
Scanlan, T.K., Carpenter, P.J., Lobel, M. and Simons, J.P. (1993). Sources of enjoy-
ment of youth sport athletes. Journal of Pediatric Exercise Science, 5, 275–285.
Schönborn, R. (1999). Advanced techniques for competitive tennis. Aachen, Germany:
Mayer and Mayer.
Stean, W.B. and Holt, N.L. (2000). Players’, coaches, and parents’ perceptions of fun
in youth sport. Avante, 6, 84–98.
Tennant, M. (2004). The five game situations in mini-tennis. ITF Coaching and Sport
Science Review, 32, 7–9.
Thorpe, R.D. (1992). The psychological factors underpinning the ‘teaching for
understanding games’ movement. In Sport and Physical Activity: Moving Toward
Excellence. Proceedings of the AIESEP World Convention (edited by T. Williams,
L. Almond, and A. Sparkes), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 209–218.
Thorpe, R.D. and Bunker, D.J. (1997). A changing focus in games teaching. In
Physical Education in Schools (edited by L. Almond), London: Kogan Page,
pp. 52–80.
Thorpe, R.D. and Dent, P. (1999). Developing a more player oriented approach to
coaching tennis. ITF Coaches Review, 19, 5–7.
Thorpe, R.D., Bunker, D.J. and Almond, L. (1986). A change in the focus of
teaching games. In Sport Pegagogy: Olympic Scientific Congress Proceedings,
Volume 6, (edited by M. Pieron and G. Graham), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,
pp. 163–169.
Turner, A. (2003). A comparative analysis of two approaches for teaching tennis:
game based approach versus technique approach. Presented at the second ITF
Tennis Science and Technology Congress. London.
Wankel, L.M. and Kreisel, P.S.J. (1985). Factors underlying enjoyment of youth sport.
Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, 51–64.
Wright, S., McNeill, M., Fry, J. and Wang, J. (2005). Teaching teachers to play and
teach games. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10(1), 61–82.
39 Season-of-birth effects on
elite junior tennis players’
world rankings
P.G. O’Donoghue
Introduction
Skewed month-of-birth distributions have been discovered in many sports
including Ice hockey (Barnsley et al., 1985; Boucher and Mutimer, 1994),
soccer (Brewer et al., 1995) and basketball (Thompson et al., 1991). A skewed
month-of-birth distribution will typically have more players who were born in
one quarter of the year than any other and there will be a decreasing number
of players who were born in the successive quarters. There is a skewed month-
of-birth distribution of tennis players participating in the singles events of
Grand Slam tournaments with more players than expected being born in the
first half of the calendar year (Edgar and O’Donoghue, 2005). It is thought
that the International Tennis Federation (ITF) cut-off date of 1 January is
responsible for this skewed month-of-birth distribution. Indeed, there is con-
siderable evidence that the skewed month-of-birth distributions observed in
soccer participants result from the cut-off date for the junior competition
year (Brewer et al., 1995; Musch and Hay, 1999). Simmons and Paul (2001)
noted that the England schoolboy soccer international squad and players
from the English Football Association youth squad had different skewed
month-of-birth distributions that were associated with the two different cut-
off dates that applied. Musch and Hay (1999) found that month-of-birth
distributions for top league soccer players reflected the cut-off date for junior
competition in Australia, Brazil, Germany and Japan unaffected by the dif-
ferent hemispheres, climates and cultures of those countries. Furthermore,
when the start date of the junior competition year in Australia changed, it
eventually produced a corresponding shift in the distribution of month-of-
birth of participants. Previous research into season-of-birth effects on tennis
participation has been based on cross-sectional studies (Dudink, 1994;
Baxter-Jones, 1995; Edgar and O’Donoghue, 2005) rather than tracing the
participation of players over time. Therefore, a longitudinal programme of
research has commenced to track the participation of players over the course
of their careers. This will allow changes in participation levels and success
of players born in different parts of the year to be compared. Specifically
two groups will be compared; those born in H1 (from 1 January to 30 June
inclusive) and those born in H2 (from 1 July to 31 December inclusive).
The scope of the research will be restricted to players born in 1987 or 1988.
The purpose of the current paper is to report on the first three years of the
longitudinal study.
Methods
The junior world rankings of 1987- and 1988-born players competing in the
ITF junior circuit were traced over a three-year period from 2003 to 2005
inclusive. The name, nationality, date of birth and world ranking of all 3071
tennis players born in 1987 or 1988 who achieved any junior ranking points in
2003, 2004 or 2005 were obtained from the end of year ITF junior rankings
(www.itfjunior.com, accessed 31/12/03, 31/12/04 and 31/12/05). It was neces-
sary to sort the details of the players with ranking points in each of the three
years into gender, then nationality, then birth date, then name order so as to
match each player’s record from different years within a single data sheet of
3071 players. There were some female players who had changed their names
due to marriage and some players whose names had been expressed in differ-
ent ways between 2003 and 2005. There were some other players who had
changed their nationality over the three-year period. Table 39.1 summarizes
the number of male and female players born in each half of the year who had
achieved ITF junior tour ranking points in the different years for which data
was recorded. A minority of 615 of the 3071 players were ranked in all three
years from 2003 to 2005.
Chi square goodness-of-fit tests were used to compare the proportion of
different sub-groups of players with theoretically expected proportions
assuming equal number of births on each day of the calendar year. Therefore,
a fraction of 181¼/365¼ of a group would be expected to be born in H1 and
184/365¼ of the group would be expected to be born in H2. Chi square tests
of independence were used to compare the proportion of players born in
Table 39.1 Number of 1987- and 1988-born tennis players achieving ITF junior rank-
ing points in different years
Years Female Male
Born in H1 Born in H2 Born in H1 Born in H2
2003 only 94 71 63 38
2004 only 123 108 125 85
2005 only 96 111 243 250
2003 and 2004 139 94 77 34
2003 and 2005 11 9 26 11
2004 and 2005 109 106 217 216
2003, 2004 and 2005 170 120 196 129
Total 742 619 947 763
Season-of-birth effects on world rankings 277
each half of the year who entered or exited the rankings in particular years
and to compare the proportion of players born in each half of the year who
rose in the rankings over a one- or two-year period. The change in median
world ranking of players was compared between players born in each half of
the year using Mann Whitney U tests. For each of the inferential procedures
used in the study, a P value of less than 0.05 indicated a significant difference
or association.
Results
Table 39.2 shows that in each year from 2003 to 2005, there were significantly
more male junior players achieving ranking points who had been born in H1
than H2. There were significantly more female junior players achieving rank-
ing points who had been born in H1 than in H2 in 2003 and 2004 but not in
2005. In both the male and female players, the chi square value and hence the
level of significance decreased steadily from 2003 and 2005. The total number
of 1987- and 1988-born male players who were ranked increased from 2003 to
2005 as older players gradually moved into senior tennis. However, the total
number of 1987- and 1988-born female players who were ranked in the ITF
junior rankings decreased from 2004 to 2005, possibly due to some of these
players participating in senior competition before the age of 18.
Table 39.3 summarizes changes in the set of players who were ranked in
2003 and 2004 and Table 39.4 summarizes changes in the set of players who
were ranked in 2004 and 2005. These tables categorize the players into three
groups; those ranked in both of the two years of interest, those leaving the
rankings in the second of the two years and those appearing in the rankings
in the second year having not been ranked in the first year. There were no
significant differences in the proportions of the three types of players between
the female players born in H1 and H2 from 2003 to 2004 (χ22 = 4.9, P = 0.085)
or from 2004 to 2005 (χ22 = 5.7, P = 0.057). However, half-year of birth did
have a significant influence on the proportions of male players entering and
Table 39.2 Half year of birth of 1987- and 1988-born players with junior ranking
points in each year
Gender Half year of birth Total χ21 P
Year H1 H2
Female
2003 414 294 708 22.0 < 0.001
2004 541 428 969 14.8 < 0.001
2005 386 346 732 2.8 0.096
Male
2003 362 212 574 41.3 < 0.001
2004 615 464 1079 23.2 < 0.001
2005 682 606 1288 5.6 0.018
Table 39.3 Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players achieving ranking
points in 2003 and 2004
Female Male
H1 H2 Total H1 H2 Total
Ranked in 2003 but 105 80 185 89 49 138

not in 2004
Ranked in 2003 and 309 214 523 273 163 436
2004
Appearing in 2004 232 214 446 342 301 643
Total 646 508 1154 704 513 1217
Table 39.4 Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players achieving ranking
points in 2004 and 2005
Female Male
H1 H2 Total H1 H2 Total
Ranked in 2004 but 262 202 464 202 119 321

not in 2005
Ranked in 2004 and 279 226 505 413 345 758
2005
Appearing in 2005 107 120 227 269 261 530
Total 648 548 1196 884 725 1609
exiting the rankings from 2003 to 2004 (χ22 = 12.3, P = 0.002) and from 2004
to 2005 (χ22 = 12.1, P = 0.002). Between 2003 and 2004 the ratio of new arriv-
ing male players to leavers was 3.8:1 for players born in H1 and 6.1:1 for
players born in H2. Between 2004 and 2005 the ratio of arriving players to
leavers was 1.3:1 for the male players born in the H1 and 2.2:1 for the male
players born in H2. The 291 H1 born male players dropping of the rankings
between 2004 and 2005 is 73 per cent higher than the 168 H2 born male
players who dropped out over the same period.
As well as analysing participation levels of 1987 and 1988 born players in
the ITF junior circuit, it was desirable to monitor and compare their world
rankings over the three-year period. Table 39.5 summarizes the end of year
ITF junior rankings of the 290 female and 325 male players who had
achieved ranking points in all three years. The female players’ rankings
improved from 2003 before declining in 2005. The male players’ rankings
improved considerably from 2003 to 2004, but there were different fortunes
experienced by the H1- and H2-born players between 2004 and 2005. The
H1 born players dropped 10 ranking points on average between 2004 and
2005 in comparison to the 79 places dropped by the H2 born players. A Mann
Table 39.5 World rankings of male and female players born in the first and second
halves of the year who had achieved ranking points in all three years (2003, 2004 and
2005)
Born in first half of year Born in second half of year
2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005
Female
L. Quartile 260.5 173 183 239.25 135.75 210
Median 545 380.5 521 539 314.5 539.5
U. Quartile 955 629.8 914 1027 758.5 997.75
Male
L. Quartile 428.25 168.75 132.75 410 140.5 156.5
Median 667 350.5 360.5 701 353 432
U. Quartile 1079 598.75 770.25 993.5 729.5 917.5
Whitney U test did not find a significantly greater improvement in world

ranking between the female players born in H1 and H2 from 2003 to 2004
(z = −0.327, P = 0.744) or from 2003 to 2005 (z = −0.938, P = 0.348) or
between the male players born in H1 and H2 from 2003 to 2004 (z = −0.517,
P = 0.129). However, the improvement in the median world ranking of the H1
born male players from 667th to 360.5th between 2003 and 2005 was signifi-
cantly greater than the improvement from 701st to 432nd for the male players
born in H2.

