Simulation of FBG

SIMULATIONS OF STEP-LIKE BRAGG GRATINGS IN
SILICA FIBERS USING COMSOL
A Thesis
Presented to
The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
Rasika Dahanayake
May, 2016
SIMULATIONS OF STEP-LIKE BRAGG GRATINGS IN
SILICA FIBERS USING COMSOL
Rasika Dahanayake
Thesis
Approved: Accepted:
______________________________ ______________________________
Advisor Dean of the College
Dr. Sergei F. Lyuksyutov Dr. John Green
______________________________ ______________________________
Faculty Reader Dean of the Graduate School
Dr. Robert R. Mallik Dr. Chand Midha
______________________________ ______________________________
Faculty Reader Date
Dr. Alper Buldum
______________________________
Department Chair
Dr. David Steer
ii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the research was to build a model for simulations of Fiber
Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors under harsh conditions. In this thesis we were
studying the 2D model of a fiber under different wavelength EM radiation (530
nm, 1310 nm, and 1530 nm), also we introduced a novel 3D model of FBG. The
3D model of the FBG is used to study the modes of the fiber under varying
grating period (1310 nm, 908.62 nm, and 454.31 nm) and with varying number
of slabs in the grating (10, 50, and 100). The novelty of this work is an
introduction of step-like profile in FBGs. Potentially, this approach may be
used for experimental high temperature sensing under harsh conditions.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First I would like to thank Dr. Sergei Lyuksyutov for being my advisor and
taking me into your research group. I was able to learn and grow under your
guidance and advice during the project and throughout my time at the
University of Akron.
Then I would like to thank Professor Robert Mallik and Professor Alper
Buldum for being kind enough to be on my graduate thesis committee and
especially for valuable advice on improvements on my thesis.
I would also like to thank colleagues Jeff McCausland, Sajeevi Withanage,
Pedram Esfahani and Liudmyla Barabanova for the help and guidance during
my time at the University of Akron and on my research.
I am grateful to my parents for all the love and guidance they have given me
throughout my life.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Ruvini for the love and support. You
make everything in my life better.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………..….……...….….…vii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………....…....……viii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….…...1
II. BACKGROUND…………………………………………………..………………...3
2.1. Optical Fibers………………………………………………………….…..3
2.2. Geometrical Optics…………………………………………….………….5
2.2.1. Numerical Aperture………………………………..…………...7
2.3. Wave Optics……………………………………………….…………….…8
2.3.1. Waveguides…………………………………………….……….11
2.3.2. Coupled-Mode theory………………………………………....15
2.4. Fiber Bragg Gratings………………………………………………..…..20
2.4.1. Origin and Inscribing FBG’s………………………………....20
v
2.4.2. Types of FBG’s…………………………………….…………...25
2.4.2.1. By the varying conditions of gratings production.25
2.4.2.2. By the Structure (composition) of the gratings….27
2.4.3. Photosensitivity………………………………….….………....31
2.4.4. Applications of FBG’s……….………….…………….…...…..35
2.5. Finite Element Analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics

programming……………………………………………………….………….37
III. PROCEDURE…………………………………………………………………….43
3. Simulations Using COMSOL……………………………..………………43
3.1. 2D Step index fiber Model……………………...………….…………....44
3.2. 3D Model for Fiber Bragg grating………………….…….…………....49
IV. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS……………………………………….……….....61
4.1. Results of the 2D model…………………………………………...……61
4.2. Results of the 3D model……………………………………...…………69
V. CONCLUSIONS…..………………………………………………........…………82
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….....………84
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Table of Parameters for the 2D fiber Simulation……………..…………….44
3.2 Table of Parameters for the 3D fiber Simulation……………………..…….50
4.1 Stable modes sustained by the fiber in the 2D model……………..…………68
4.2 Simulation results of the fiber with 10 gratings for different grating
periods……………………………………………………………………...…………..78
4.3 Simulation results of fiber’s with grating period Λ = 454.31 nm, and
different number of slabs…..…………………………………………...……………79
4.4 Simulation results for the 3D model……………………………………………80
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1.1 A schematic representation of an optical fiber, with a core of refractive

index n1 and a cladding of refractive index n2, the fiber is in air, which has a
refractive index of n0……………………………………………….………………..…..………...4
2.2.1 A schematic representation of light wave propagating along a fiber…..…5
2.2.2 Optical fiber with Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) and Cylindrical

coordinates (r,θ,z)………………………………………………………………………9
2.3.1 These are several of the electric field patterns for different LP modes in
a fiber. Red is for positive and blue is for negative values of the electric field
[22]............................................................................................................………19
2.4.1 The Original setup used by Meltz, Morey and Glenn [20].………………..22
2.4.2 The interference pattern created inside of the fiber [21].……………..….22
2.4.3 Phase Mask technique used to fabricate gratings in a fiber [23].………..24
2.4.4 Representation of uniform refractive index profile FBGs [30]..…………28
2.4.5 Apodized refractive index profile FBGs [30].…………….………………..30
2.4.6 The 3D Tetrahedral crystal structure of silica [35].……………….......…..32
2.4.7 Graphical representation of “wrong bonds” broken under exposure of UV

light. (a) Wrong bonds structure, (b) GeE’ structure, (c) oxygen vacant silicon
atom, and (d) free electron released from the reaction…………………………..33
viii
2.4.8 The defect Ge(1) in germania-doped silica fiber……………………………34
2.4.9 The defect Ge(2) in germania-doped silica fiber….………………………...34
2.4.10 Schematic representation of the FBG experimental setup [38]………...35
2.4.11 Diagram of the area (A) in the interval between -1 to 1. The area under
the function y is found by the integration [36]…………….…………………...…38
2.4.12 Graphical representation of numerical integration of the calculation of

