Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Integrating renewable sources into energy system for smart city as a

sagacious strategy towards clean and sustainable process
Anh Tuan Hoang a, *, Van Viet Pham b, Xuan Phuong Nguyen b, **
a
Institute of Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH), Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
b
Institute of Maritime, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Among the main components of a smart city, the energy system plays a vital and core role in the
Received 25 January 2021 transition towards a sustainable urban life. Furthermore, the utilization of renewable energy sources has
Received in revised form been demonstrated as a significant contribution to reducing pollutant emissions and enhancing the
13 April 2021
quality of the living environment. Therefore, designing the energy systems based on clean and renewable
Accepted 15 April 2021
Available online 19 April 2021
criteria is considered a sustainable solution for smart cities. Indeed, the deep and rapid penetration of
renewable energy-based technologies have been believed to very well fit into a smart city under various
^as de
Handling editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bo scales, this could supply a secure basis for a modern society with a low-carbon economy. In this review
Almeida paper, the main components and roles of renewable energy resources (such as solar, wind, geothermal,
hydropower, ocean, and biofuels) for the smart city were fully introduced. Besides, integrating the
Keywords: renewable sources form into the energy systems of smart cities was thoroughly analyzed on the basis of
Smart city technical and economic criteria. Finally, existing challenges and future scenarios were also discussed in
Smart energy system detail to clarify the progress and perspective of smart renewable energy systems for the smart city. In
Renewable energy
general, the integration of renewables into energy systems of the smart city is a sagacious perspective
Integrated energy system
and solution aiming to achieve cleaner process and more sustainable development. However, the opti-
Low-carbon economy
CO2 reduction mization issues of the energy system for integrating of renewable components, ensuring good stability,
maximizing the operating range, and minimizing the investment costs should be critically evaluated in
the future works.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1Introduction developing strategies of smart cities (Appio et al., 2019). Therefore,

The ‘smart city’ was first defined in association with the appli-
cation of Information and Communications Technologies as well as
the development of modern infrastructures in such smart cities
(Albino et al., 2015). In the last two decades, smart city initiatives
have been strongly evolving and the development of the smart city
is considered a useful solution to achieve sustainability (Quijano-
Sanchez et al., 2020). However, the fact shows that the rapid
growth of population and uncontrolled urbanization are significant
burdens for urban environments (Fiorini et al., 2019). Furthermore,
air pollution and unsafe environments caused by the poor man-
agement of sources lead to difficulties and challenges to the
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hatuan@hutech.edu.vn (A.T. Hoang), phuong@ut.edu.vn
(X.P. Nguyen).
the conceptualization of a smart city could be a scenario toward the
improvement of life quality (Kamyab et al., 2020). In this context,
the smart city is the place where the core goal of all the services and
initiatives is to serve the life of the citizen, and thus, smart energy
and technology play a critical part in the sustainable development
of such smart cities (Visvizi and Lytras, 2019). Indeed, energy and
technology are the main engines of a smart city that the application
of modern technologies is an urgent task to save energy and to use
the energy sources effectively (Hoang, 2018). Around the world,
there have been several cities, municipalities and local commu-
nities have been involving in designing strategies aiming to trans-
form the energy supplies into a more sustainable energy system
(Østergaard and Maestosi, 2019). Most studies have highlighted the
global transition of smart cities to 100% renewable energy (RE)
(Şerban and Lytras, 2020) (Zhou et al., 2020). Moreover, designing
scenarios and plans for RE-based smart cities are the great interests
to fulfill local targets. These scenarios and plans have been utilized
to set up key principles and clear targets on the pathway of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127161
0959-6526/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
achieving more renewable and sustainable futures for the indi-
vidual city (Liew et al., 2021). Nonetheless, such principles and
targets appear not to obligate the individual city/region to take into
account the transition to RE along with the rest of the country or
world, as well as the use of the same renewable resources.
Undeniably, cities are currently responsible for 60e70% of
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) caused by the activities of human
in the case of around 54% of the population living in urban areas
(Kammen and Sunter, 2016). Therefore, concepts relating to
decarbonization (Echeverri, 2018), nearly or net-zero energy (Wells
et al., 2018), carbon neutral (Hast et al., 2018), and 100% RE systems
(Hansen et al., 2019a) have been used in many different approaches
to aim the carbon emission level of a smart city. That means that
becoming low-carbon, resilient, and livable cities is compulsory for
smart cities. Actually, there are two main strategies for low-carbon
smart cities such as (i)-shifting to RE sources (Mardoyan and Braun,
2015), and (ii) - reducing the energy consumption levels of urban
areas (Kim, 2018). The application of smart RE systems for smart
cities is believed to have a direct impact on the well-being and
happiness of urban inhabitants due to the positive effects of RE
systems on the urban environments (Kanase-Patil et al., 2020).