This study has tracked the participation of the 3071 players born in 1987 or
1988 who appeared in the ITF junior world rankings in 2003, 2004 or 2005.
Despite only covering the first three years of a longitudinal study, some
interesting patterns have already been observed. First, while the number of
1987- and 1988-born male players achieving ranking points rose steadily from
2003 to 2005, the number of 1987- and 1988-born females decreased after
2004. An explanation of the fall in the number of 1987- and 1988-born
female players in the ITF junior rankings in 2006 is that some had already
commenced their senior careers. Indeed, there were 61 of these female players
who were already ranked in the top 500 senior female players in the world at
the end of 2005 (WTA rankings) compared with 11 of the 1987- or 1988-born
male players who were ranked in the top 500 senior male players (ATP rank-
ings). The earlier maturation in females than males (Malina, 1990) may
explain the ability of larger numbers of female players to compete in the
senior tour before the age of 18. There may also be a greater strength of
depth in the men’s senior game than in the women’s senior game as it is more
difficult for 17- and 18-year-old male players to achieve top 500 rankings
in the world senior rankings. Evidence of the greater strength in depth in the
men’s game also comes from the 2006 French Open where four unseeded
male players reached round four and two reached the quarter finals. There
were no unseeded players in the same rounds of the women’s singles.
O’Donoghue (2004) also found that there were fewer matches where players
were defeated by lower ranked opponents in women’s singles than in men’s
singles.
The current results agree with previous investigations into tennis that there
is a skewed season of birth distribution (Dudink, 1994; Baxter-Jones, 1995;
Edgar and O’Donoghue, 2005) with more H1-born players participating in
the ITF junior tour. However, the proportion of players born in H1 was not
as high as the 85 per cent reported by Baxter-Jones (1995) for elite junior
players. This study has discovered that the proportion of players achieving
ranking points who were born in 1987 or 1988 declined in both male and
female groups to the extent that in 2005, the season of birth distribution was
no longer significantly different to a theoretically expected distribution for
the female players. The changes in the numbers of H1- and H2-born players
between 2003 and 2005 shown in Table 39.2 result from the balance of players
entering the rankings and players leaving the rankings as shown in Tables
39.3 and 39.4. The larger number of H1-born players who leave the rankings
may be explained by some of these players not being as talented as their
H2-born counterparts. Such player may have been able to achieve ranking
points up to the ages of 15 and 16 as a result of their relative age advantage
over H2-born players. This relative age advantage will decrease as the players
mature. The relative age advantage enjoyed by the H1 players before the age
of 16 may be largely physical, which would agree with the views expressed by
Edwards (1994) that there are physical effects as well as psychological effects
of relative age advantage. As these players become older, the physical advan-
tage over H2-born players reduces which may lead to some H1-born players
becoming discouraged when they are not able to compete as effectively as
when they were younger. The psychological effects associated with such
experiences may lead some to drop out of the sport.
There are limitations in the methods used in the current investigation that
must be recognized. First, where players do not appear in the rankings, it may
not be due to injury or competing at senior level but being ranked outside the
world’s top 500 senior players. Some players’ junior rankings decline because
they have partially competed in the ITF junior tour but concentrated on
senior tournaments. An example is Andrew Murray of Scotland who was the
ninth ranked junior at the end of 2003 and the eighth ranked junior at the end
of 2004. At the end of 2005, he was ranked 301st in the ITF junior rankings
but 64th in the ATP senior rankings. This research will continue, following
the careers of these 1987- and 1988-born players comparing the progress of
those born in H1 and H2. There are many research questions that will be
addressed by this longitudinal study. If the level of participation in senior
Grand Slam tournaments changes in different ways for the players born in
the different halves of the year, it will provide evidence of psychological
factors associated with the relative age effect. It is possible that some H1-born
players may not have as much genuine talent and will fall in the senior world
rankings and drop out of the sport. The H2-born players may rise though the
rankings, thus feeling encouraged to prolong their careers. Alternatively, if
the H1 players have been misidentified as talented, they may improve as a
result of the opportunities of higher levels of coaching and competition
(Rejewski et al., 1979).
In conclusion, this research has applied a more dynamic approach to
investigating season-of-birth effects in sport by following participation levels
of a set of players over a period of three years. There was a skewed month-of-
birth distribution in the 1987- and 1988-born players in 2003 to 2005, with a
more pronounced skewed distribution in the male players. However, between
2003 and 2005 the proportion of players who had been born in H1 reduced in
both male and female players.
References
Barnsley, R.H., Thompson, A.H. and Barnsley, P.E. (1985). Hockey success and
birthdate: the relative age effect. Canadian Association for Health, Physical Educa-
tion and Recreation, 51, 23–28.
Baxter-Jones, A.D.G. (1995). Growth and development of young athletes: should
competition be age related? Sports Medicine, 20, 59–64.
Brewer, J., Balsom, P.D. and Davis, J.A. (1995). Season of birth distribution amongst
European soccer players. Sports, Exercise and Injury, 1, 154–157.
Boucher, J.L. and Mutimer, B.T.P. (1994). The relative age phenomenon in sport:
replication and extension with ice-hockey players. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 65, 377–381.
Dudink, A. (1994). Birth date and sporting success. Nature, 368, 592.
Edgar, S. and O’Donoghue, P.G. (2005). Season of birth distribution of elite tennis
players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 1013–1020.
Edwards, S. (1994) Born too late to win? Nature, 370, 186.
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Malina), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 637–653.
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for a systematic discrimination against children born late in the competition year.
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O’Donoghue, P.G. (2004). The advantage of playing less sets than the opponent in the
previous two rounds of Grand Slam tennis tournaments. In Science and Racket
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pp. 175–178.
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study. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 311–319.
Simmons, C. and Paul, G.C. (2001). Season-of-birth bias in association football.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 677–686.
Thompson, A., Barnsley, R. and Stebelsky, G. (1991). Born to play ball: the relative
age effect and major league baseball. Sociology of Sport Journal, 8, 146–151.
40 Health-related habits of
tennis coaches
B. R. Matković, B. Matković and L. Ružić
Introduction
Sports in general, as well as other professions that are in close relation with
sport are usually presumed to be in connection with life quality, in particular
regarding health. Most people would conclude that those involved profes-
sionally in sport lead a healthy way of life, take care about their dietary habits
and avoid most of the habits that would endanger health. Sports coaches
would be a typical example of a professional who should be well aware of the
basis of healthy living, although this has never been scientifically proven and
there is a lack of published work dealing with this issue.
The World Health Organization has already established the main factors
influencing health, being socio-economic factors, way of life and physical
environment (WHO, 2003). The risk factors in relation to the way of life
are nutrition, physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol consumption and use of
drugs.
The main purpose of sport coaches is to teach the athletes the basic and
advanced skills and knowledge that is needed to compete in sports competi-
tions. Coaches lead the team through training whose principal goals are
improvement of physical fitness, sports technique and skills, knowledge about
the sport and tactical assignments in order to improve performance during
competition. Apart from that the coaches are responsible for team spirit,
selection, leadership of the player or team during competition and they are
frequently involved in solving problems that are not always related to sport.
All that leads to extreme working hours, irregular schedules, many hours of
evening work and of course many weekends spent working, often much more
than the regular 40 hours a week.
Good results are a must and poor results often lead to loss of employment.
Taking that into account we must presume that coaching is definitely a pro-
fession that has a high amount of stress involved and that surely has an
impact on health.
Though these are well-known facts, this profession has never been of major
interest to scientists working in the field of occupational medicine. Sometimes
the only information related to the health of coaches is the notice in a sports
Health-related habits of tennis coaches 283
magazine announcing the death of a coach caused by myocardial infarction
or similar, and usually everybody assumes that as the profession of a coach is
related to sport that they also lead a healthy life, full of physical activity with
no unhealthy habits.
The aim of this research is to determine the health-related habits of tennis
coaches regarding nutrition, smoking and alcohol consumption.
Methods
The sample comprises 49 male tennis coaches from Croatia, for whom dietary
habits, alcohol consumption and smoking habits were determined. A new
questionnaire was constructed based on previous national and international
studies (Paugh, 2005; Matković et al., 2006). The questionnaires were com-
pleted anonymously on a voluntary basis.
Smoking habits were detected with simple questions with Yes or No
answers, the number and type of cigarettes were determined. Questions about
alcohol consumption were connected with the type of drink, daily amounts,
heavy drinking and drinking in front of athletes. Dietary habits of the sub-
jects were determined by items regarding the number of meals per day, skip-
ping meals, intake of particular food subgroups based on the food pyramid,
liquid intake and vitamin and mineral supplement intake, especially those
used usually in sports.
The data were analysed by standard statistical procedures, with the stat-
istical software package STATISTICA for Windows. The correlations between
nutritional knowledge and dietary habits were tested by Pearson correlation
coefficient. The level for significance was set at P < 0.05.