A, changing with the number of subsections used [36].………………………… 40
3.1 Basic model of the 2D fiber. Center circle is the core and the bigger circle
is the cladding……………………………………………………………………...….45
3.2 A close up of the triangular shaped mesh used for the 2D model………….48
3.3 The 3D model of the fiber……………………………………………………...…53
3.4 The 3D model of the single grating with thickness Λ =454.31 nm……...….54
3.5 The 3D model of the FBG with 10 slabs….………………………….…..…….55
3.6 The 3D model of the FBG with 50 slabs….…………………….……..............56
3.7 The 3D model of the FBG with 100 slabs…..………………….…….………...56
3.8 The grating with of the FBG with 10 slabs. Where the slabs in the core with
even number is assigned with the core material and the odd number is
assigned with grating material. The outer was cylinder was assigned with the
material of the cladding……………………………………………...…..….……….57
3.9 The grating with of the FBG with 50 slabs with each even numbered disk
assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk assigned with
grating material ……………………………………………………...……...............58
ix
3.10 The grating with of the FBG with 100 slabs with each even numbered disk
assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk assigned with
grating material …………………………………………………………….………...58
3.11 The tetrahedral mesh on the 3D model. Since the light propagates through
the core, it has a smaller mesh to increase the accuracy of calculations.
Cladding was given a larger mesh to decrease the unnecessary use of the
computer power……………………………….………………………………………59
3.12 A close up of the tetrahedral shaped mesh used for the 3D model……....60
4.1 LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right………………………………………………….………………………..……62
the right………………………………………………….……………………………..62
the right………………………………………………….……………………………..62
4.4 LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left compared to
simulated results of a few modes on the top right and on bottom, the simulated
results have the same outer diameter but the inner diameter is
changing………………………………………………………………………………..63
the right ………………………………………………………………………………..63
4.6 LP51 mode experimental on the left compared to simulated result on the
right……………………………………………………………………………………..64
the right…………………………………………………….……………………..……65
the right…………………………………………………….……………………..……65
x
the right…………………………………………………….………………….....……65
4.10 LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left compared to
simulated results of few modes on the top right and on
bottom……………………………………………………………………………..……66
the right……………………………………………………..…………..………..……67
the right……………………………………………………..…………..………..……67
4.13 Incident wave of the fiber with no FBG…………………………………...….70
4.14 LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result of
the transmitted wave on the right. The resultant mode indicates instability in
the mode……………………………………………………………..…………………70
4.15 Power distribution of the transmitted for the fiber with no FBG………..70
4.16 The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the middle and
the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted wave modes
are identical……………………………………………….……………...……………71
4.17 Power distribution of the single grating of period 2Λ………………………71
4.18 The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the middle and
the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted wave modes
are identical……………………………………………..…………………...………..72
4.19 Power distribution of the single grating with width Λ……………………..72
4.20 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and period 1310nm…….……….73
xi
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 1310nm. The sustained mode
indicates instability.……………….………………………………….….…………..73
4.22 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and
grating period 1310nm……………………………………….………………………73
4.23 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ………….74
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ.…………………………….………74
grating period 2Λ………………………………………...……………………………74
4.26 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ…….......…75
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ.……………………………..………75
grating period Λ…………………………………………………………………….....75
4.29 For the fiber with 50 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on left.
The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.………………………...……………...………...……..…………….…………76
grating period Λ……………………………………………………………………….76
4.31 For the fiber with 100 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on left.
The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.……………………………...……………………….…………………………..77
grating period Λ……………………………………………………...………………..77
xii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
First developed in 1970s, Fiber optics communication systems have
revolutionized the telecommunication industry. Made to be transparent and
flexible from dielectric materials such as silica (Glass) or plastic, it’s a fiber
with diameters in the micrometer range. By sending pulses of light through
these fibers information can be transmitted. These fibers possess the ability to
transmit information over longer distances and in higher bandwidths than
wire cables.
Due to their immunity to electromagnetic interference optical fibers
have the ability to carry information with higher conservation compared to
regular cable wires. This has caused the telecommunication companies to
replace the cable wires with optical fibers.
In 1978 Ken Hill demonstrated the first Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG). A
FBG is a type of Bragg reflector that reflects particular wavelengths of light
and transmit others [7], Therefore FBG’s can be used as optical filters or as
wavelength-specific reflectors. Initially FBG’s were fabricated using a visible
laser propagation along a fiber core. After the discovery of external imprinting
1
technique by Gerald Meltz in 1989, FBG fabrication became possible at an
industrial level.
FBGs have many applications, one of the main application is as sensors.
They could be used to measure physical parameters such as temperature,
pressure, strain, etc. Our research is focused on building a simulation model
for a high temperature sensor. In this thesis we will be using finite element
analysis to build a basic model to study FBGs. The next step would be to study
FBGs under different temperature conditions.
2
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND
2.1. Optical Fibers
The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts, the Core,
the Cladding, and the Buffer. The Core is made of cylindrical dielectric
materials, through which light propagates. As mentioned in Introduction the
core is generally made out of silica or plastic with diameters in micrometer
range. If we described the core to have a diameter of 2a the radius would be “a”
and the refractive index could be described as n1.
The cladding is the material that surrounds the core, even though the light
can be propagated through the core without the cladding, it is necessary for
the proper functioning of the fiber. We can describe the refractive index of the
cladding as n2. The functions of the cladding can be listed as,
 Adding Mechanical strength.
 Reducing the loss of light from the core to the air from transmission.
 Reduce the loss of light from scattering at the surface.
 Protect the fiber from the surrounding surface contaminants.
3
The buffer is an additional coating that is made out of plastic; it is used on
Optical fibers to protect it from physical damage such as abrasions. It also
helps to prevent loss of light due to scattering from microbends.
The relationship between the refractive indices of cladding and core can be
shown as,
n1 > n2
This difference between the refractive indices is usually a small value.
Figure 2.1.1: A schematic representation of an optical fiber, with a core of
refractive index n1 and a cladding of refractive index n2, the fiber is in air,
which has a refractive index of n0.
4
2.2. Geometrical Optics
Geometrically the light ray entering the fiber should have an angle
small enough with the normal of the input face so that it would undergo total
internal reflection at the core/cladding interface (Figure 2.1.2). This angle is
called the acceptance angle, θa.
Figure 2.2.1: A schematic representation of a light wave traveling along an
optical fiber with total internal reflection.
For the light to be guided along the fiber by total internal reflection the
angle θ2 must be bigger than the critical angle θc of the core to cladding
interface[3].
𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
Therefore for the fiber, θ2 ≥ θc;
5
That is,
𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ≥
𝑛1
Now from the Figure 2.1.2, we can see Cosθ1 = Sinθ2;
Therefore,
𝑛2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ≥
𝑛1
Now by using the Snell’s law for the input face interface, we can determine
Sinθ1,
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1
By rearranging the equation,
𝑛0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0
𝑛1
Now, we can use the relationship of Sin2θ + Cos2θ = 1 to find a value for Sinθ0,
𝑛2 2 𝑛0 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 = 1 ≥ ( ) + ( ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃0
𝑛1 𝑛1
Now by solving for Sinθ0,
𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 ≤ √ (2.2.1)
𝑛02
𝑛2
−1 √ 1
− 𝑛22
𝜃0 ≤ 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (2.2.2)
𝑛02
6
2.2.1. Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture (NA) of a fiber is the dimensionless number that
defines the range of angles which the fiber can accept or emit light. In other
words it is the number that shows the Capacity the fiber has to gather light.
The higher the Numerical aperture is more light the fiber can gather.
The Numerical aperture of a fiber is defined as shown below,
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎
By using the equation (2.1.1.1) we can get and expression for NA,
𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 (2.2.3)
7
2.3. Wave optics in fibers
Here we consider the propagation of light as propagation of a wave in
the optical fiber. Since light is an electro-magnetic (EM) wave field vectors 𝐸̅
(electric field) and 𝐻

̅ (magnetic field) are used.
̅ = 𝜀0 𝐸̅ + 𝑃̅
𝐷 (2.3.1)
𝐵̅ = 𝜇0 𝐻
̅ (2.3.2)
Where: ̅ is the electric displacement vector.

