Physical Sciences

Physics Grade 12
Textbook and
Workbook
Hendry du Plessis • Santie du Plessis
Carlien Fanoy • Isolde Fasondini
Marga Koelman • Judy McDougall
Annemie Smit • Lida Smith
Corlia Wepener
 Doc Scientia
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ISBN: 978-1-920537-20-3

First edition December 2009

Second edition December 2010
Revised edition December 2011; 2012
Third edition December 2013
Revised edition December 2014; 2015; 2016

Graphic design: Helene Jonck

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means –
mechanical or electronic, including recordings or tape recordings and
photocopying – without the prior permission of the publisher.
Dear Grade 12 learner
To study Physical Sciences is challenging and hard work.
The rewards are excitement, new discoveries and creative
thoughts.
The knowledge you have gained each year has been building
blocks in a greater picture. If there are any blocks missing, the
picture does not make sense. Therefore, we must be aware of
the fact that all the blocks have to be taken with us from one
year to the following. It is a good idea to always have your
Grade 10 and 11 Workbooks close by for reference.
You need the following skills:
• Common sense
There is a lot of logic in science, because it deals with
everyday happenings, like cars that crash, rugby balls being
kicked and so much more.
• Calculator skills
Be sure you know how to use your calculator.
• Know your formula page.
Know what each symbol stands for and in which unit each
amount is measured.
• Reading skills
A lot of information will come to you in the form of words.
Learn to read with insight and use a highlighter to
emphasize the facts you will need, or draw circles around it.
• Draw pictures.
There is nothing that helps you think as logically as pictures.
• Practise, practise, practise.
It still is the best method of learning something. It means
that you always have to do your own homework. Work
through old exam papers and our Exercise book; it provides
valuable experience.
The short explanations, examples, summaries, mind maps and
exercises will help you gain the necessary knowledge to master
Physical Sciences.
Use the QR codes to understand some of the terms better.
We trust it will be a successful year filled with excitement and
achievements.

Doc Scientia
How to use this workbook:
• The book is divided into knowledge areas.
• Each knowledge area is divided into units.
• After each unit there is an exercise and a summary.
• After each knowledge area there is a question paper and mind
maps.
• The format of a question paper is similar to end-of-year exams.
The following can be found throughout the book:

Examples Definitions and formulae

Interesting facts
Use your smartphone to activate
the QR codes.

Quick facts

Summary
Remember

Notes

Case study Enrichment

Project Question paper

Activity
Any activity that is done with pen and paper.

Practical activity
A simple investigation or experiment to understand the theory better.

Experiment
The method of the experiment is given step by step, and you should follow it to get results.
Experiments confirm the theory.
OR
It is expected of you to plan and carry out the experiment to obtain results.
 INDEX
Unit Page
SKILLS
SKILLS FOR PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS
1.1 Development of sciences 11
1.2 Scientific research 12
1.2.1 Types of research 14
1.2.2 Variables 14
1.2.3 Relationship between variables 15
1.2.4 Table 16
1.2.5 Other information to analyse the data 16
1.2.6 Conclusion and evaluation 17
Exercise A 20
1.3 Lab equipment 24
1.3.1 Thermometers 24
1.3.2 Scales 25
1.3.3 Meterstick 26
1.3.4 Graduated cylinder 26
1.3.5 Pipette 26
1.3.6 Burette 27
Activity 28
Exercise B 30
KNOWLEDE AREA MECHANICS 33
Unit 1 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE 33
1.1 Momentum 33
1.2 Change in momentum 34
Exercise 1 37
1.3 Newton’s second law in terms of momentum 41
1.4 Impulse 44
Exercise 2 49
1.5 The law of conservation of momentum 55
Experiment 1 59
1.6 Elastic collisions 61
Experiment 2 (demonstration) 62
Exercise 3 64
Summary of Unit 1 71
Mind maps of Unit 1 73
Unit 2 PROJECTILE MOTION 75
2.1 What is a projectile? 75
2.2 Gravitational acceleration 75
Experiment 3 77
2.3 Terminal velocity 79
2.4 Equations of motion 79
2.5 Problem solving 80
Exercise 4 95
Summary of Unit 2 107
Mind maps of Unit 2 109
Unit 3 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 111
3.1 Work and energy 111
 3.1.1 Work (W) 111
3.1.2 Resistance forces (friction) 115
Exercise 5 116
3.1.3 Potential energy (EP) 122
3.1.4 Kinetic energy (EK) 123
3.1.5 Mechanical energy 124
3.1.6 The work-energy principle 125
3.1.7 Forces 130
Exercise 6 135
3.2 Power or rate of work (P) 145
Experiment 4 146
Exercise 7 148
Summary of Unit 3 152
Mind maps of Unit 3 155
Question paper 157
KNOWLEDE AREA WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT 169
1 Introduction 169
2 The Doppler effect 169
2.1 Sound and ultrasound 169
2.1.1 Stationary sound source and listener 170
2.1.2 Moving sound source and stationary listener 170
Experiment 5 (demonstration) 171
2.1.3 Calculations 173
2.1.4 Application 175
2.1.4.1 Nature 176
2.1.4.2 Other applications 177
2.1.4.3 Medical field 177
2.2 Light 178
Exercise 8 179
Summary 183
Mind maps 185
Question paper 187
KNOWLEDE AREA ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 193
Unit 1 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 193
1.1 Introduction 193
1.1.1 Potential difference 193
1.1.2 Current 194
1.1.3 Resistance 194
1.1.4 Series and parallel connections 195
1.2 Internal resistance 196
Experiment 6 199
Experiment 7 204
Exercise 9 209
Summary of Unit 1 216
Mind maps of Unit 1 219
Unit 2 ELECTRODYNAMICS 221
2.1 Electromagnetic induction and electric generators
222
2.1.1 Direct current generator 224
2.1.2 Alternating current generator (alternator) 226
 2.1.3 Comparison of DC and AC generators 227
Project 227
Exercise 10 229
2.2 The motor effect and electric motors 233
2.2.1 Direct current motors (DC motors) 235
2.2.2 Alternating current motors (AC motors) 237
2.2.3 Comparison of DC and AC motors 238
Project 238
Exercise 11 239
2.3 Alternating current 241
2.3.1 Change in potential difference and current for AC 242
2.3.2 Root mean square current and potential
difference 243
Exercise 12 245
Summary of Unit 2 252
Mind maps of Unit 2 257
Question paper 261
KNOWLEDE AREA MATTER AND MATERIALS 271
Unit 1 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 271
1.1 Transmission and scattering of light 271
1.2 What is the photoelectric effect? 272
Experiment 8 (demonstration) 273
1.3 Work function and threshold frequency 276
1.4 Intensity and frequency of light 280
1.5 The quantum theory 282
Exercise 13 283
Summary of Unit 1 290
Mind maps of Unit 1 292
Unit 2 EMISSION AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA 293
2.1 Emission spectra 293
2.1.1 Continuous emission spectrum 293
2.1.2 Line emission spectrum 293
2.2 Absorption spectra 294
2.2.1 Infrared spectra 295
2.3 Differences between the different spectra 295
Exercise 14 296
Summary of Unit 2 399
Mind maps of Unit 2 300
Question paper 301
Information sheets 309
Work cited 311
 KNOWLEDGE AREA:
MATTER AND
MATERIALS
UNIT 2 EMISSION AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA
Continuous emission
Emission spectra
spectrum