With regard to alcohol consumption, the results of our study (Table 40.1)
indicate that all 61 per cent of coaches are light-to-moderate drinkers and
most of them are drinking one to two glasses of wine with their main meals.
It seems that coaches are not engaged in occasional heavy drinking and, the
most important thing, they are not used to drinking in front of their players.
It is well established that large amounts of alcohol have detrimental effect on
health influencing most of the organs (Kasper et al., 2004). The scientific
Table 40.1 Alcohol consumption of tennis coaches
Alcohol Beer Wine Spirits
0.3 l/day 0.2 l/day 0.03 l/day
Yes No 1–2 3–5 >5 1–2 3–5 >5 1–2 3–5 >5
30 19 15 2 0 27 3 0 11 0 0
284 B. R. Matković, B. Matković and L. Ružić
investigations established a J-shaped relationship between alcohol use and
health with the lowest mortality and morbidity risk occurring among light
and moderate drinkers (Gunzerath et al., 2004). Light-to-moderate drinking
is defined as no more than two drinks per day for healthy men (U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture,
2000). Lighter drinking carries lower total mortality risk largely because of
lower coronary disease risk. The investigators connect this findings with anti-
oxidant and antithrombotic substances present in wine, mostly in red wine,
which are potentially beneficial against atherothrombotic disease and cancer
(Booyse and Park, 2001; Paschall and Lipton, 2005). From Klatsky et al.’s
(2003) prospective study of over 12,000 Californians, light-to-moderate wine
drinking was associated with the lowest risk for all-cause and coronary dis-
ease mortality. They also reported that light-to-moderate beer and spirits
drinkers had also lower mortality risk relative to lifetime abstainers. So the
light-to-moderate habit of wine or beer drinking in the tennis coaches in this
study may have beneficial long-term health effects.
Smoking is unfortunately widely accepted and though the campaign against
smoking is going on in Croatia, as in many countries worldwide, the real
results are still not apparent, and the number of deaths caused by trachea,
bronchial and lung cancer is still very high (Prabhat and Chaloupka, 1999;
Samet and Yang, 2001; Samet and Yoon, 2001). The results of our study for
smoking habits (Table 40.2) found that 27.3 per cent of tennis coaches are
smokers. This is under the estimated average ratio in the Croatian population
which in the male population is 34.1 per cent (data from Croatian Ministry of
Health – School of Public Health ‘Andrija Štampar’ – www.snz.hr, 2006). The
good thing in this finding is that most of the smokers are smoking between five
and ten cigarettes per day. Interestingly, there are no pipe or cigar smokers.
Among the non-smokers there are also those who previously were smokers.
The dietary habits questionnaire consisted of 18 questions (Table 40.3,
Paugh, 2005). According to the results it was obvious that the dietary habits
of the coaches were not adequate. In particular, there was a problem with
skipping meals and eating fast food. Probably this was in connection with
their busy schedule due to closely following one or more tennis players.
Coaches are rarely dieting and they do not seek nutrition information nor are
they recording what they eat.
The lack of interest in recent findings in the area of nutrition, not only
sports nutrition, can be devastating for coaches because today there are
Table 40.2 Smoking habits of tennis coaches
Smoking Per day
Yes No If ever 5–10 11–20 > 20
13 36 10 9 3 1
Health-related habits of tennis coaches 285
Table 40.3 Nutrition habits questionnaire (Paugh, 2005)
1 How often do you eat breakfast in the morning?

2 Based on three meals per day, how often do you skip at least one meal per day?
3 How often do you take vitamin supplements?
4 How often do you take mineral supplements?
5 How often do you eat three base meals per day?
6 How often do you record what you eat?
7 How often do you drink water?
8 How often do you drink carbonated beverages?
9 How often are you on a ‘diet’?
10 How often do you eat breads, cereals, pasta, potatoes, or rice?
11 How often do you eat fruits, such as apples, bananas, or oranges?
12 How often do you eat vegetables, such as broccoli, tomatoes, carrots, or salad?
13 How often do you eat dairy products such as milk, yogurt, or cheese?
14 How often do you eat berry jams, cookies, candies, or other sweets?
15 How often do you snack on foods like potato chips, cakes, candies, donuts, or
soda?
16 How often do you snack on foods like bagels, yogurt, popcorn, pretzels, or fruits?
17 How often do you eat fast food?
18 How often do you seek out nutrition information?
scientific proofs that good dietary habits influence to a large extent a person’s
health. This conflicts with the notion that coaches are most of the time
educators for their players, and this lack of knowledge can affect players’
performance.
Conclusion
Tennis coaches are part of the population that have their own life style char-
acteristics and because of their connection to athletes, especially young ones,
their way of life deserves to be researched. As sports have a very important
role in many nations worldwide, coaches are of great importance. Their edu-
cation in all fields would surely contribute to the improvement of an athlete’s
performance.
References
Booyse, F.M. and Parks, D.A. (2001). Moderate wine and alcohol consumption: bene-
ficial effects on cardiovascular disease. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86: 517–528.
286 B. R. Matković, B. Matković and L. Ružić
Croatian Ministry of Health (2006) www.snz.hr/nepusenje/site/Itemspage.php?
strana_id=13& (last accessed 18.6.2006).
Gunzerath, L., Faden, V., Zakhari, S. and Warren, K. (2004). National Institute
on Alcochol Abuse and Alcocholism report on moderate drinking. Alcocholism:
Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 829–847.
Kasper, D.L., Braunwald, E., Fauci, A.S. et al. (2004). Harrison’s Principles of
Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company.
Klatsky, A.L., Friedman, G.D., Armstrong, M.A. and Kipp, H. (2003). Wine, liquor,
beer, and mortality. American Journal of Epidemiology, 158, 585–595.
Matković, B., Knjaz, D. and Cigrovski, V. (2006). Znanje trenera o sportskoj prehrani
[Sport nutrition knowledge of coaches]. Hrvatski športsko medicinski vjesnik, 21(1),
3–8.
Paschall, M. and Lipton, R.I. (2005). Wine preference and related health determin-
ants in a U.S. national sample of young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 78,
339–344.
Paugh, S.L. (2005). Dietary habits and nutritional knowledge of college athletes.
Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Pennsylvania, USA.
Prabhat, Jha. and Chaloupka, F.J. (1999). Curbing the epidemic: governments and the
economics of tobacco control. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Samet, J.M. and Yoon, S-Y. (2001). Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for
the 21st century. Geneva: World Health Association.
Samet, J.M. and Yang, G. (2001). Passive smoking, women and children. In Women
and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century (edited by J.M. Samet
and S.-Y. Yoon), Geneva: World Health Organization, pp. 17–45.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture
(2000). Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 5th edn.
Home and Garden Bulletin 2000; Nr. 23, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2003). Shaping the Future. www.who.int/whr/
2003/en/
41 Integrated functional
evaluation
A specific proposal for badminton
C. Blasco, A. Ruiz and R.P. Garrido
Introduction
Coaches know the importance of a constant assessment of all the elements of
the training programme, particularly those concerning physical fitness. As
a result, the so-called functional evaluation has become more and more
important. Over the last few years, a number of assessment units have been
established, with their appropriate medical equipment and technology, so as
to take constant measurements that allow us to speed up and make the best
of the performance optimization processes.
The purpose of a good functional evaluation is to provide significant data
that will regard and view athletes as entire beings, as a whole dynamic system
subjected to constant fluctuations. Since we obviously support the proposals
of integrated training (Seirul-lo Vargas, 2003), it is timely to highlight the
necessity of a similarly integrated functional evaluation.
After a few years of non-specific and doubtful usefulness of batteries of
tests that provided very interesting data on the functional abilities of our
players but little information on the level of their specific abilities, we con-
sidered that the prospect of integration would be of great importance in
order to validate the results of any assessment and use them to guide the
training process.
The following text presents a model of integral functional evaluation in
which the results of all the elements assessed are regarded as interrelated.
Likewise, we think that it is very important that the opinion of all the profes-
sionals involved in the assessment goes on record in order for the evaluation
to be integral.
Before giving a direct explanation of the work done, we present a summary
(see Box 41.1) in which we have tried to show the main objectives of an
integrated functional evaluation, as well as a quotation that, from our point
of view, reasserts the necessity of assessing the individual in a dynamic,
specific and integral fashion:
‘The chance of finding the most appropriate exercise for each ideal tech-
nical model seems to be much smaller than if we changed the exercises
288 C. Blasco, A. Ruiz and R.P. Garrido
constantly, so that the subject would go through so many situations that he
would be able to solve, in the most appropriate fashion, the problems that
might come up, in accordance with his/her own characteristics, those of
his/her adversary (in case of competitive sports) and the game situation.’
(Tous, 1999)
Box 41.1 Objectives of functional evaluation (based on Blázquez, 1990)
• PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
* Gather and arrange data concerning the functional condition
of the athlete:
Identify and diagnose the level of the athlete’s performance:
a) Generic diagnosis: anthropometric assessment, somatic
characteristics and general physical level.
b) Specific diagnosis: level of technical–tactical execution
in accordance with the specific demands of the cate-
gory, in contexts of maximum physiological condition.
c) Emotional diagnosis: level of motivation and interest
in the sport practiced within the above-mentioned
contexts.
d) Diagnosis of weak points.
Foretell and predict possible improvements and/or achieve-
ments of both the athlete and the group.
* Gather and arrange data concerning the training process:
Direct and re-adjust the training process at all its levels,
both individually and as a group.
Group together according to levels and adjust the new
objectives for each group/level.
Inform trainers and athletes about the objectives/progresses
of the training process.
• SECONDARY OBJECTIVES
Motivate and encourage both athletes and coaches.
Assess the effectiveness of the training system.
Research into the training process itself.
Research into the evaluation itself.
Apart from explaining the individual physiology, our functional evaluation

must analyse the interdependent behaviour of our player with regard to the
requirements of the game. If we evaluate the fatigue or motivation, among
other elements, because they are considered to influence the technical –
tactical behaviour, we think that it is necessary to place the stress on that
behaviour by monitoring, analysing and assessing it in accordance with the
Integrated functional evaluation 289
information provided by the evaluation as a whole (anthropometries, blood
lactate levels, and so on).
Methods
We designed several specific prototypes for the integral functional evaluation
for badminton players at the Centro de Tecnificación (Technical Centre)
of Alicante where we train a group of 14 first national-level players. These
players belong to the Technification team of the Superior Council of Sports
of the Autonomous Region of Valencia, which allows us easy access to
functional assessments, medical care, and so on.
Over the last three years, we have gone from the traditional evaluation of
measurements of oxygen consumption using a treadmill (evaluation that we
kept making at the beginning of the season to obtain the initial data) to more
aspiring proposals of integrated evaluation. In this article, we will present the
latest proposal on which we have been working. As we shall now explain,
the test gathers together a significant amount of data which makes the par-
ticipation of different professionals necessary. Therefore, and in view of the
complexity of the data to be analysed, we have chosen to present only one
case study, so that we will be able to explain properly the way in which our
proposal must be undertaken.
The athlete analysed plays in the club league and has a medium-high
sports level. He moved to Alicante a year ago and is in the process of adapta-
tion to our systems of training. We could describe him as the classical athlete
with very high functional abilities, but with many technical and specific
deficiencies.
This test is based on the technical response of the athlete in situations of
maximum fatigue, so we have called it Integral Test of Fatigue in Badminton.
The test is passed when the player is able to tolerate maximum levels of
fatigue after a certain training period.
Professionals involved and their roles
• Doctor and Registered Nurse: they collect data on reactive force from the
Bosco test, saturation and blood lactate levels.
• Coach: who feeds multi-shuttlecocks in training and provides motivation
and general monitoring of the player.
• Physical Trainer: who is in general control of the test, with special
attention to the measurement of times.
• Second Coach: who records the test results and controls the full collection
of data for each player.
Materials used and its organization