𝐷
𝐵̅ is the magnetic flux vector.
𝑃̅ is the induced polarization.
𝜀0 is the dielectric permittivity constant.
𝜇0 is the magnetic permeability.
The induced polarization can be written in terms of electric field vector
and linear susceptibility𝜒𝑖𝑗 , where 𝜒𝑖𝑗 is a second rank tensor and is related to
the permittivity tensor 𝜀𝑖𝑗 .
𝑃̅ = 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝜒𝑖𝑗 𝐸̅ (2.3.3)
Where: 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 1 + 𝜒𝑖𝑗
8
Now we can consider the optical fiber (Figure 2.1.3). We can assume the
optical fiber to be source free and also we know it is free of ferromagnetic
materials, there for we can write,
̅=0
∇∙𝐷
∇ ∙ 𝐵̅ = 0
Figure 2.2.2: Optical fiber with Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) and Cylindrical
coordinates (r,θ,z).
The Electric field 𝐸̅ can be written as,
1
𝐸̅ = [𝐸𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑍) + 𝐸𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) ]
2
9
Now by using the Maxwell’s equations,
𝜕𝐵̅
∇ × 𝐸̅ = − (2.3.4)
𝜕𝑡
̅
𝜕𝐷
̅=
∇×𝐻 + 𝐽̅ (2.3.5)
𝜕𝑡
Where: 𝐽 ̅ is the displacement current.
Now by using equations (2.3.4) and (2.3.1) we can get
𝜕𝐸̅ 𝜕𝑃̅
̅ = 𝜀0
∇×𝐻 + (2.3.6)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Now by using all the equations above, we get the relationship,
𝜕 2 𝐸̅ 𝜕 2 𝑃̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
2
+ 𝜇0 2 (2.3.7)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
Now, by substituting the value of 𝑃̅, we can get the equation,
𝜕 2 𝐸̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑖𝑗
2
(2.3.8)
𝜕𝑡 2
10
2.3.1. Waveguides
Now we need to look into the introduction of guided modes of optical
fiber in the equation. To describe the optical modes of a fiber we need
transverse guided mode amplitude Aµ(z), continuum of radiation mode
amplitude Aρ(z) [1], and the corresponding propagation constants βµ and βρ as
a summation of n total modes [6].
𝜇=1
1
𝐸𝑡 = ∑[𝐴𝜇 (𝑧)𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐]
2
𝜇=1
𝜌=∞
+ ∑∫ 𝐴𝜌 (𝑧)𝜉𝜌𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜌 𝑧) 𝑑𝜌 (2.3.9)
𝜌=0
Where:𝜉𝜇𝑡 is the radial transverse field distribution of the µth guided mode.
𝜉𝜌𝑡 is the radial transverse field distribution of the ρth radiation mode.
In the equation (2.1.2.7) the polarization has been included by using the
transverse subscript, t. The summation before integral is so that we include all
the radiation modes. The power of the µth mode can be found to be |Aµt|2 in
watts, by using a orthogonally relationship.
1 +∞ +∞ ∗
1 𝛽𝜇 +∞ +∞
∗
∫ ∫ 𝑒̂𝑧 [𝜉𝜇𝑡 × 𝜉𝜈𝑡 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = [ ] ∫ ∫ 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝜉𝜈𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿𝜇𝜈
2 −∞ −∞ 2 𝜔𝜇0 −∞ −∞
(2.3.10)
11
Where: 𝑒̂𝑧 is the unit vector along the direction of propagation z.
For the guided modes 𝛿𝜇𝜈 is the Kronecker’s delta and is unity for
µ=ν and Zero otherwise.
For the radiation modes 𝛿𝜇𝜈 is the Dirac delta function and is
infinite for µ=ν and Zero otherwise.
(where ν is a positive integer)
From the equation (2.3.10) we can see that for the weakly guided case
the longitudinal component of electric field is smaller than the transverse
component. There for it is linearly polarized in the transverse direction
predominantly compared to the direction of propagation. There for the
transverse component of the magnetic field is [2].
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝜕
𝐻𝑡 = √ [𝑒̂𝑧 × 𝜉𝑡 ] (2.3.11)
𝜇0 𝜕𝑧
The fields Et and Ht also satisfies the wave optics equations a well as
the wave guide equations.
For the waveguide in the optical fiber the mode fields in the core are J-
Bessel functions and for the cladding they are K-Bessel functions. The two sets
of orthogonally polarized solutions for the general case are given for the
transverse fields for the µth x-polarized mode [1].
12
For the core (r ≤ a),
𝑟 cos 𝜇𝜃
𝜉𝑥 = 𝐶𝜇 𝐽𝜇 (𝑢𝜇𝜌 ) ( ) (2.3.12)
𝑎 sin 𝜇𝜃
𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 √ 𝜉 (2.3.13)
𝜇0 𝑥
Similarly for the cladding (r ≥ a),
𝐽𝜇 (𝑢𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑟 cos 𝜇𝜃
𝜉𝑥 = 𝐶𝜇 𝐾𝜇 (𝜔𝜇𝜌 ) ( ) (2.3.14)
𝐾𝜇 (𝜔𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑎 sin 𝜇𝜃
𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 √ 𝜉 (2.3.15)
𝜇0 𝑥
Where the normalization parameters for the equations used above are,
2𝜋𝑎
𝜈= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑎 √𝑘12 − 𝑘22 (2.3.16𝑎)
𝜆
2𝜋𝑎
𝑢= √𝑛12 − 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
2
(2.3.16𝑏)
𝜆
𝜔2 = 𝜈 2 − 𝑢 2 (2.3.16𝑐)
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑛2 [𝑏 ( ) + 1] (2.3.16𝑑)
𝑛2
𝜔2
𝑏= 2 (2.3.16𝑒)
𝑢
13
Where: 𝜆 is the wavelength in vacuum.
k1 and k2 are wavenumbers in core and cladding.
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the effective index of the mode.
n = n1 for the core and n = n2 for the cladding.
From the equation (2.3.16a) we can see that the v-number
depends on the properties of the fiber and the wavelength of the light wave,
which determines the allowed modes in a fiber.
By making the assumption that this is only a single polarization, the y-
polarized mode would be zero.
𝜉𝑦 = 𝐻𝑥 = 0
Since we know the power carried by the fiber to be |Aµ|2 and by using
the relationship of the equation (2.3.10), we can determine the normalization
constant Cµ to be,
2𝜔 √𝜇0 ⁄𝜀0
𝐶𝜇 = √ (2.3.17)
𝑎𝜈 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜋𝑒𝜇 |𝐽𝜇−1 (𝑢)𝐽𝜇+1 (𝑢)|
Now by using the boundary condition for the core-cladding boundary for
the equations (2.3.12) & (2,3,14), we can find the eigenvalue equation for the
waveguide.
𝐽𝜇 (𝑢) 𝐾𝜇 (𝜔)
= (2.3.18)
𝑢 × 𝐽𝜇±1 (𝑢) 𝜔 × 𝐾𝜇±1 (𝜔)
14
2.3.2. Coupled-Mode theory
The effects of perturbation are needed to derive the coupled mode
equations, and we need to assume that the unperturbed modes we derived in
the waveguides would remain the same. Now we start with the wave equation
[6, 37].
𝜕 2 𝐸̅ 𝜕 2 𝑃̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 + 𝜇0 2
2
(2.3.19)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The total polarization due the dielectric medium could be divided to two
parts, one that is unperturbed and the other perturbed.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (2.320)
Where, ̅̅̅
𝑃𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜒𝐸 𝜇
Therefore using this relationship we can rewrite the equation (2.3.18) as
shown below.
𝜕 2 𝐸𝜇𝑡 𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,𝜇
∇2 𝐸𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 + 𝜇0 (2.3.21)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Where: µ is the transverse mode number.
15
Now we need to substitute the modes we got in the wave guides equation
(2.3.9) into the coupled wave equation (2.3.20), and then to further simplify the
relationship we can use the relation of the amplitude of the mode change over
a distance.
𝜕 2 𝐴𝜇 𝜕𝐴𝜇
≪ 𝛽𝜇 (2.3.22)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧
And then we can come up with the simplified wave equation,
𝜇=1
𝜕𝐴𝜇 𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
∑ [−𝑖𝛽𝜇 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐] = 𝜇0 (2.3.23)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜇=1
Here cc is a constant produced after integration. After that by
integrating the wave equation (2.3.19) over the cross section of the fiber and
using the orthogonally relationship of the Equation (2.3.10), we get wave
propagation equation,
𝜇=1
𝜕𝐴𝜇 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽 𝑧)
∑ [−2𝑖𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝑒 𝜇 + 𝑐𝑐]
𝜕𝑧
𝜇=1
+∞
𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ∬ 𝜇0 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.3.24)
−∞ 𝜕𝑡 2
Above equation could be used to describe the coupling of the modes. This
includes both forward and backwards propagating modes. The total of the
transverse fields is the sum of both individual fields.
16
We can write the electric and magnetic fields as given below.
1
𝐸𝑡 = (𝐴 𝜉 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑣 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝐵𝜇 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐) (2.3.25)
2 𝑣 𝑣𝑡
1
𝐻𝑡 = (𝐴 𝐻 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑣 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐 − 𝐵𝜇 𝐻𝜇𝑡 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝜇 𝑧) − 𝑐𝑐) (2.3.26)
2 𝑣 𝑣𝑡
Now by substituting the fields into the equation (2.3.22), we can come
up with the propagation equation for the coupled wave in a fiber.
𝜕𝐴𝑣 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽 𝑧) 𝜕𝐵𝜇 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡+𝛽 𝑧)