Emission and Line emission spectra

Absorption spectra
absorption spectra

Differences between
the spectra

Spectra
A spectrum forms if a light bundle is broken up into the
composite light of different frequencies b.m.o. refraction.
This process is known as dispersion.
A light bundle can be diffracted by various devices, e.g. a
triangular prism, diffraction grating or a spectroscope.
There are two main spectrum groups:
• Emission spectra
• Absorption spectra
EM spectrum contains the visible light spectrum.
2.1 Emission spectra
2.1.1 Continuous emission spectrum
When white light passes through a triangular prism, it shows a continuous
spectrum of colours (ROYGBIV – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet).
The spectrum’s colours follow each other continuously without any gaps
occuring between the colours. It is similar to the appearance of a rainbow.

2.1.2 Line emission spectra

When an electric current is passed through a gas, the gas emits light (glow state). The spectrum
produced by the glowing gas consists of individual bright coloured lines. This is a line emission spectrum.

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 matter and materials

This happens because the electrons of the gas are excited to higher energy levels. The energy of the
photons match the difference in energy between the energy levels into which the electrons fall. Elements
have unique energy levels and therefore also unique line emission spectra. Do you still remember the
flame tests done in Grade 10 on certain elements? Each element had its own distinctive colour by which
it could be identified. When the electrons fall back again to lower energy levels, the energy is irradiated in
the form of light, in other words, photons.
level
94 nm
3
95 nm Lyman series 2
97 nm

103 nm

122 nm
656 nm 486 nm
434 nm
1
410 nm
n=1 1 875 nm
Balmer series
spectrum
n=2 1 282 nm

n=3
1 094 nm
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5
frequency (PHz)
n=4 Paschen series
Paschen series Balmer series Lyman series
infrared partly visible ultraviolet
The line emission spectra of hydrogen are represented above.

2.2 Absorption spectra

hydrogen absorption spectrum
Absorption spectra are formed when light is
sent through a cold diluted gas. The atoms of
the gas absorb certain frequencies of light. The
absorbed frequencies appear as black lines in
the continuous spectrum of white light. When an hydrogen emission spectrum
electron absorbs a photon, the electron moves to a
higher energy level.

400 nm 700 nm
H alpha line 656 nm
transition n = 3 to n = 2
When the electron then falls back again, the emitted photon is
not necessarily emitted in the same direction as the absorbed
photon. This scattered light causes certain gases to have a
specific colour. In order to see the black lines, which cannot
be seen with the naked eye, the light has to be dispersed by
diffraction grating.

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 matter and materials

Each element absorbs unique frequencies and the spectrum is characteristic of a specific element, and
can be used to identify the element.