A video camera (Sony DCR-HC 18E) was placed five metres from the
back line of the court, behind the player executing the test, and in line
with the centre line. The mat for the Bosco test (Ergo jump from Globus)
was situated in front of the camera, between it and the court. Both the
Staturimeter (portable pulseoxymeter, TuffSat, Datex-Ohmeda), and the rest
of the materials for the blood lactate levels were placed on a table in line with
the mat, although slightly to one side to prevent them from hindering the
player’s view. The player wore a heart rate meter (Polar S610i) throughout
the test.
Format and development of the test

After an appropriate warm-up of about 15 minutes, the test starts with
all the professionals ready at their working places. The physical trainer
marks the performance times of the groups. As over 80 per cent of play lasts
less than 10-s this duration was used for the Bosco test (Cabello and
González-Badillo, 2003). The numbering in Box 41.2 refers to the order in
which all the performances take place.
Box 41.2 Integral test of fatigue in badminton

1 Capture of basal lactate and heart rate (HR) pre-test.
2 Bosco Test of reactivity for 10-s (data on mean strength; mean
height in cm and number of jumps).
30-s of pre-game break (the player gets ready on court)
3 Game series: Blocks of specific work of four exercises. Multi-
shuttlecocks with a 20-s pause between exercises. The first and third
series of game are developed counting the number of shuttles. The
second series take place according to time, not the number of
shuttles.
20 shuttlecocks – movements from behind striking with order 20-s
20 shuttlecocks – movements forwards/backwards with order 20-s
30 shuttlecocks – 4 points (two forwards and two sideways)
with no order 30-s
30 shuttlecocks – no order on court 30-s
4 HR0 or HR post-test (immediately after the end of the game).
5 Bosco test of reactivity for 10-s post-test.
6 Lactate 1 and HR1 (after a minute’s recovery); the athlete is asked
about his assessment of the effort perceived according to the Borg’s
scale (EP).
7 Lactate 3 and HR3 (after three minutes’ recovery).
8 HR5, end of the recovery stage and pre-test (after five minutes and
before block 2).
Integrated functional evaluation 291
Once the test has been performed, its analysis presents four well-distinguished
stages:
1 Stage of data collection in the List of data record (Figure 41.1). The
following day, all the professionals enter their data on the athletes’
individual list using Excel.
2 Stage of analysis. The analysis is made through the joint viewing of the
video; the physical trainer monitors and completes the List of data record
(Figure 41.1) with (1) the times and number of shuttlecocks of each
sequence in order to fill in the data concerning the execution speed or
actions per second (number of shuttlecocks executed/time of execution
of the sequence). With this value we measure the rate or intensity of the
sequences and (2) the technical quality of the jumps in Bosco and jumps
and movements on court, etc. At the same time we also evaluate feelings
of fatigue/athlete’s freshness, effort motivation. All these elements are
gathered in the observation section. The coach monitors and writes down
the different items relating to technique execution, errors, etc, on the
List of qualitative evaluation (Table 41.1). In this stage, every sequence
is viewed as many times as considered necessary, both the joint assess-
ment and communication between both professionals being of great
importance.
3 Stage of report completion. At the end of this stage in which both tech-
nicians must have worked jointly, getting the information and signifi-
cance of medical data, the two lists of which the final report consists
must be finished: the list of quantitative evaluation (Figure 41.1) is thus
completed with the List of qualitative evaluation (Table 41.1). This list
is directed to the conditional assessment that justifies and explains the
reason why the technical-tactical behaviour is analysed.
4 Stage of communication with the athlete and viewing / analysis of the test.
Results
Quantitatively, it is necessary to highlight problems of foot support and bal-
ance after the shots and in movements. The Bosco test confirmed the lack of
reactive strength. Technical defects become very pronounced with fatigue.
However, conditionally the lactate values are good, appropriate to the effort,
with high lactacide tolerance and heart rate, which do not prevent him from
being in high spirits and showing good tolerance to fatigue. These elements,
along with the qualitative observation, are very clear in his assessment of the
perceived effort, with low values for the physiological fatigue pointed out by
the rest of the data. His saturation values remain high until the third series,
which show his good physical fitness and recovery.
Figure 41.1 Quantitative evaluation. At the top, the record of the partial times of
effort and rest can be found, as well as the totals for each exercise and
series; the number of executed shuttles and execution speed. At the bot-
tom, on the right side, chart of mean speed for each exercise and series (in
columns) and heart rate (in lines).

At the psychological-emotional and metabolic level, the subject is within the
normal range. At the neuromuscular level it is necessary to put the stress on
technique and strength. The fatigue affects the errors even more, so we will
have to work hard on this aspect.
As for the design of the test, it is not necessary to collect unforced errors in
future analyses, for it is a fatigue test where he exerts himself in practically all
the shots. The sequences still seem to be too long, thus we will have to review
the suggested structure of the effort in the test, in order for it to more
resemble a competition.
Table 41.1 List of qualitative evaluation
SERIES 1 Movement from behind Movement forwards/ Four points forwards/ The whole court with no
backwards sideways order
FORCED ERRORS 2 shuttles 6 shuttles 10 shuttles 5 shuttles

UNFORCED ERRORS 3 shuttles 6 shuttles 6 shuttles
BODY POSITION He does not jump in the rectified He does not turn the He does not use his left He does not use his left
side, nor does he turn his body body arm to compensate arm to compensate
when striking in the right side
FOOT POSITION Wrong position of feet towards He drags his left foot He does not get back He puts too much pressure
the right side forwards into position quickly on the sole of his foot when
moving
RACKET POSITION He does not strike the shuttle up Between the shots and He holds the racket He holds the racket down
when striking in the net down after striking the after striking the shuttle
he holds the racket down shuttle
OBSERVATIONS He does not look in the direction where he wants to send the shuttle. Lack of accuracy in all the exercises. For
future evaluations, it will not be necesary to gather unforced errors since it is a fatigue test and he exerts himself in
practically all the shots.
References
Blasco, C. (2003). The functional evaluation in individual sports. Fifth Conference on
the Improvement of Sports Performance. Alicante: DGD, Generalitat.
Blázquez, D. (1990). Evaluation in Physical Education. Barcelona: Inde.
Cabello, D. and González-Badillo, J.J. (2003). An analysis of the characteristics of
competitive badminton. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 37, 18–25
Seirul-lo Vargas, F. (2003). Dynamic Systems and performance in team sports. First
Meeting of Complex System and Sport. Barcelona: INEF.
Tous, J. (1999). New Tendencies Towards Strength and Muscle-building. Barcelona:
Fajardo.
42 The social structure of racket
sports practice in Spain
R. Llopis Goig and D. Llopis Goig
Introduction
Tennis was first played in Spain towards the end of the nineteenth century at
the Universal Exhibition of Barcelona in 1888. A year later, the Royal Tennis
Club of Barcelona was founded, now the oldest tennis club still working in
Spain. In 1902 the Recreation Club of San Sebastian and the English Club of
Madrid were founded. By 1909 the basis of the Royal Tennis Federation of
Spain, as it is now known, was fully working and four years later became a
member of the Lawn Tennis Association, which in those days established the
rules for worldwide tennis playing. Even as late as 1969 the Spanish Tennis
Federation only had seven thousand members while at present there are
97,309 members. This means that, according to memberships given out by
Spanish Sports Federations, tennis is the eighth most popular sport played in
Spain. Referring to popular sports played in Spain the latest survey on sports
habits show that 8.9 per cent of the sport-playing population prefer tennis,
putting this in ninth place behind swimming, football, cycling, fitness, moun-
tain sports, aerobics, jogging and basketball (García Ferrando, 2006).
In Spain, tennis is a sport with a strong social impact, the proof of which is
shown not only through the above-mentioned facts but also through the
numerous international achievements dating from the 1960s. There have
been many successful tennis players: M. Santana, A. Gimeno, M. Orantes,
J. Higueras, Sánchez Vicario brother and sister, S. Bruguera, C. Costa,
A. Berasátegui, A. Corretja, C. Martínez, S. Casal, J. Arrese, C. Moyá,
J.C. Ferrero and R. Nadal. However, in spite of this, neither historians
nor sociologists have paid much attention to tennis (Adrio, 2005). Thus, con-
trary to what has happened in other countries (Saeki, 1990; McKay, 1983;
Vanreusel et al., 2002; Defrance and Pociello, 1993; Földesi et al., 1994) in
Spain we know little about this issue.
This study describes the social structure of the practice of racket sports in
Spain, namely tennis, table tennis, pelota (that is to say: ‘frontón’, ‘trinquete’
and ‘frontenis’, local varieties of racket sports), paddle, squash and bad-
minton. The study, which is a social analysis, aims to advance the scientific
knowledge of these sports in the context of a more general analysis of
296 R. Llopis Goig and D. Llopis Goig
Spanish sports habits (García Ferrando, 2001, 2006). The first aim is to show
the relevance of racket sports in as far as the number of people playing them,
the historical evolution of the games and the nature of the playing. The
second aim is to analyse the social structure and stratifications patterns of
these sports practices (Bourdieu, 1991; Sugden and Tomlinson, 2000; Scheer-
der and Breedveld, 2004)
Methods
The data analysed was gathered from the Survey on the Sports Habits of the
Spanish carried out by Consejo Superior de Deportes (CSD) and Centro de
Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) during the months of March and April
2005. During the survey 8,170 people of both sexes between the ages of 15
and 75 were interviewed. The area covered was national, including the
islands, Ceuta and Melilla. The survey was carried out in 389 towns of 52
provinces. A multi-stage sample with stratified clusters and primary sampling
units (municipalities) and secondary sampling units (sections) in a pro-
portional and aleatory way, was chosen. The final units (individuals) were
found according to random assignment and sex and age quotas. The field-
work was carried out from 18 March to 25 April 2005. The sampling error for
a confidence level of 95.5 per cent (two sigma), a p = q, and according for a
simple random sample was ± 1.11.
This study needed individual samples of those playing tennis, table tennis,
pelota, paddle, squash and badminton. These were included in the above-
mentioned Survey on the Sports Habits of the Spanish 2005. These indi-
vidual samples included 440 cases, representing the Spanish population aged
between 15 and 75.
Results
Racket sports practice in Spain