( 𝑒 𝜇 + 𝑐𝑐) − ( 𝑒 𝜇 + 𝑐𝑐)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
+∞
𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ∬ 𝜇0 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.3.27)
−∞ 𝜕𝑡 2
Now to find the modal power in the core of the fiber we use a term η,
which is defined as the ratio of the power confined in the core to the total power.
For the LP modes we can use the closed form given below,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∗
2 ∫𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (𝑒𝜇𝜌 × ℎ𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑧̂ 𝑑𝐴 𝑢2 𝜔2 𝐾2𝜇 (𝜔)
𝜂= = 2 ( 2+ ) (2.3.28)
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∗ 𝑣 𝑢 𝐾𝜇−1 (𝜔)𝐾 𝜇+1 (𝜔)
(𝑒 × ℎ ) 𝑧̂ 𝑑 𝐴
2 ∫𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜇𝜌 𝜇𝜌
From the beginning we have being using two modes for the fiber
transverse guided and radiation modes. We used the subscripts µ and ρ to
denote these modes. Here µ is a non-negative integer that determine the
17
eigenvalues for the equations (2.3.12) and (2.3.14), for particular v-numbers.
The modes ρ determines which root of the (2.3.18) is to be used as the
eigenvalue.
The propagation constant of the fiber 𝛽𝜇𝜌 is determined by the
eigenvalue u.
𝑢 2
𝛽𝜇𝜌 = √𝑘21 − ( ) (2.3.29)
𝑎
By looking at the Figure 2.3.1 and from the above equations we can see
that there many possible modes, but a fiber cannot sustain all the modes. The
modes that a fiber can sustain is determined by the v - number. The mode
LP 𝜇𝜌 can only be sustained if the v - number is greater than the cutoff vc.
The cutoff vc values depends on the refractive indices of the fiber, the diameter
and the wavelength of the EM wave (equation 2.3.16a).
18
Figure 2.3.1: These are several of the electric field patterns for different LP
modes in a fiber. Red is for positive and blue is for negative values of the
electric field [22].
19
2.4. Fiber Bragg Gratings
Fiber Bragg gratings including their history, preparation, types,
photosensitivity and associated experimental aspects are discussed in this
subsection.
2.4.1. Origin and Inscribing FBG’s
The Origin of Fiber Bragg Gratings was briefly mentioned in the
Introduction section. It was K.O Hill et al who discovered Fiber Bragg Gratings
(FBG’s) at the Canadian communications research center in 1978 [7]. The
FBG’s were discovered during an experiment that was done using germania-
doped silica fiber, and the laser used for this experiment was a visible argon
ion laser. During the experiment it was discovered that the light directed
coupled in the fiber increases reflectivity as a function of time. They figured
that the It was suggested that a standing wave pattern was formed due to the
reflected wave from the end of the fiber. This, in turn, modulates the refractive
index grating inside of the fiber core. The modulation of the refractive index
increases increase reflectivity working as a positive feedback. When the
modulation of the refractive index reaches its maximum, an FBG is formed
inside of the fiber core.
In the next decade only few researchers studied this interesting
phenomena [8,9]. It was believed that the difficulties in experimental setting
20
at the Canadian Communications Research Center were the reasons and at
that time.
Other researchers discovered reported different results from the
nonlinear phenomenon of sum - frequency generation by Ohmari and Sasaki
[10] and K.O. Hill et al [11]. This phenomenon was the generation of second-
harmonic generation germanium-doped silica fibers with zero second order
nonlinear coefficient responsible for the second-harmonic generation. U.
Österberg and Margulis [12] demonstrated that efficiency of the second
harmonic could be enhanced by exposing germanium-doped silica fiber using
infrared radiation, forming an FBG through nonlinear process [13,14]. Stone’s
work on how argon laser radiation affects germanium-doped silica [15] showed
that germania doped silica can be affected by any argon laser. This discovery
opened the path in research of FBGs to generation of second harmonics in
optical fibers [16] and to writing single mode gratings in fibers [17]. The two-
photon absorption nature of the phenomenon from the fundamental radiation
at 488nm in a fiber was first noticed by J. Bures et al [18].
Meltz et al proposed recording FBGs using holographic technique using
single-photon absorption at 244nm in 1989[19]. This technique was based on a
recording gratings in the fibers using interference of UV beams.
21
Figure 2.4.1: The Original Setup used by Meltz, Morey and Glenn [20].
Figure 2.4.2: The interference pattern created inside of the fiber [21].
22
An interference pattern created inside the fiber, which inscribe the
grating into the fiber core. The period of the grating, (Λ) is given by,
𝜆𝑢𝑣
Λ= (2.4.1)
𝜗
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2)
And the Bragg wavelength, (𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 ) is given by,
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜆𝑢𝑣
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Λ = (2.4.2)
𝜗
𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2)
Where; 𝜆𝑢𝑣 is the wavelength of the light UV radiation.
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the effective refractive index of the fiber.
𝜗 is the angle between the two light beams.
Here the 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 depends on the wavelength of the light and the mode at
which the light propagates, this is the element that decided the velocity of the
light in the fiber.
In 1992 Hill et al introduced a method to produce gratings using a phase
mask. This is a photolithographic method that uses a special phase mask
grating made out of silica. When a laser beam is incident on it, the light
traveling through the mask creates thus creating a grating inside the fiber
core. In this technique the 0th diffraction order is suppressed so the damage in
the fiber core is minimized. The grating period can be varied depending on the
phase mask period and the distance between the phase mask and the grating.
23
Figure 2.4.3: Phase Mask technique used to fabricate gratings in a fiber [23].
Another technique to produce gratings in the fibers is the point-to- point
method. In this method the laser beam is focused at a point in the fiber core,
and then moved to another point. The process repeated and the difference
between two corresponding points will determine the grating period.
24
2.4.2. Types of FBG’s
There are two different ways we can group FBGs: By the conditions
under which the FBGs are produced, and by the structure of the gratings.
2.4.2.1. By the varying conditions of gratings production
Below, we consider the temperature difference and the hydrogenation
conditions during the FBGs production.
Type I
Type I FBGs are also known as standard gratings are the most common type
used in telecommunication, and in temperature sensing for T< 80oC. They are
produced at lower temperature and under moderate UV radiation.
Hydrogenated and non-hydrogenated conditions can be used in production.
These FBGs could be erased at T~ 200oC.
Type IA
This type of FBGs are produced under an intense exposure to UV radiation,
Hydrogenated optical fibers are typically used to fabricate this type of FBGs.
They present regenerated gratings [25] created after erasure of Type I FBGs.
A long exposure time is required for accomplish this procedure.
25
Type IA gratings were introduced in 2001 [24] with the purpose to
determine influence of a hydrogen loading on the formation of type IIA gratings
in germanosilicate fibers. The effective refractive index of these FBGs is
greatly increased and the Bragg wavelength is shifted in the red region.
Type II
These gratings are made under pulsed UV radiation exceeding the
damage threshold of the fiber core. The energy laser pulses would melt the core
creating areas with modulated refractive index turning in to FBG. Since this
type of FBGs based on periodic damage in the fiber core is known as “damaged
gratings” type. Type II gratings produced by Archambault et al [26, 27]
demonstrated almost 100% reflectivity withstanding temperatures up to 800-
1000oC.
Type IIA
Type IIA gratings also fabricated under prolonged UV radiation in a
non-hydrogenated fiber. The first-order grating erased and a second-order
grating is created. Unlike to the type IA gratings in these gratings the Bragg
wavelength was shifted in the blue region.
Research performed by Xie et al [28,29] demonstrated that type IIA
gratings were able to withstand high temperature (~500oC). In the process of