Quick facts
The sun has a continuous spectrum, with black absorption lines with
which the element in the outer layer of the sun can be identified.

2.2.1 Infrared spectra

Atoms in molecules vibrate. These vibrations depend on:
• the strength of the bonds;
• the mass of the atom;
• the shape of the molecule.

Just as only certain energies are absorbed and emitted by electrons, only photons with certain energies
can cause vibrations in bonds between atoms in a molecule.
These energies occur in the infrared part of the spectrum.
The shape of the molecules also determines the vibrations.
Only polar bonds of which the dipole moment changes when the molecule vibrates, will lead to infrared
absorption. The absorption causes the vibration to be more energetic and it increases the average bond
length.

Visible light from the sun is absorbed by the earth and the temperature of earth increases. The earth
radiates the energy in the form of infrared radiation. CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water vapour) can
absorb infrared radiation from the earth at different frequencies, which explains why these gases are
natural greenhouse gases that trap the heat of the earth.

Diatomic gases like O2 (oxygen) and N2 (nitrogen) have no change in their dipole moment when they
vibrate, and absorb no infrared radiation.

2.3 Differences between the different spectra

Line emission
• Spectrum emitted by a
glowing gas.
• Brightly coloured lines
Absorption
• White light shines through a
cold diluted gas.
• Black lines appear in the
continuous spectrum.
Infrared
• Cause bonds between atoms
to vibrate.
• Vibration depends on the
type of bond and the mass of
the atom.

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 matter and materials

Line emission Absorption Infrared

How
• e- excited to higher energy
levels.
• e- fall down to lower energy
levels and radiate photons.
How
• Photons with a specific
frequency are absorbed.
• Absorbed energy with
frequency f is shown as a
black line.
How
• Only specific photons are
able to cause vibration.
• Only molecules with polar
bonds with a changing dipole
moment can vibrate.

Exercise 14 Date:
1 CO2 and H2O are called greenhouse gases.
1.1 What is the greenhouse effect?

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1.2 Which characteristics in the bonds of CO2 and H2O play an important part in the absorption of
infrared radiation from earth?

______________________________________________________________________________

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1.3 Explain why CO2 and H2O are called greenhouse gases, but O2 and N2 are not.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2 In the sun, the inner sphere is a lot hotter than the outer sphere
outer sphere. inner sphere

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 matter and materials

2.1 Why can we observe an absorption spectrum of the sun?

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2.2 What information can we deduce from this spectrum?

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3. The earth absorbs higher frequency visible light and radiates lower frequency infrared rays. Which
of these radiations has the longest wavelength? Motivate your answer.

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4. Explain the difference between a line emission spectrum and a line absorption spectrum.

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5. Discuss the similarity between a line emission spectrum and a line absorption spectrum.

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6. What is a line emission spectrum and a line absorption spectrum respectively used for?

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 matter and materials

7. Briefly explain what the greenhouse effect is and say how carbon dioxide and water vapour
contribute to it.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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8. Due to global warming, the tundra (which means treeless plane) in Siberia is melting. It releases
massive amounts of methane gas that was previously trapped in the frozen ground. Methane
absorbs even more infrared radiation than carbon dioxide and water vapour. Why is the increased
concentration of methane gas a problem?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

9. For millions of years, carbon dioxide and water vapour have been present in the atmosphere.
The greenhouse effect is one of the reasons why life on earth can continue. Explain why this is so.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Notes

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 matter and materials

Summary
Spectra
Emission Absorption

Continuous emission spectrum Line emission spectrum Infrared spectrum

• Continuous emission spectrum:

When white light shines through a triangular prism, it breaks up into a continuous
emission spectrum of colour.

• Line emission spectrum:

When a gas is electrified it glows and emits light.
The resulting spectrum is known as a line emission spectrum, since it consists of a series
of brightly coloured lines.
Elements have unique energy levels and therefore have unique line emission spectra.

• Absorption spectrum:
When light shines through a cold diluted gas and atoms of the gas absorb a specific
energy with a specific frequency, an absorption spectrum is formed.
The absorbed energy with a specific energy shows up as black lines in the spectrum.

• Infrared spectrum:
In molecules, atoms vibrate.
Only specific energies may be absorbed and emitted by the electrons.
Therefore only specific photons are able to cause vibrations in bonds.

These energies are found in the infrared part of the spectrum.

Line emission Absorption Infrared

• Spectrum emitted by a
glowing gas.
• Brightly coloured lines
How
• e- excited to higher
energy levels.
• e- fall down to lower
energy levels and
radiate photons.
• White light shines • Cause bonds between atoms
through a cold diluted to vibrate.
gas. • Vibration depends on the
• Black lines appear type of bond and the mass of
in the continuous the atom.
spectrum.
How How
• Photons with a • Only specific photons are
specific frequency are able to cause vibration.
absorbed. • Only molecules with polar
• Absorbed energy with bonds with a changing dipole
frequency f is shown as moment can vibrate.
a black line.

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 SPECTRA

Emission Absorption

Continuous emission spectrum Line emission spectrum Absorption Infrared spectra

Line emission Absorption Infrared

How How How