An estimated 5.4 per cent of the Spanish population aged between 15 and 74
and 14.4 per cent of the total population play some of the six racket sports
available. The estimated numbers participating in each sport are given in
Table 42.1.
The information obtained in the available surveys on the sports habits of
the Spanish allows us to trace back the evolution of racket sports over the last
decade. The information contained in Table 42.2 suggests a trend towards a
fall in the practice of tennis, pelota and table tennis. In the last ten years the
number of those playing the first two forms has come down to half. The other
three racket sports were not included in the 1995 survey, but they were
included in the 2000 survey. In the survey carried out in 2005 the trend
towards a growth in the number of players stopped, at least in the case of
squash and badminton.
The social structure of racket sports practice 297
Table 42.1 Racket sports participation in Spain
Game type % between 15 % of total population Estimation of

and 75 who play sports number of players
Tennis 3.4 8.9 1,136,052

Pelota 1.0 2.7 334,133
Paddle 0.9 2.4 300,720
Table tennis 0.7 1.8 233,893
Squash 0.5 1.3 167,066
Badminton 0.2 0.5 66,827
Total of racket sports 5.4 14.4 1,804,317
Source: Table compiled by the authors using data from Survey E-2599, CIS, April 2005.
Table 42.2 Change in participation (% of population) in racket sports in Spain
Historical evolution 1995 2000 2005
Tennis 18.0 13.0 8.9

Pelota 5.0 3.8 1.8
Paddle 6.0 3.9 2.7
Table tennis – 1.4 2.4
Squash – 1.9 1.3
Badminton – 0.8 0.5
Source: Table compiled by the authors using data from Survey E-2599, CIS, April 2005. 1995 and
2000 data from Ferrando (2002).
Table 42.3 Motivation for racket sports practice
Competes . . . Tennis Table tennis Pelota Paddle Squash Badminton
In national leagues 5.1 10.5 2.4 2.7 – –

In local or provincial 16.4 26.3 16.9 30.1 25.6 6.3
leagues
Just for fun with friends 23.3 15.8 26.5 17.8 23.1 37.5
Plays sports without 52.7 47.4 50.6 46.6 41.0 56.3
competing
Refused 2.5 – 3.6 2.7 10.3 –
In all six sports the highest percentage of those interviewed said that they
play sport without worrying about competing (Table 42.3). For players of
badminton, pelota or tennis, the second reason for playing is to amuse them-
selves with friends.
Among those who play paddle, table tennis and squash there was a higher
degree of participation in local or provincial leagues, but lower for pelota and
tennis, and much lower among those who play badminton.
Finally, participation in national leagues is 10.5 per cent for table tennis
players and 5.1 per cent for tennis players. In the case of paddle and pelota it
is 2.7 per cent and 2.4 per cent, whereas those who play squash and bad-
minton do not participate in national leagues.
Social structure of racket sports practice in Spain

In this section we analyse the main social and demographic variables and
their incidence on the practice of racket sports.
The first variable examined refers to sex. Table 42.4 shows that there are
more men than women playing racket sports which is reflected in tennis.
For the rest, with the exception of badminton which is the sport which shows
similar proportions of male and female players, about eight in ten players
are men.
Table 42.4 Racket sports practice according to sex
Sex Tennis Table tennis Pelota Paddle Squash Badminton Total
Male 76.1 83.2 88.0 82.7 89.7 62.5 76.5

Female 23.9 16.8 12.0 17.3 10.3 37.5 23.5
Table 42.5 Racket sports practice according to age
Age Tennis Table tennis Pelota Paddle Squash Badminton Total
15–24 35.2 49.1 24.1 24.3 23.1 56.3 36.1

25–34 32.9 25.3 33.7 41.9 35.9 37.5 31.7
35–44 17.4 19.6 30.1 27.0 30.8 6.2 18.2
45–54 8.6 2.5 7.2 6.8 10.3 – 8.0
55–64 4.3 3.6 1.2 – – – 4.4
65 and more 1.7 – 3.6 – – – 1.5
Table 42.6 Racket sports practice according to the highest education attainment
Education Tennis Table tennis Pelota Paddle Squash Badminton Total
Primary School 4.8 9.9 8.5 1.4 – 20.0 5.6

Secondary 21.5 23.6 31.7 6.8 13.2 33.3 20.4
School
Trade 17.2 16.6 21.9 17.6 15.8 – 18.6
qualification
A-levels 21.7 26.5 11.0 20.3 18.4 6.7 21.7
University 34.2 23.5 25.5 54.1 52.8 40.0 33.2
Refused/do not 0.5 – 1.2 – – – 0.5
know
The social structure of racket sports practice 299
The second variable examined is age (Table 42.5). Two thirds of players are
below 34 years. The sport with the youngest profile is badminton, with 93.8
per cent of its players younger than 34 years, followed by table tennis, tennis
and paddle. Pelota and squash are the sports whose players are the oldest.
The third variable examined is educational attainment. Generally, 33.2 per
cent of the people who practise some racket sport have a university degree
(Table 42.6) but it is more than a half for those who play paddle and squash.
In the case of tennis the different educational levels are much more evenly
distributed. Although those with university degrees are the most represented
group (34.3 per cent), as far as table tennis players are concerned, the most
common qualification is A-levels (26.5 per cent), followed closely by those
with secondary school completion (23.6 per cent) and University graduates
(23.5 per cent). The other two sports, pelota and badminton have more players
with secondary school and University education.
The fourth variable examined is employment status (see Table 42.7). Most
players are in the labour force with 63.5 per cent stated to be working. A total
of 82.5 per cent of squash players worked, followed by paddle and pelota.
However, we must point out that 26.5 per cent and 35.1 per cent of players of
tennis and table tennis were students. Finally, among badminton players
there is a clear majority of students (75 per cent).
Conclusions
Racket sports are practised by an estimated 1,804,317 people in Spain. This
amounts to 5.4 per cent of the Spanish population aged between 15 and 74
and 14.4 per cent of the Spanish who practise some sport. Tennis is the most
played racket sport with 8.9 per cent for those who practise some sport;
followed by pelota, paddle, table tennis, squash and badminton. In the last ten
years, tennis, pelota and table tennis have reduced in the number of players.
Squash and badminton figures have stopped growing and have reduced their
growth since 2000. The social structure of these sports suggests that most
Table 42.7 Racket sports practice according to employment status
Employment Tennis Table tennis Pelota Paddle Squash Badminton Total

status
Currently 64.5 48.9 69.0 74.0 82.5 25.0 63.5

working
Retired/ 2.4 – 7.1 – – – 2.2
Pensionist
Unemployed 4.6 12.6 4.8 4.1 7.5 – 5.6
Student 26.5 35.1 15.5 19.2 10.0 75.0 26.4
Domestic work 2.0 1.1 2.4 1.4 – – 1.9
Others – 2.3 1.2 1.4 – – 0.4
players are male between 15 and 34 years of age, with a University degree and
are in the labour force.
References
Adrio, M. (2005). 1880–1936. De una Historia Gloriosa I [A Glorious History 1]. In
Ciento Veinticinco Años de Tenis en España. Madrid: MA Editor.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Sport and social class. In Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural
Studies: Rethinking Popular Culture (edited by C. Mukerji and M. Schudson),
Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 357–373.
Defrance, J. and Pociello, C. (1993). Structure and evolution of the field of sports in
France, 1960–1990. International Review for Sociology of Sport, 28, 1–21.
Földesi, G.S., Irlinger, P., Louveau, C. and Metoudi, M. (1994). East–West: the prac-
tice of sports as revealing aspects of French and Hungarian societies International
Review for the Sociology of Sport, 29, 149–167.
García Ferrando, M. (2001). Los Españoles y el Deporte: Prácticas y Comportamientos
en la Última Década del Siglo XX [Spanish Population and Sport: Performance and
Practice during the Last Decade of the twentyith Century]. Madrid: CSD.
García Ferrando, M. (2002). Estructura social de la práctica deportiva [Social Struc-
ture of Sport], in Sociologia del Deporte [Sociology of Sport] (edited by M. García
Ferrando, N. Pug and F. Lagardera), Madrid, Alianza Editorial, pp. 43–68.
García Ferrando, M. (2006). Postmodernidad y Deporte: Entre la Individualización y la
Masificación [Postmodernity and Sport: Between Innovation and Overcrowding].
Madrid: CIS/CSD.
Mckay, J. (1983). The Democratization of Australian Sport. International Review for
the Sociology of Sport, 18, 91–111.
Saeki, T. (1990). The characteristics of sociological research on sport organization in
Japan. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 25, 109–123.
Scheerder, J. and Breedveld, K. (2004). Incomplete democratisation and signs of indi-
vidualisation. European Journal of Sport and Society, 1, 115–134.
Sugden, J. and Tomlinson, A. (2000). Theorizing sport, social class and status. In
Handbook of Sports Studies (edited by J. Coakley and E. Dunning), London: Sage,
pp. 309–321.
Vanreusel, B., Taks, M. and Renson, R. (2002). Belgium-Flanders. Origins, develop-
ment and trends of Sport for All. In Worldwide Experiences and Trends in Sport for
All (edited by L.P. DaCosta and A. Miragaya), Aachen: Meyer and Meyer Sport,
pp. 379–400.
Index
Note: italic page numbers denote references to Figures/Tables.
Abernethy, B. 157 154–61; sequential ball-hitting