26
fabrication the first order grating was erased and the second order grating was
created.
2.4.2.2. Structure (composition) of the gratings
Here we consider the structure of the FBGs inside of the fibers. The
parameters we consider are: grating period and the variation (modulation) of
the refractive index. The refractive index profile of the grating could be either
uniform or apodized.
Uniform refractive index profile gratings have a simple structure
compared to the apodized profile. Here the refractive index difference between
the grating and the fiber core remains constant, that is if the is the fiber core
has a refractive index n1 and the grating has a refractive index n3 the inside
the grating the refractive indices would change to n1 or to n3. Inside the fiber
only the grating period would change depending on the grating type.
27
Figure 2.4.4: Representation of uniform refractive index profile FBGs [30].
Figure 2.4.4 illustrates a uniform FBG’ profile with constant period. In
the chirped FBG the grating period changes as a linear function with distance.
This gives the grating the ability to reflect multiple frequencies of light. In the
28
tilted FBG, the grating period stays uniform but the grating is tilted at an
angle thus affecting light frequency.
In the apodized FBGs the refractive index changes according to an
apodizing function. It is a mathematical function where it has zero value
outside a chosen interval. Inside the interval it could have different variation
depending on the mathematical function.
In the Figure 2.4.5 the uniform positive index profile shows a simple
form of the Apodized structure. In the Gaussian-apodized grating the
refractive index changes as a Gaussian function inside the grating with a
positive offset of the refractive index. In the Raised-cosine-apodized index
changes as a Cosine function inside the interval. A phase of the refractive index
modulation is shifted the middle of the grating for the discrete phase shift
index profile.
29
Figure 2.4.5: Apodized refractive index profile FBGs [30].
30
2.4.3. Photosensitivity
The photosensitivity of a fiber refers to its ability locally change the
refractive index under exposure to radiation and is related to the defects in the
fiber core. Meltz et al suggested that in germanium-doped fibers the
photosensitivity peaks at around 240nm (UV radiation) [19] because of
germanium-oxygen deficiencies [31].
To produce germanium-doped fibers, three main components are used:
germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4), silicon tetrachloride (SiCl2) and oxygen (O2).
Below are the two chemical reactions between the chlorides and the oxygen
during the manufacturing process.
SiCl4 + O2 → SiO2 + 2Cl2
GeCl4 + O2 → GeO2 + 2Cl2
GeO2 (liquid) ↔ GeO(gas) + ½O2 (gas)
The core of the fiber made of silica is mixed with germanium. Silica
assumes a 3D tetrahedral atomic structure during the doping process when
the germanium atoms replace some silicon atoms. Since germanium has 5
electrons in the valance band, only four will be in the bond with either oxygen
or silicon, the 5th electron would be unsatisfied single electron.
31
Figure 2.4.6: The 3D Tetrahedral crystal structure of silica [35].
These defect are the paramagnetic Ge(n) defects [34]. Friebel et al
introduced the model based on Ge-Si bonds in the oxygen deficient centers are
called “wrong bonds” and these bonds are broken releasing electrons when
irradiated by UV light.
GeO3SiO3 + UV → GeO3 + SiO3+ + e-
32
Figure 2.4.7: Graphical representation of “wrong bonds” broken under
exposure of UV light. (a) Wrong bonds structure, (b) GeE’ structure, (c) oxygen
vacant silicon atom, and (d) free electron released from the reaction.
There are three different types of defects in the germania-doped silica fibers,
in all of these the middle atom is a germanium atom. Germanium atom has
five electrons in the outer layer, only four of these electron would be in bond,
the 5th would be an unpaired electron. When the germania atom bound to 4
silica it gives Ge(1) defect (Figure 2.4.8). In the Ge(2) defect (Figure 2.4.9) one
of the silica would be replaced by germania. In the GeE’ defect (Figure 2.4.7(b))
an oxygen vacant silica would be right next to the germania.
33
Figure 2.4.8: The defect Ge(1) in germania-doped silica fiber.
Figure 2.4.9: The defect Ge(2) in germania-doped silica fiber
34
2.4.4. Applications of FBG’s
The FBGs are capable of measuring physical parameters such as
temperature, strain, pressure, etc. The experimental procedure described by
Adamovsky et al of the thermo-optic coefficient under different temperature
regimes described in [38]. The experimental setup for the study of the thermo-
optic coefficient in FBGs contains two light sources (Figure 2.4.10). They
include two lasers: one a 20 mW laser emitting light at 532 nm, and the second
laser a superluminescent laser diode (SLD) 5 mW laser emitting light at 1310
nm and a minimum bandwidth of 20 nm. A light is coupled into two identical
optical fibers with a core of diameter 9.15 µm. Both fibers are placed in ceramic
capillary tubes and inside of a 24’’ long split hinge tube furnace heated up to
1200oC. One fiber contains the FBG and the second one is without one. The
peak wavelength of the FBG at room temperature (20 oC) is about 1310.135
nm with a bandwidth between 16.8 and 25.7 GHz for 1 and 3 dB.
Figure 2.4.10: Schematic representation of the FBG experimental setup [38].
35
The radiation reflected by FBG is detected by a photo detector
incorporated inside an optical spectrum analyzer. The wavelength of the
detected light is subject to change with the temperature. The detected change
is displayed on the screen of the optical spectrum analyzer. The visible light
passing through the both fibers is observed on the screen. One pattern is from
the regular fiber and the other is from the fiber with the FBG. The transmitted
light is recorded using a CCD camera in order to study the observed LP modes
of the two fibers. The diffraction efficiencies measured using the power ratio of
the light reflected on the FBG with respect to the coupled light.
36
2.5 Finite Element Analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics Programming.
Finite element analysis (FEA) uses numerical techniques to find
approximate solutions to problems. This method finds an approximated
solution to a problem by solving partial differential equations using numerical
integration. Even though traditionally an FEA was a part of the solid
mechanics, now it’s used commonly in solving various problems. The FEA can
be used for structure analysis, solid mechanics, dynamics, thermal physics,
biomaterials, and optics.
The general procedure of the FEA is to study the problem and then
simplify the problem to a model. The next step is to build a model for the
simulation, add a mesh, the material properties and define the boundary
conditions. Physics formalism is the key to define the functions and solve the
equations.
The FEA uses numerical techniques to find the solutions for boundary
value problems. But solving complex problems including multiple differential
equations is impossible. For simplicity the FEA divides the interval of the
mathematical problem in two parts.
This can be illustrated by taking a looking at an example [36]. First let’s
take a simple integral, and use numerical methods to calculate the solution
over a given range.
37
Let’s take the function,
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 6
Now, to find the area (A) under the function y, between -1 and 1,
1 1
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 6)𝑑𝑥
−1 −1
Figure 2.4.11: Diagram of the area (A) in the interval between -1 to 1. The
area under the function y is found by the integration [36].
By using simple integration we can find the value of A to determine the
exact value of A.
1 1
1 1 38
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 6)𝑑𝑥 = |( 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥)| = 2 ( + 6) = ≈ 12.667
−1 3 −1 3 3
38
The total area A could be divided into N number of subsections. Then a
function is chosen to approximate the variation of y for each of the subsections.
The most simple is a constant that is equal to y at the midpoint of each of the
subsections. This constant or the function along with the length of the section
provides an approximate value for the area of each subsection. Finally by
summing all of these values the total area A could be determined.
Figure 2.4.12 presents the number of subsections with the error 5.26%.
When 8 subsections are used the error is 0.08%. It is clear that the accuracy of
the approximation increases with the number of subsections.
The FEA gives an approximation of an exact value. The accuracy
depends on the number of the subsection (or the sub-intervals) and the function
used during the approximation process. The selection of a mesh produces more
accurate results but require computational power.
39
Figure 2.4.12: Graphical representation of numerical integration of the
calculation of A, changing with the number of subsections used [36].
COMSOL Multiphysics is a simulation program that uses FEA. The
COMSOL provides an ability designing specific experiment by setting
geometry, mesh, physics settings, boundary conditions, solvers, post-
processing, and visualizations of the experimental results. The COMSOL has
a friendly interface to design and build simulations for research purpose. The
40
negative side of COMSOL is that the program’s ability solving complex models
depends highly on the power of the computer.
PDEs templates make model the systems with either nonlinear or linear
equation systems. The COMSOL combines equations to solve higher order
differential equation models. For example, in mechanics the COMSOL
measures the stress of a metal supporting a beam including a thermal element
component to measure how the model will behave with temperature.
It allows a user to simultaneously work in 3D and 2D. Different models
could be coupled or used separately. The models could be done in Cartesian,
cylindrical, spherical or even in Euler-angle based coordinate systems. The
program has a modeling console which has built in basic shapes including the
tools to model different shapes.
When designing a model the choice of mesh is very important. COMSOL
provides automatic and semi-automatic tools for meshing including
tetrahedral meshing and swept meshing. A tetrahedral meshing is a default
mesh but the user defines the mesh. The COMSOL is mostly considered as an
FEA based program. Finite volume method (FVM) is very similar to FEA,
although in the FVM a 3D model is divided into subsection of small volume.
The calculations are performed as in FEA. The boundary element method uses
integration methods to solve the equations, as in our study. Also, the particle
tracing method uses physics such as gravity or electromagnetic forces to
41
calculate the trajectory of particles and give the ability simulating interaction
in particle-particle, particle-fluid or particle-field events.
COMSOL has a unique feature selecting an appropriate method of
numerical analysis. Depending on the simulation all of the above mentioned
methods could be coupled and automatically generated by the program during
the solving process, since the FEA allows a user to combine different physics
modules.
42
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE
3. Simulations Using COMSOL
The first step for simulations using COMSOL is to decide which model
to build. When using COMSOL for simulations, both the model we build and
the physics depend on the dimensions used. Two and three dimensional models
were chosen for our simulations. Next we picked the physics module and then
we had started building our project.
When building the models, COMSOL gives option to define a “repair
tolerance” under the geometry. Here, geometric entities that have a distance
less than the absolute repair tolerance are merged.
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
43
3.1. 2D Step index fiber Model
The 2D Step index fiber model in the COMSOL library was used as a
starting point. The premade model was modified for our simulation purposes.
The physics module for the simulation was “Electromagnetic waves” and
“Frequency domain” modules. In this simulation we used the mode analysis
study, thus the program calculated the difference created for a given fiber.
Building the model started with setting the parameters for the fiber.
Parameters such as the refractive indices, wave length of the light and radius
of the fiber were chosen.
Table 3.1: Table of Parameters for the 2D fiber Simulation
Name Expression Description
n1 1.4457 refractive index of the core
n2 1.4378 refractive index of the
cladding
lambda 530[nm], 1310[nm], wave length of the light
1530[nm]
f speed of light /lambda frequency of the light
r_core 8 [µm] radius of the core
r_cladding 125 [µm] radius of the cladding
44
After setting the parameters we started to build the exact model. The
cladding was built using the COMSOL “geometry builder” to draw a circle,
following a smaller circle in the middle. The circles had the same axis with the
radii given in table 3.1
Figure 3.1: Basic model of the 2D fiber. Center circle is the core and the bigger
circle is the cladding.
The next step was assigning the materials for the fiber core and the
cladding. Doped Silica (n1 = 1.4457) was chosen for the core and silica glass (n2
= 1.4378) was chosen for the cladding.
45
After building the model of the fiber, we set the wave equation and the
boundary conditions for the model. Equation 3.1.1 represents the wave
equation for the electromagnetic wave for our model.
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸) − 𝑘02 𝜖𝑟 𝐸 = 0 (3.1.1)
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐸̃ (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 −𝑖𝑧𝑘𝑧
The eigenvalues calculated by COMSOL are in the form:
𝜆 = −𝑖𝛽 − 𝛿 (3.1.2)
𝜖𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑖𝑘)2
𝜔
𝑘0 = 𝜔√𝜀0 𝜇0 =
𝑐0
Where 𝑘𝑧 is the plane wave number in the z-direction; 𝑧 is the unit vector in z-
direction; E is the incident electric field; 𝛿 is the real part of the solution
responsible for the damping; 𝛽 is the eigenfrequency; 𝑛 is the real part of the
refractive index; 𝑘 is the imaginary part of the refractive index; 𝑘0 is he wave
number of the free space; 𝜔 is the angular frequency; 𝜀0 is the permittivity of
free space; 𝜇0 is the permeability of free space and 𝑐0 is the speed of light in
vacuum.
46
The boundaries of the fiber were set to be perfect electric conductors.
Thus the EM waves could pass through the boundaries while obeying laws of
physics. The initial value of the EM waves inside the Fiber was set to be zero.
Before and at the point start of the simulation of the experiment there would
be no EM wave inside the fiber core.
Next the mesh for the model set which also affects the accuracy of the
simulation’s results. As presented in chapter 2 section 5, the smaller elements
yield higher accuracy but at the cost of requiring more computing power. The
mesh contained triangular shaped elements with sizes between 2.5 µm and
0.005 µm. Setting the mesh was the final step of building the model.
After the model was built, mode analysis calculation settings were
chosen. For the effective mode index with the green light (f=5.6565E-14), the
modes for the model were calculated (effective mode indices were 1.446 and
1.44). The program was set to numerically calculate and find 100 modes around
the effective mode index.
47
Figure 3.2: A close up of the triangular shaped mesh used for the 2D model.
48
3.2. 3D Model for Fiber Bragg grating
The 3D model was inspired by the experimental research from ref. 38.
The model build for the 3D simulations is genuine and built from the scratch.
For simulation purposes, we build a few models including a fiber without a
FBG and FBG’s with different numbers of gratings. The parameters and
materials were remained the same. The fiber without the FBG was used as a
control model.
Table 3.2 shows the list of parameters used for the FBG models. In the
model the material used were based on the previous experimental research
[38]. For the fiber cladding, the silica grass with refractive index of 1.4378 was
chosen. For the fiber core doped silica with refractive index of 1.4457 was
chosen with the step index grating made of another doped silica with refractive
index 1.4460. To find the period of the grating we rearranged the equation
2.4.2, where the grating period (Λ ) was:
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔
Λ=
2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
49
Table 3.2: Table of Parameters for the 3D fiber Simulation
Name Expression Value Description
n1 1.4457 1.4457 refractive index of the
core
cladding
step index grating
n_eff (n1 + n2)/2 1.4417 effective refractive
index
lambda 1310 [nm] 1.31E-6 m wave length of the
light
Λ lambda/(2 *n_eff) 4.5431E-7 m grating period
f c_const/lambda 5.6565E14 1/s frequency of the light
r_core 9 [µm] 9E-6 m radius of the core
r_cladding 50 [µm] 5E-5 m radius of the cladding
l Λ *x depends on x, length of the fiber
(x is the number of
slabs)
50
The physics module and the wave equation of the simulation was similar
to the 2D model, however, the 3D wave equation was solved. The electric
displacement field stayed the same as the 2D model:
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸) − 𝑘02 𝜖𝑟 𝐸 = 0 (3.1.1)
The eigenvalues calculated by COMSOL were in the form:
𝜆 = −𝑖𝛽 − 𝛿 (3.1.2)
𝜖𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑖𝑘)2
𝜔
𝑘0 = 𝜔√𝜀0 𝜇0 =
𝑐0
Where: E is the incident electric field; 𝛿 is the real part of the solution
responsible for the damping; 𝛽 is the eigenfrequency; 𝑛 is the real part of the
refractive index; 𝑘 is the imaginary part of the refractive index; 𝑘0 is he wave
number of the free space; 𝜔 is the angular frequency; 𝜀0 is the Permittivity of
free space; 𝜇0 is the Permeability of free space and 𝑐0 is the speed of light in
vacuum
The boundary of the fiber was set to be perfect electric conductor for the
cladding and air boundary. The boundary where the light enters and leaves
the fiber had needed a special condition. Here, the scattering boundary
condition was used. This boundary condition made the boundary transparent
51
for a scattered wave and the incident wave. The incident light was set to have
an electric-field that is a plane wave and is propagated towards the z-direction.
As like the 2D model the initial value of the EM wave was set to be zero. Thus
only the incident wave would be present inside the fiber.
𝑛 × (∇ × 𝐸) − 𝑖𝑘𝑛 × (𝐸 × 𝑛) = −𝑛 × (𝐸0 × (𝑖𝑘(𝑛 − 𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟 ))) 𝑒 𝑖𝑘∙𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙𝑟 (3.2.1)
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑠𝑐 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘(𝑛∙𝑟) + 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘(𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙𝑟) (3.2.2)
𝐸𝑠𝑐 = 𝐸𝑠𝑐 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘(𝑛∙𝑟)
Where: 𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟 is the directional vector of the wave; 𝑘 is the wave number; 𝐸
is the incident plane wave; 𝐸0 = (−1,1,0) in (x,y,z) directions for the simulation
and 𝐸𝑠𝑐 is the plane scattered wave
As mentioned above several fiber models were designed for the
simulations. All of the fibers had the same core and cladding radii and the
materials but the length of the fiber was changed according to the length of the
grating. The first model was the fiber without the grating. The model was a
simple model consisting of two cylinders; one to form the core and the second
was the cladding. The cylinders were assigned with the materials mentioned
above.
52
Figure 3.3: The 3D model of the fiber.
Next a model for a single grating was made, which was built exactly as
the 3D fiber but with the length of the fiber equal to the period of a grating.
This let us to study the behavior of light when it is passing through a single
piece of grating.
53
Figure 3.4: The 3D model of the single grating with thickness Λ =454.31 nm.
The next step was to build fiber models with the grating. These models
were started by building the grating with 10 slabs. 3 models of the fiber with
10 slabs were built with different grating periods (1310 nm, 908.62 nm and
454.31 nm) in order to study the dependence of the wave propagation through
a fiber on the grating period. Then the number of slabs was increased to 50 and
100 slabs. The purpose was to study the dependence of the wave propagation
through the fiber with the number of the slabs in the grating. The first step
was to build the grating, which was shaped to a cylindrical disk with above
54
mentioned radius of the core. The thickness of the disk was set to be the grating
period and then the grating was cloned to form the desired number of slabs.
Figure 3.5: The 3D model of the FBG with 10 slabs.
55
56
A model was created to simulate a FBG with a step index grating. After
the model was built, the even numbered disks were assigned with the material
of the core and the odd numbered disks were assigned with the grating
material except the first was set for the cladding.
Figure 3.8: The grating with of the FBG with 10 slabs. Where the slabs in the
core with even number is assigned with the core material and the odd number
is assigned with grating material. The outer was cylinder was assigned with
the material of the cladding.
57
Figure 3.9: The grating with of the FBG with 50 slabs with each even
numbered disk assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk
assigned with grating material.
Figure 3.10: The grating with of the FBG with 100 slabs with each even
numbered disk assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk
assigned with grating material.
58
The mesh of the 3D model was set similar for all the models. Fine mesh
settings result with high accuracy. The mesh elements were tetrahedral
shaped with sizes in between 3.5 µm and 0.15 µm. The smallest possible
element size was chosen to increase the accuracy of the results.
Figure 3.11: The tetrahedral mesh on the 3D model. Since the light propagates
through the core, it has a smaller mesh to increase the accuracy of calculations.
Cladding was given a larger mesh to decrease the unnecessary use of the
computer power.
59
Figure 3.12: A close up of the tetrahedral shaped mesh used for the 3D model.
A study for the 3D model was to calculate “Boundary mode analysis” and
“Frequency domain”. For the boundary mode analysis, the effective analysis
frequency was selected to be the frequency of EM waves in the infrared region
and in the visible range. The simulations were done for different EM waves.
The modes calculated were the modes around the effective refractive index. As
in the 2D model the program was set to find 100 modes around the effective
mode index. The frequency domain could be set to have a range of frequencies
but for our simulation the same frequency that was used in the boundary mode
analysis was used.
60
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Results of the 2D model
The COMSOL simulations provide modes that are physically possible in
the step index fiber. The simulations provide 100 possible modes for the
particular selected model. Of these 100 possible modes some are identical and
some of them are not stable modes. Therefore only few of the 100 modes could
be chosen to represent the LP modes. The models chosen for the simulations
were all identical except for the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves used.
The experimental results of the fiber bragg grating modes represent the
power distribution. Therefore the simulated modes were plotted also to
represent the power distribution. The equation used to plot is shown below,
𝑃 = √𝑃𝑥2 + 𝑃𝑦2 + 𝑃𝑧2 (4.1.1)
Where; P is the total power
Pi is the power in the x, y, and z directions in a cartesian
coordinate
61
Simulation results for the 530 nm light waves.
Figure 4.1: LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
result on the right.
62
Figure 4.4: LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left
compared to simulated results of a few modes on the top right and on bottom,
the simulated results have the same outer diameter but the inner diameter is
changing
63
Figure 4.6: LP51 mode experimental on the left compared to simulated result
on the right.
Simulations of the 2D fiber for 530 nm wavelength light were able to
sustain a variety of modes. The majority of the results were duplicate solutions
of the same stable mode. There were 6 unique stable modes and the highest
stable mode was LP51. Interestingly, the 530 nm wavelength light was not able
to sustain LP02 mode, while the 1310 nm and 1530 nm were.
64
Simulation results for the 1310 nm IR waves.
65
Figure 4.10: LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left
compared to simulated results of few modes on the top right and on bottom.
Similar to the simulation results at 530 nm wavelength, simulations at
1310 nm and 1530 nm were able to sustain a variety of mode. But the majority
of the modes were duplicate results of the same mode. The 1310 nm wavelength
was able to sustain 4 different modes. The highest mode sustained by 1310 nm
wavelength was LP12.
66
Simulation results for the 1530 nm IR waves.
The simulations of1530 nm wavelength sustained only 2 modes. Both 1310 nm
and 1530 nm wavelengths were able to sustain the LP02 mode, which was the
highest mode sustained by the 1530 nm wavelength.
67
The simulation results for the 2D model are summarized in the
table given below.
Table 4.1: Stable modes sustained by the fiber in the 2D model
Wave Stables modes sustained Number of different
modes
530 nm LP01 , LP12 , LP01* , LP21 , LP41 , LP51 6
1310 nm LP01 , LP02 , LP01* , LP12 4
1530 nm LP01 , LP02 2
From table 4.1 we can see that the shortest wavelength (530 nm) was
able to sustain 6 different stable modes and it was able to sustain stable modes
up to LP51. But as the wavelength was increased the number of modes
sustained by the fiber was decreased. The second lowest wavelength (1310 nm)
sustained 4 different modes and the highest wavelength (1530 nm) was able to
sustain only 2 different modes. Similarly the highest mode possible by the fiber
was also decreased as the wavelength increased. The second lowest wavelength
(1310 nm) sustained modes up to LP12 mode and the highest wavelength (1530
nm) was able to sustain modes up to LP02 mode.
68
4.2. Results of the 3D model
As was the case in the 2D model simulations, the 3D model COMSOL
simulations provide modes that are possible in the 3D fiber. The simulation
was set to provide 100 possible modes for the selected model. An interesting
result for the 3D model was that each fiber model was able to sustain only one
numerically stable mode. In 3D simulations a fiber with no FBG was first
simulated as a control. Then the rest of the model was modifies by the number
of the slabs and the grating period. IR light with wavelength 1310 nm was
used for the simulation.
In a similar manner to the 2D model, the 3D model results were plotted
to represent the power distribution. The equation used to plot is the power
shown below,
𝑃 = √𝑃𝑥2 + 𝑃𝑦2 + 𝑃𝑧2 (4.1.1)
Where; P is the total power
Pi is the power in the x, y, and z directions in a cartesian
coordinates
69
Simulation results of the Fiber without a FBG.
Figure 4.13: Incident wave of the fiber with no FBG.
result of the transmitted wave on the right. The resultant mode indicates
instability in the mode.
Figure 4.15: Power distribution of the transmitted for the fiber with no FBG
70
Simulation results for a single grating with grating period, 2Λ = 908.62 nm,
Figure 4.16: The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the
middle and the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted
wave modes are identical.
Figure 4.17: Power distribution of the single grating period 2Λ.
71
Simulation results for a single grating with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm,
Figure 4.18: The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the
middle and the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted
wave modes are identical.
Figure 4.19: Power distribution of the single grating period Λ.
Simulations of single gratings with periods 2Λ = 908.62 nm (Figure 4.19)
and Λ = 454.31 nm (Figure 4.22) resulted in LP12 mode. When the length of a
fiber was changed to the size of a grating the mode sustained by the fiber was
clearly changed from PL11 to LP12. Even without adding a grating the change
of the length of the fiber affected the stable mode sustained by the fiber.
72
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period of 1310nm and 10 slabs.
Figure 4.20: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period
1310nm
result of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 1310nm. The sustained
mode indicates instability.
Figure 4.22: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10
slabs and grating period 1310nm.
73
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period, 2Λ = 908.62 nm and 10
slabs.
Figure 4.23: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ
result of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ.
slabs and grating period 2Λ.
74
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 10 slabs.
Figure 4.26: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ.
result of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ.
slabs and grating period Λ.
75
Simulation results of the Fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 50
slabs.
Figure 4.29: For the fiber with 50 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on
left. The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.
76
Simulation results of the Fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 100
slabs.
Figure 4.31: For the fiber with 100 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave
on left. The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and
LP21 modes.
77
Table 4.2: Simulation results of the fiber with 10 slabs for different grating
periods
Grating Incident wave Transmitted wave LP Mode
Period (experimental)
1310nm
2Λ =
908.62
nm
Λ=
454.31
nm
From table 4.2 we can see that as the period of the grating is decreased
and fulfills the Bragg condition the mode became more stable. Furthermore
the mode of the fiber change from unstable LP11 to a stable LP12.
78
Table 4.3: Simulation results of fibers with grating period Λ = 454.31 nm, and
different number of slabs.
Number Incident wave Transmitted LP Mode