acceleration 190 movements 177–8
aces 228, 229, 240 anticipatory locomotion movements 169,
action-perception link 150, 154–61 170, 171–2, 175, 177–8, 179–80,
advance cue utilization 146, 151, 155 181–3
aerobic performance: badminton 7, 9–10, arm perimeter 84, 87, 88
11, 70; squash 67; table tennis 162; arousal 169, 170
tennis 29–35, 36–43 assessment: integrated functional
Agassi, Andre 233, 234, 236 evaluation 287–94; junior badminton
age: badminton injuries 136–7; body players 70–6
mass 28; cardiovascular events 121, attack clear shot 200, 201, 201, 202, 202,
122; impact on anaerobic performance 203
22, 24, 25–7, 26, 28; relative age attention concentration 169, 170, 173
advantage 280–1; Spanish racket attitudes after injury 128
sports 298, 299 Australian Open 188
agility tests 9, 70, 72, 73–5, 73, 74, Australian tennis players 124–31
76 Austrian badminton players 197–203
alactacid energy production 9–10, 11, Azarbal, M. 115
22
Alain, C. 148 Baca, A. 208–13, 214–19
Alcaraz, P.E. 83–90 backhand stroke: badminton service 199,
alcohol consumption 282, 283–4, 283 199; muscle contraction 46
Alexander, D. 191 badminton: anthropometric profiles and
Álvarez, M.F. 139–42 body composition 83–90, 91–5;
Alvero Cruz, J.R. 64–9 anticipation skill 145, 146, 147, 154,
amino acids 59 157, 158; effective playing time 6;
anaerobic performance: table tennis 162; endurance and speed testing 7–9;
tennis 22–8 energy expenditure 77–82; forehand
anaerobic threshold: badminton 8, 9, 10; smash 102; game duration 192, 204–7;
squash 64; tennis 30–4 ground-foot interface 103–4; injuries
ankle injuries 116, 119, 136 112–17; integrated functional
anthropometric profiles: badminton evaluation 289–93; jump smash 100;
91–5; comparative study 83–90; junior players 70–6, 91–5; match
functional evaluation 288 characteristics 5–6; movement analysis
anticipation 145–53, 173; ball-flight 190; perception-action coupling 157;
169, 172, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182; performance analysis 188;
movement organization 167; physiological testing 5–13; plantar
perception-action perspective supports 132–8; playing patterns
302 Index
197–203; rally times 5–6; scoring Calbet, J.A.L. 44–50
systems 192, 204–7; Spain 295, 296, calcium (Ca) 80, 81
297, 297, 298, 298, 299, 299; sport Canda, A. 92
identity of players 255–61; stroke carbohydrates 61, 80, 81
frequency 6 carbon dioxide production (VCO2) 38,
Badminton England 70 39, 40, 41, 42
Bahamonde, R.E. 103 cardiovascular events 118, 119, 120, 121,
ball-hitting: impact point of ball 139; 122
psychomotor efficiency 169, 171; Carrasco, L. 83–90
sequential ball-hitting movements Carroll, D. 124
177–84 Carter, J.E.L. 92
ball type 244 catecholamine 6, 121
Barrera Expósito, J. 64–9 centre of gravity (COG) 139–42
Baxter-Jones, A.D.G. 88, 280 Charland, T. 118–23
Beckham, David 236 Charzewski, J. 258
Behan, H. 187–96 Chase, M.A. 124
Bergeron, M.F. 29 Chevalier, R. 36–43
Bernales, O. 44–50 children: anthropometric profiles and
Bernstein, N.A. 158 body composition 91–5; injuries 136;
Billat, V. 68 tennis teaching methods 269, 273; see
biomechanics 99–105; centre of gravity also junior players
139; lower extremities 132, 134; Chin, M.K. 8, 9, 67
research areas 249, 251; teaching Choi, H.J. 227–31
methods 272 Christmass, M.A. 34
Blasco, C. 287–94 Ciliga, D. 112–17, 204–7
blood glucose 52, 53, 54–5, 55 CK see creatine kinase
blood lactate concentrations: badminton Clarke, S. 188
6, 7, 10–11; integrated functional Clauser, C.E. 107
evaluation 290, 291; squash 65–6, coaches: analysis of coaching process
66, 67–8; tennis 29, 30, 32, 33, 38, 194; assessment of athletes 287;
52, 53 education for 131, 253, 262–8, 285;
BMC see bone mineral content game based teaching methods 270;
BMD see bone mineral density health-related habits 282–6; holistic
body composition: comparative studies approach to coaching 271;
83–4, 86, 88; impact on anaerobic information-movement coupling 159;
performance 22, 23, 24, 25, 27–8; integrated functional evaluation 289,
junior badminton players 72, 73, 73, 291; nutrition knowledge and habits
74, 91–5, 93; see also somatotype 58–63; player-centred coaching 271;
body mass: comparative studies 84, 84, singles/doubles 190; technical
88; hydration status 16–17, 18, 20; evaluation 189; tennis research 251
impact on anaerobic performance 22, Coen, B. 8, 9
23, 24–5, 25, 27–8; junior badminton COG see centre of gravity
players 73, 73, 74, 92, 93–4, 93; competition level 258, 259
overweight 93–4; squash 65, 67; competitiveness 170, 172–3, 175, 180,
weight loss 59–61 182, 260
bone mineral content (BMC) 48 complexity 162, 167
bone mineral density (BMD) 48 computer technology: coaches’ use of
Bopf, G. 70, 74 265–6, 267–8; ‘Hawk Eye’ 252; specific
Bosco test 290, 291 incremental test for tennis 38; table
break points 228, 229, 230 tennis match analysis 214, 215–18;
burn-out 250, 252 tactical evaluation 239; see also
simulators
Cabello, D. 7, 64–9, 132–8 computerized notational analysis 187–8,
caffeine 51–7 191, 193–4, 239
Index 303
computerized scorebook 239, 240, Drury, D.G. 20
245 Dufour, W. 214
conditioning: integrated training 271; Durand, M. 162
ITF physical conditioning programme
22; maintaining 128; research areas ecological approach 155
252; see also endurance; fitness education: appropriate levels of
coordination 272 training 131; coaches 253, 262–8,
core temperature (Tc) 14–21, 19, 52, 53, 285
54–5, 55 educational attainment 298, 299, 300
Coyle, E.F. 29 Edwards, S. 280
creatine kinase (CK) 52, 54–5, 55, 56 effective playing time (EPT) 6
Crespo, M. 249–54, 269–74 efficiency: index of psychomotor 170,
critical points 192, 193 173, 174, 175, 180–1; squash 220–6;
Croatia 283, 284 table tennis 162–8; tennis 169–76,
Cross, R. 139 180–1
cue utilization 146, 151, 155 Eklund, R.C. 125, 130
Curry, T.J. 257 Elliott, B.C. 101, 102, 103, 106, 109
employment status 299, 299, 300
Dal Monte, A. 6 endurance: badminton 7–9, 10, 11; speed
Damsgaard, R. 88 180; tennis 29; see also conditioning;
Dansou, P. 29 fitness
Dapena, J. 102, 103 energy: range of motion 100–1; tennis
data collection: performance analysis serve 109
193; table tennis match analysis energy expenditure: badminton 77–82;
215–16 table tennis 163, 166, 167; tennis 27
Davey, P.R. 29 England Squash 193–4
Dawson, B. 14, 20 EPT see effective playing time
De Hoyo, M. 91–5 equipment 250, 252, 272–3
De Leva, P. 107 errors: functional evaluation 292, 293;
De Rose, E.H. 84, 92 performance indicators for tennis 228,
dehydration 14, 20, 61 229; table tennis match analysis 215
depression 124 Esparza, F. 92
Devonport, T.J. 125 expertise: anticipation skill 154–5;
Dežman, B. 220–6 locomotion behaviour 157
dietary habits 58–63 explicit instruction 151
dietary intake: badminton players 78–9,
80, 81; coaches 283, 284–5, 285; Faccini, P. 6
veteran players 122 facilitative environment 159–60
digitization pads 187 Farfel, W.S. 208
discovery learning 151 Farrow, D. 51–7
displacement 42, 177, 179 fast overhead shot 100, 102
Dixon, S.J. 104 fatigue: caffeine impact on 51–7; injuries
DLW see doubly-labelled water method due to 136–7; Integral Test of Fatigue
Docherty, D. 6 in Badminton 289–93; time to
dominant arm 44, 45–6, 47–8 exhaustion 33–4, 39
doping 252 Faude, O. 5–13
Dorado, C. 44–50 faults 200, 228, 229
doubles 190, 207 Fayt, V. 162–8
doubly-labelled water (DLW) method 77, Federer, Roger 234, 236
78–9 feedback: computerized notational
Downey, J.C. 187 analysis 188–93, 239; table tennis
drive shot 200, 201 208–13
drop-out 250, 252 Ferrauti, A. 6
drop shot 199, 199, 200, 200, 201, 203 fibrosis 137
304 Index
field-based training 149, 150 Girard, O. 36–43, 67
field testing (FT) 36, 37–43 goal-oriented learning 271
film-based simulation training 148–9, goal setting 126, 131
150, 151 Gómez, J.R. 94
financial rewards 257, 258–9 Gómez Píris, P.T. 139–42
fitness: badminton 9, 10, 70, 75; Gonzalez-Badillo, J.J. 7
functional evaluation 287; Gordon, B.J. 102, 103
maintaining 128; squash 67; tennis Gosh, A.K. 10
29–35, 36–43; see also conditioning; Grand Slam tournaments 14, 275,
endurance 280
Fleck, S.J. 88 grass courts 188, 244
Fleisig, G. 106, 107, 109, 110 Greece 262–8
fluids 61 Green, J.M. 68
foot injuries 116, 132–8 grip strength: comparative studies 83,
‘foot work’ 169, 173, 175 84–7, 87, 88; muscle contraction 47
footwear 116, 132 Grivas, N. 262–8
forehand smash 102, 200, 200, 201, 203 ground strokes 240, 242, 243, 244–5
forehand stroke: anticipation of 147, 157; Guadalupe-Grau, A. 44–50
badminton service 199, 199; muscle Guerra, S. 44–50
contraction 46, 47; peak torques 103; guided discovery 151
table tennis 162–8; velocity 53, 55 Guimaraes, A.C. 84, 92
Fox, E.L. 27
fractures 119, 120, 121 Haake, S. 106
Franks, I.M. 190, 191, 220, 239 Hansen, G. 214
freeing 158–9 ‘Hawk Eye’ 252
freezing 158–9 Hay, R. 275
French Open 280 heart rate (HR): badminton 6–7, 77;
Fries, M. 5–13 cardiovascular events 121; energy
FT see field testing expenditure 77; integrated functional
fun 269 evaluation 290, 291; squash 64, 65, 66,
functional evaluation 287–94; objectives 67, 68; table tennis 163, 164, 165–6;
of 288; qualitative 291, 293; tennis 30–1, 32–3, 34, 38–40, 41, 52,
quantitative 291, 292 53, 54–5, 55
Furjan-Mandić, G. 112–17 heat 14, 15, 16, 20
fuzzy logic 194 Hellenic Tennis Federation 263, 267, 268
Hewitt, Leyton 234, 236
Gabbett, T. 9 holistic approach to coaching 271
gait 132, 133, 134 Homans, G.C. 256
game based teaching methods 269–70 Hong, Y. 220
game duration 192, 204–7 Horiuchi, S. 77–82
Garcin, M. 68 Hornery, D.J. 51–7
Garrido, R.P. 287–94 HR see heart rate
Garsztka, T. 22–8 Hughes, M.D. 187–96, 220, 227–31, 239
gaze 146–7, 157 Hughes, M.G. 31, 70–6
gender differences: body mass 94; Hughes, M.T. 187–96
cardiovascular events 121; coaches Hurley, C. 103–4
265; energy expenditure 78, 79, 80–1; hydration 14–21, 122
grip strength 88; junior badminton
players 74, 75, 92–3, 94; junior IAT see individual anaerobic threshold
rankings in tennis 276, 277–80, 277, IBF see International Badminton
278, 279, 281; rally times 190; Spanish Federation
racket sports 298, 298, 299–300 identity 255–61
Gijón Noguerón, G.A. 132–8 Igawa, S. 77–82
Gijón Noguerón, M. 132–8 imagery 131
Index 305
impact position detection 208–10, joint injuries 103, 114, 115, 119, 120,
211–12, 212 121
impact time interval detection 210, 211, joint torques 103
212 Jørgensen, U. 112, 115
individual anaerobic threshold (IAT): Jospin, L. 162–8
badminton 8, 9, 10; squash 64; tennis jump smash 100
30–4 jump test 70, 71, 73–5, 73, 74, 76
information and communication junior players: anthropometric profiles
technology 208, 212; see also computer and body composition 83–90;
technology badminton 70–6, 91–5; injuries 136,
information-movement coupling 158–9, 137, 251; movement analysis 191;
160 psychomotor predispositions 174, 174;
information processing: anticipation skill season-of-birth effects 275–81; table
145, 146, 147–8, 155; motivation tennis 212; teaching methods 269
impact on 183
Ingram, B. 239, 243–4 Kahn, J.-F. 118–23
injury: centre of gravity of paddle Keele, S.W. 183
rackets 139, 141–2; joint torques 103; Khan, Jahangir 190
minor 125–6, 126, 127, 130; plantar kinanthropometric profiles 83–90, 91–5,
supports 132, 133, 134; prevention 232
112–13, 118–23, 250, 251; research Kindermann, W. 5–13
areas 251; return from 124–31; severe/ kinematics: 3D analyses 99, 101–3, 104;
chronic 126–8, 128, 129, 130; table tennis serve 54, 56
tennis and badminton players 112–17; kinetics 99, 103, 104, 106, 109
tennis serve 109; treatment 126, 127, Klatsky, A.L. 284
128, 129 Knight, P. 191
instruction: modern teaching methods Knudson, D. 103
for tennis 269–74; perceptual-cognitive Kodama, M. 239–46
skills 150–1; see also training Kondrič, M. 112–17, 204–7
Integral Test of Fatigue in Badminton König, D. 40
289–93 Kornfeind, P. 208–13
integrated functional evaluation 287–94; Kovačič, S. 220–6
objectives of 288; qualitative 291, 293; Kovacs, M. 27, 239
quantitative 291, 292 Kroner, K. 136
integrated training 271, 287 Kurata, H. 239–46
International Badminton Federation
(IBF) 192, 204 lactate concentrations: badminton 6, 7,
International Tennis Federation (ITF): 10–11; integrated functional
ball type 244; energy expenditure 27; evaluation 290, 291; squash 65–6, 66,
hot conditions 14, 15; junior world 67–8; tennis 29, 30, 32, 33, 38, 52, 53
rankings and month-of-birth Lames, M. 214
distributions 275, 276, 279, 280; Lapszo, J. 169–76, 177–84
physical conditioning programme 22; LAT see Live Adaptation Technique
research grants 253; teaching methods Lazzari, S. 162–8
269, 273 learning: anticipatory schema 172;
iron 80, 81 equipment 272–3; goal-oriented 271;
ITF see International Tennis perception-action coupling 157,
Federation 158–9; stages of 273; table tennis
efficiency 167