of slabs wave (experimental)
10
50 Combination of
LP12 and LP21
modes
100 Combination of
LP12 and LP21
modes
Table 4.3 shows that the number slabs does have an effect on the stable
mode of the fiber. As the number of the slabs got higher the mode changed from
LP12 to combination of LP12 and LP21. The fibers with 50 and 100 slabs show
a mode that is changing to form a combination of LP12 and LP21 modes, but
hasn’t fully formed the mode.
79
As mentioned earlier for the 3D model the simulations were only able to
sustain one stable mode for the each simulation. The simulation results for the
3D model are summarized in Table 4.4 below
Table 4.4: Summary of simulation results for the 3D model
3D model mode Comments
sustained
Fiber with no FBG LP11 The observed mode is not sharply
defined in shape. This could be due
to instability in the simulation
result.
Single grating of LP12 The mode is sharp and stable
period 2Λ
Single grating of LP12 The mode is sharp, stable and
period Λ brighter than single slit with
width 2Λ. which indicates higher
stability
Fiber with 10 slabs LP11 The mode sustained is not defined
and Grating period sharply in shape. which indicates
1310nm instability in the simulation
result.
Fiber with 10 slabs LP11 The mode sustained is sharper and
and Grating period 2Λ stable.
80
Fiber with 10 slabs LP12 The mode sustained is sharp and
and Grating period Λ stable. The mode that is sustained
is a higher order mode.
Fiber with 50 slabs LP12 + LP21 The mode sustained resemble the
and Grating period Λ LP21 mode. Increasing the number
of slabs from 10 to 50 seems to
change the stable mode from LP12
to combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.
Fiber with 100 slabs LP12 + LP21 The mode sustained appears to be
and Grating period Λ a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes. The mode stability of the
100 slabs versus the 50 slabs
appears to be increased.
81
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
Stable modes sustained by 2D COMSOL simulation have been compared
with theoretical and experimental [39, 40] results and found to be in a good
agreement. LP modes manifest more stability at lower wavelengths. It appears
that lower wavelengths are able to sustain higher order modes and a higher
number of stable modes. The highest possible mode for 530nm light was LP51
and it was able to sustain 6 modes.
A novel use of the 3D COMSOL model in this thesis was the introduction
of a step like grating composed of 10, 50 and 100 slabs of refractive index
varied between n1 = 1.4457 and n3 = 1.4460 introduced in the silica fibers. Each
slab of the grating is a cylinder with radius of rcore = 9 µm and height of grating
periods 1310nm, 908.62 nm and 454.31 nm. Each slab is placed consecutively
with refractive indices alternating between n1 & n3 to form the grating. Each
model in the 3D simulations was set to calculate 100 possible modes, but each
model was able to sustain only one stable mode. It was found that the fiber
without a FBG was able to sustain only the LP11 mode. The single grating
simulation was able to sustain only the LP12 mode.
82
For the Bragg grating composed of 10 slabs when the grating period was 1310
nm and 908.62 nm, it was able to sustain LP11 mode, but when the grating
period was changed to 454.31 nm (to satisfy the Bragg condition) the stable
mode sustained was LP12 and with higher stability. The stability of the modes
strongly depends on the grating period. Tuning the period close to the Bragg
condition produced higher stability in the mode. Increasing the number of slabs
in the grating from 10 to 50 to 100 produced a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes versus LP12. The number of slabs in the grating affected the stable mode
that could be sustained by the fiber.
Finally, scope exists for future work to introduce variable temperature
and strain modules the 3D model in order to simulate real-world temperature
and strain sensors using fiber Bragg gratings.
83
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Simulation of FBG

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SIMULATIONS OF STEP-LIKE BRAGG GRATINGS IN

SILICA FIBERS USING COMSOL

studying the 2D model of a fiber under different wavelength EM radiation (530

introduction of step-like profile in FBGs. Potentially, this approach may be

used for experimental high temperature sensing under harsh conditions.

Buldum for being kind enough to be on my graduate thesis committee and

especially for valuable advice on improvements on my thesis.

I would also like to thank colleagues Jeff McCausland, Sajeevi Withanage,

my time at the University of Akron and on my research.

make everything in my life better.

2.1. Optical Fibers………………………………………………………….…..3

2.2. Geometrical Optics…………………………………………….………….5

2.2.1. Numerical Aperture………………………………..…………...7

2.3. Wave Optics……………………………………………….…………….…8

2.3.2. Coupled-Mode theory………………………………………....15

2.4. Fiber Bragg Gratings………………………………………………..…..20

2.4.1. Origin and Inscribing FBG’s………………………………....20

2.4.2.1. By the varying conditions of gratings production.25

2.4.2.2. By the Structure (composition) of the gratings….27

2.4.4. Applications of FBG’s……….………….…………….…...…..35

2.5. Finite Element Analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics

3. Simulations Using COMSOL……………………………..………………43

3.1. 2D Step index fiber Model……………………...………….…………....44

3.2. 3D Model for Fiber Bragg grating………………….…….…………....49

IV. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS……………………………………….……….....61

4.1. Results of the 2D model…………………………………………...……61

4.2. Results of the 3D model……………………………………...…………69

3.1 Table of Parameters for the 2D fiber Simulation……………..…………….44

3.2 Table of Parameters for the 3D fiber Simulation……………………..…….50

4.1 Stable modes sustained by the fiber in the 2D model……………..…………68

4.4 Simulation results for the 3D model……………………………………………80

2.1.1 A schematic representation of an optical fiber, with a core of refractive

2.2.1 A schematic representation of light wave propagating along a fiber…..…5

2.2.2 Optical fiber with Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) and Cylindrical

2.4.2 The interference pattern created inside of the fiber [21].……………..….22

2.4.3 Phase Mask technique used to fabricate gratings in a fiber [23].………..24

2.4.4 Representation of uniform refractive index profile FBGs [30]..…………28

2.4.5 Apodized refractive index profile FBGs [30].…………….………………..30

2.4.6 The 3D Tetrahedral crystal structure of silica [35].……………….......…..32

2.4.7 Graphical representation of “wrong bonds” broken under exposure of UV

2.4.9 The defect Ge(2) in germania-doped silica fiber….………………………...34

2.4.10 Schematic representation of the FBG experimental setup [38]………...35

2.4.12 Graphical representation of numerical integration of the calculation of

3.3 The 3D model of the fiber……………………………………………………...…53

3.5 The 3D model of the FBG with 10 slabs….………………………….…..…….55

3.6 The 3D model of the FBG with 50 slabs….…………………….……..............56

3.7 The 3D model of the FBG with 100 slabs…..………………….…….………...56

4.13 Incident wave of the fiber with no FBG…………………………………...….70

4.17 Power distribution of the single grating of period 2Λ………………………71

4.19 Power distribution of the single grating with width Λ……………………..72

First developed in 1970s, Fiber optics communication systems have

revolutionized the telecommunication industry. Made to be transparent and

with diameters in the micrometer range. By sending pulses of light through

transmit information over longer distances and in higher bandwidths than

Due to their immunity to electromagnetic interference optical fibers

have the ability to carry information with higher conservation compared to

regular cable wires. This has caused the telecommunication companies to

replace the cable wires with optical fibers.

FBG is a type of Bragg reflector that reflects particular wavelengths of light

wavelength-specific reflectors. Initially FBG’s were fabricated using a visible

FBGs have many applications, one of the main application is as sensors.

They could be used to measure physical parameters such as temperature,

pressure, strain, etc. Our research is focused on building a simulation model