James, N. 193 Lees, A. 99–105
Japan Institute for Sports Sciences (JISS) Lenartowicz, M. 255–61
77 Leone, M. 88
Johnston, L.H. 124 Leser, R. 214–19
joint flexibility 100, 101 Leveque, F. 36–43
306 Index
Liddle, S.D. 5, 188, 190, 192, 239, Mujika, I. 51–7
243 Murray, Andrew 280
lipids 79, 80, 81 Murray, S. 189, 193–4
Live Adaptation Technique (LAT) 133 Musch, J. 275
Llopis Goig, D. 295–300 muscle injuries 114, 115; feet 136, 137;
Llopis Goig, R. 295–300 veteran players 119, 120–1
locomotor movements: psychomotor muscles 44–50; adapted muscular
predispositions 169–76; sequential recruitment 167; comparative study
ball-hitting 177, 178; visual search 87; grip strength 84–7, 88; motor speed
behaviour 156–7 capability 182; specific incremental
long shot 202 fitness test for tennis 42; stretch-
López de Subijana, C. 106–11 shorten cycle 101
lower limbs 103–4, 132, 134;
see also foot injuries Navarro, E. 106–11
Lundin, A. 162 net points 233–8
neural networking 194
Maeda, A. 239–46 Nishizono, H. 239–46
Majumdar, P. 6, 10–11 non-dominant arm 44, 45–6
Mantis, K. 262–8 ‘non optimal solicitation’ 162, 166
Marfell-Jones, M. 92 notational analysis 187–8, 191, 193–4,
Marshall, R.N. 101 252
Martínez, E. 83–90 nutrition 58–63, 128; coaches 282, 283,
match analysis 239–46 284–5, 285; research areas 251
match length 192, 193, 204
mathematical modelling 191–3 occlusion technique 146, 149, 154–5, 156,
Matković, B. 58–63, 282–6 157
Matković, B.R. 58–63, 282–6 O’Donoghue, P. 188, 190, 192, 227–31,
Matthews, D.K. 27 232–8, 239, 243–4, 275–81
McGarry, T. 188, 191, 193, 220 offensive strokes 224–5
medical check-ups 122 Olmedillas, H. 44–50
medicine 249, 251 Orfeuil, F. 162
Meeusen, H.J. 183 orientation locomotion movements 169,
memory 148, 169, 178 170, 171–2, 175, 177, 179–80, 181–3
mentality 271 orthopodiatry 132
Mesa Alonso, A. 64–9 orthotic compensator elements 133,
Meyer, T. 5–13 134
Meyers, R.W. 29–35 Oswald, E. 197–203
Micallef, J.P. 36–43 overhand shot 200, 201, 201, 202, 202,
Millet, G.P. 36–43 203
mineral supplements 59 overhead smash 100, 101
minute ventilation (VE) 38, 39, 41 overtraining 127, 130, 251
Miyazaki, M. 77–82 overuse injuries 112, 115, 116, 251
modelling 191–3, 194 Owen, Michael 236
momentum analysis 194 oxygen uptake (VO2): badminton 6–8,
month-of-birth distributions 275–81 10, 11; integrated functional
motion analysis technology 99–100 evaluation 289; squash 64, 67; tennis
motivation 169, 170, 173, 183, 260; 29, 33–4, 36, 38–9, 40, 41, 42
functional evaluation 288;
positive motivational climate 271; paddle 295, 296, 297, 297, 298, 298, 299,
Spanish racket sports 297 299
motor control 250, 252 paddle rackets 139–42
motor skill organization 162, 167 Pain, M.D. 124–31
movement analysis 190–1 París, F. 91–5
movement principles 100–1 pattern recognition 147, 151
Index 307
Paul, G.C. 275 recognition 255; sport psychologists
PCr see phosphocreatine 126, 127, 128, 129, 130
Pearce, A.J. 14–21, 124–31 psychomotor efficiency 169–76, 180–2,
Pedišić, Ž. 204–7 183
pelota 295, 296, 297, 297, 298, 298,
299, 299 questionnaires: return after injury 125–9;
perception-action link 150, 154–61 sport identity 257–60; Survey on the
perceptual-cognitive skills 145–8, Sports Habits of the Spanish 296–9
150–1 rackets: centre of gravity 139–42;
perceptual degrees of freedom 158–9 teaching methods 272–3
perceptual skill 54, 56–7, 154 rally shots 201–2, 203, 240
Pereira, A. 190 rally times: analysis of 188, 190, 240, 241,
performance analysis 187–96; badminton 242, 243–4; badminton 5–6, 198–9,
197–203; modelling 191–3, 194; 203; energy expenditure 27; scoring
movement analysis 190–1; profiling systems 191, 192
193; reliability 193, 237; research and range of motion 100–1
support 193–4; table tennis 214–19; ratings of perceived exertion (RPE):
tactical evaluation 188–9, 239, 245; Integral Test of Fatigue in Badminton
technical evaluation 189; tennis 290; squash 65, 66, 67, 68; tennis 38,
227–31, 232–8, 239–46; time analysis 39, 42, 53, 54–5; velocity 56
of Wimbledon finals 239–46; valid RCP see respiratory compensation point
performance indicators 227–31; reaction time 145, 173
variability 232–8 reception skills 272
performance indicators: valid 227–31; recognition 255, 256, 257, 259, 261
variability 232–8 recovery: from injury 130; nutrition role
performance profiling 193 61
Perš, J. 220–6 rehabilitation 112, 251
Petrinović-Zekan, L. 112–17, 204–7 rehydration 61
phosphocreatine (PCr) 10, 27 Reid, M. 253
physiological testing: badminton 5–13; RER see respiratory exchange ratio
squash 64–9; tennis 29–35, 36–43 research: functional evaluation 288;
physiology: functional evaluation 288; tennis 249–54
research areas 249, 252 resistance to disturbances 169, 170
plantar supports 132–8 respiratory compensation point (RCP)
player-centred coaching 271 36, 39, 40, 64
playing patterns 197–203 respiratory exchange ratio (RER) 38, 39,
Podlog, L. 125, 130 40, 41, 42
‘point-per-rally’ scoring 191–2, 204 rest 122, 128, 192
points analysis 200 retirement, premature 124
points won 228, 229 return stroke 200
Poland 255–61 risk 118
power: junior badminton players 70, 75; Rivas, F. 154–61
tennis 27, 29 Robertson, C. 188, 220
‘Power Pads’ 187, 190 Roddick, Andy 106, 234, 236
practice 159 rotation analysis 100, 102–3, 109–10
Pradas, F. 83–90 RPE see ratings of perceived exertion
projection skills 272 Ruiz, A. 287–94
prolactin (PRL) 52, 55, 56 Russell, D.G. 157
Proteau, L. 148 Ružić, L. 282–6
proteins 59, 61, 80, 81 Rymarczyk, P. 255–61
proximal-to-distal sequence 101
psychology: relative age advantage salaries, coaches 265, 267
280–1; research areas 249–50, 252; Sampras, Pete 233
skills promotion 131; social Sanchís-Moysi, J. 44–50
308 Index
Sanderson, F.H. 187, 191 social roles 255–6
Sañudo, B. 91–5 social structure 295–300
Sato, T. 77–82 sociology 252
Savelsbergh, G.J.P. 154–61 somatotype: comparative study 83, 84,
Schmidt, R.A. 178 87, 88; functional evaluation 288;
scientific knowledge 251, 251, 254, 262, junior badminton players 91–5, 93;
267, 268 squash players 65–6, 66, 67; see also
scientific methods 250–1 body composition
scoring systems 191–3, 204–7 Spain 295–300
season-of-birth effects 275–81 speed: badminton 8–9, 11, 70, 71–2,
second serve 228, 229, 230, 242, 243, 73–5, 73, 74, 76; sequential ball-hitting
244 movements 177–83; tennis 32, 33, 34,
Seki, K. 77–82 177–83
self-talk 126, 131 spine injuries 116
self-treatment 126, 127, 128, 129 split-step 177, 179
serve: angular velocity 106–11; sponsorship 258
badminton playing patterns 199, 200; sport identity 255–61
kinematics 54, 56; muscle strength sport psychologists 126, 127, 128, 129,
46–7; peak torques 103; performance 130
indicators 228, 229; proximal-to-distal sport science 249, 250–1, 251–2, 253,
sequence 101; return 200; second 228, 271–2
229, 230, 242, 243, 244; table tennis Sprigings, E. 102
210, 212, 215, 217; time analysis 240, sprinting 8
242, 242, 244; velocity 53, 55, 56, 56, squash: anticipation skill 145, 146, 154;
106–11; video observation 100 grip strength 88; modelling 191;
SF see stroke frequency movement analysis 190; notational
Sharp, N.C.C. 88 analysis 187, 193–4; physiological
Sheppard, J.M. 9 responses 64–9; plantar supports
Shida, Y. 115 132–8; playing efficiency 220–6; rally
Simmons, C. 275 times 5; scoring systems 191–3; Spain
Simpson, K.J. 104 295, 296, 297, 297, 298, 298, 299, 299;
simulation training 148–9, 150, 151 tactical evaluation 188–9; ventilatory
simulators: psychomotor efficiency 170, breakpoints 40–2
171, 174, 175; sequential ball-hitting statistics 252
movements 177–83 Stiles, V.H. 104
singles 190, 205–7 strategies: effective implementation of
situational probabilities 147–8, 151 272; game based teaching methods
skinfolds: comparative studies 83–4, 85, 270; table tennis match analysis 218,
88; junior badminton players 72, 91–2, 219; variability 232–8
93 strength 47, 83; training 128, 252; see also
Slaughter, M.H. 92 grip strength
Slovenia 112–17, 221–5 stress: cardiovascular events 121; coaches
smash shot 100, 101, 102, 200, 200, 201, 282
203 stretch-shorten cycle 101
Smeeton, N.J. 151 stroke analysis: badminton 198, 199, 200,
Smekal, G. 6, 42 201–2, 203; table tennis 215
Smith, A.M. 124 stroke execution 220, 221, 222–5, 272
smoking 282, 283, 284, 284 stroke frequency (SF) 6, 202
soccer: endurance capacity 7, 8; month- Stuempfle, K.J. 20
of-birth distributions 275; variability Survey on the Sports Habits of the
in player performance 236; visual Spanish 296–9
search and locomotion behaviour swipe shot 199, 200, 201, 201, 202, 202,
156–7 203
social recognition 255, 256, 257, 259, 261 synthetic courts 188
Index 309
TA see Tennis Australia Tennis Australia (TA) 15, 124, 125,
table tennis: anthropometric profiles and 130
body composition 83–90; efficiency ‘tennis leg’ 119, 120
162–8; feedback systems 208–13; thermal sensation 53, 54–5, 55
injuries 112–17, 118–23; practice Therminarias, A. 20
oriented match analysis 214–19; thirst 61
psychomotor efficiency 169, 174; 3D analyses 99, 101–2, 103, 104, 107
Spain 295, 296, 297–8, 297, 298, 299, time analysis 188, 239–46
299; veteran players 118–23 time between points 240, 242, 244, 245
tactical evaluation 188–9, 239, 245 time duration per point 240, 241, 241,
tactics: effective implementation of 272; 243–4
game based teaching methods 270; time to exhaustion 33–4, 39
integrated training 271; squash 220, Tomlin, D.L. 10
224, 225 Tous, J. 287–8
Takahashi, H. 239–46 tracking systems 190
Tang, H.P. 102 training: anaerobic performance 27, 28;
task difficulty 163, 165, 166–7 anticipation skill 148–9, 151;
teaching methods 269–74 badminton 9–11, 75; children 91;
technical evaluation 189 coach’s role 282; education about 131;
technical-tactical execution 288, 291 feedback systems 208, 212; fitness
technique 270, 271, 272 components 22; functional evaluation
technology 252 288; holistic approach to coaching 271;
temporal occlusion paradigm 146, 149, impact on body mass 28; information-
154–5, 156, 157 movement coupling 159; injury during
tendon injuries 114, 115, 119, 120–1, 120 115; injury prevention 122; integrated
tennis: aerobic fitness 29–35, 36–43; 271, 287; modern teaching methods
anaerobic performance 22–8; for tennis 269–74; movement analysis
anthropometric profiles and body 191; overtraining 127, 130; research
composition 83–90; anticipation skill areas 252; simulation 148–9, 150, 151;
145, 146, 147, 154; caffeine impact on specific incremental fitness test for
fatigue 51–7; coach education 262–8; tennis 42–3; squash 68; table tennis
core temperature and hydration status efficiency 163, 165, 166–7; table tennis
14–21; effective playing time 6; film- match analysis 218; weekly sessions
based simulation training 148; ground- 258
foot interface 103, 104; health-related treadmill testing (TT) 36, 37, 38–42;
habits of coaches 282–6; kinematics integrated functional evaluation 289;
101–2; kinetics 103; muscle plasticity on-court testing comparison 30–1,
44–50; net points 233–8; nutrition 32–4; squash 64
knowledge of coaches 58–63; triceps brachialis 44, 45–6, 47, 48
observation of technique 100; oxygen TT see treadmill testing
uptake 6, 7; performance analysis 188; Tudor-Barbaros, P. 58–63
performance indicators 227–31, 233–8; Turner, R.H. 256
psychomotor efficiency 169–76, 180–2;
racket centre of gravity 139; rally times underhand shot 200, 201, 201, 202, 202,
5; research 249–54; return from injury 203
124–31; scoring systems 191–2; Unierzyski, P. 269–74
season-of-birth effects 275–81; United States Tennis Association 253
sequential ball-hitting movements University Sport Departments 263, 266,
177–84; serve velocity 53, 55, 56, 56, 267, 268
106–11; Spain 295, 296, 297–8, 297, US Open 233–6
298, 299, 299; specific incremental test
36–43; stroke frequency 6; teaching Van der Kamp, J. 154–61
methods 269–74; time analysis 188, Van Gheluwe, B. 102
239–46 variability in performance 232–8
310 Index
VCO2 see carbon dioxide production Way, K.I.M. 187
VE see minute ventilation weight loss 59–61
velocity lever 101 Weiler, B. 6, 8, 10
ventilatory threshold 8, 36, 39, 40, 41, Weiss, O. 255, 256, 257, 261
64 Wells, J. 237
veteran players 118–23 Wenger, H.A. 10
video analysis 188, 197; squash 221; whole match performance 227–30
table tennis 214–15, 216, 217–18; Williams, A.M. 145–53
technical evaluation 189 Wimbledon 188, 228, 239–46
video simulation training 148–9, 150, Wingate test 23, 27
151 Winge, S. 112, 115
visual search behaviour 146–7, 147, 151, women: badminton game duration
154, 155, 156–7 205–7; coaches 264, 265, 267; see also
vitamins 59, 80, 81 gender differences
VO2 see oxygen uptake working hours 282
volleys 46 world rankings 275–81
Vučković, G. 220–6
Young, J.A. 124–31
Wada, T. 239–46 Young, W.B. 9, 51–7
warm-up 115, 252
Watanabe, E. 77–82 Ziemann, E. 22–8

Adrian Lees - D. - Science and Racket Sports IV-Routledge (2008)

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Science and Racket Sports IV

Science and Racket Sports IV presents a selection of important contemporary

This invaluable collection touches on the most important issues within

Adrian Lees is Professor of Biomechanics and Deputy Director of the

Edited by A. Lees, D. Cabello

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

© 2009 A. Lees, D. Cabello and G. Torres for selection and editorial

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 0-203-89487-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0–415–43556–0 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978–0–415–43556–7 (hbk)

1 Physiological testing in badminton 5

2 Core temperature and hydration status in

3 Anaerobic performance during intermittent

4 Comparison of laboratory and on-court testing

5 A speciﬁc incremental test in tennis 36

7 Development of a tennis-speciﬁc fatigue-inducing

8 Nutrition knowledge and nutrition habits of

9 Correlations of physiological responses in

10 Field-based assessment of speed and power in

11 Energy expenditure measurement in badminton

12 Kinanthropometric proﬁle, body composition,

13 Analysis of the somatotype, body composition

14 Biomechanics of racket sports: developments and

16 Comparison of injuries between Slovenian table

17 Prevention of injuries and cardiovascular events

18 Strategies and support mechanisms used by elite

19 The use of plantar supports in badminton and

20 Centre of gravity in paddle rackets: implications

21 Anticipation and skill in racket sports 145

22 A perception-action perspective on learning and

23 Inﬂuence of training and task diﬃculty on

24 Tennis play simulator 1: psychomotor predispositions

26 Computerized notational analysis and

27 Playing patterns of world elite male and Austrian

28 Comparison of the average game playing time in

29 Feedback systems in table tennis 208

30 Practice oriented match analyses in table tennis as

31 Quantitative analysis of playing eﬃciency in squash 220

32 A comparison of whole match and individual set

33 Variability in men’s singles tennis strategy at the

34 Time analysis of three decades of men’s singles at

35 New perspectives and research applications in tennis 249

36 Sport identity of Polish badminton players in the

37 Coach education: models, characteristics and

38 Modern teaching methods for tennis: what do

39 Season-of-birth eﬀects on elite junior tennis

40 Health-related habits of tennis coaches 282

41 Integrated functional evaluation: a speciﬁc

42 The social structure of racket sports practice in Spain 295

2.1 Core body temperature sensor pill 16

2.1 Hydration status as measured by speciﬁc gravity 18

Alcaraz, P.E. Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Physical Activity and

Spanish Sport Council – Ministry of Education

Physiology of racket sports

Characteristics of badminton match-play

Endurance and speed testing

Badminton-speciﬁc testing of endurance and agility

Implications for badminton training

Lactate 0.65 −0.57 0.44*