Therefore, a renewable energy system in the smart city will
certainly play a critical role in generating clean energy and pro-
ducing non-emissions for a smart city. On the roadmap of applying
renewable energy in the smart city, the integration of renewable
energy sources to improve the efficiency in the energy use towards
achieving the maximum performance and the minimum emissions
has been found as a judicious solution, indicating a necessity to
have a comprehensive analysis and study on the integrated
renewable energy system. Unfortunately, there is lack of a complete
and comprehensive analysis on the integrated renewable energy
system in smart city to have an insight into their effects of the in-
tegrated renewable energy system on sustainable development and
cleaner process of such smart cities. Due to this reason, this current
review paper is to provide the additional knowledge relating to
core roles and targets, designing principle and tools, opportunities,
and challenges of the integrated renewable energy system in smart
city aiming to fill up the gaps in the studies on integrated renewable
energy system in smart city, while also open up other intensive
research directions with the key goal of achieving more sustainable,
smarter, and cleaner cities in the future.
In this current review work, we focus on a holistic solution to
develop and analyze the integration of RE sources into the smart
energy system (SES) of smart cities with taking into account the
energy management issue, opportunities, and challenges of
integrated-energy systems based on renewable sources. For this
main purpose, the survey of smart energy and RE system frame-
works for the smart city was presented in the introduction.
Moreover, the existing solutions and challenges in the future were
also analyzed to clarify the orientation of this current work. In the
second section, the methodology for the selection of the most
suitable, the most recent and the most relevant publications
covering the topics of integrated RE systems was applied in this
work. In the next section, the concept of SES and the decisive roles
of SES was introduced in detail. For the fourth section, core targets
in designing smart RE system based on the integration principle as
well as the state-of-the-art designing tools aiming to reduce CO2
emission, to improve the efficiency of energy use and the energy
management was thoroughly and comprehensively analyzed.
Indeed, the in-deep analysis of characteristics of many integrated-
RE systems based on solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, biomass, and
waste sources for strategies of smart energy deeply penetrated into
the energy market of smart cities was conducted in this section.
After that, a critical generalization was pointed out from the
analyzed conclusions in combination with holistically key features
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
from the above-mentioned selected literature. In the fifth section,
existing problems and challenges for SES in the smart city were
discussed in the detail. Through this key discussion, some sugges-
tions for development strategies of smart RE systems as well as the
issues relating to the management of such systems were also
introduced. Finally, conclusions and future direction were pre-
sented in the sixth section.
2. Methodology for the collection, selection, and review of
relevant data
This review study aims to clarify the importance of RE in the SES
of the smart city by employing the integrative literature method-
ology, in which the complete collection, careful filter, and thorough
analysis of high-quality and relevant papers were performed. The
databases were searched from the recognized websites such as
Google Scholar, Scopus, and journals of prestigious publishers or
like Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, Wiley, Sage, Degruyter, Springer, and
Inderscience. The keywords such as “smart city”, “smart energy”,
“renewable energy”, “smart renewable energy”, “integrated energy
system”, “smart energy system” were used to search the relevant
publications that are suitable for this work. After that, the bibli-
ographies and references of the above-mentioned publications
were filtered and collected to find the additional pertinent papers.
The abstract, introduction, and conclusion of such selected papers
were carefully checked and classified based on the following
criteria:
(i) - Primarily focusing on peer-reviewed publications from the
above-mentioned prestigious Websites and Publishers;
(ii) - Collecting published papers of active scientists in the
relevant field;
(iii) - Striking a good balance between recent studies and older
researches;
(iv) - Referring to the commercial websites where the above-
mentioned keywords are available, referring cutting-edge
technologies appropriate to the current work;
(v) - Retrieving important papers that were cited in recent
studies to examine original sources carefully; In the process
of reviewing the existing publications, some questions
relating to the current paper were also pointed out, leading
to looking for more references to answer those questions
aiming to clarify the relevant issues as well as improve the
quality of this study. In order to ensure the requirement of
the logic characteristic as reviewing the literature in this
study, some keywords were carefully kept aiming to track
the thought process and researching the relevant publica-
tions. In the thought process, finding and centering on
“smart city”, “smart energy”, “renewable energy”, “smart
renewable energy”, “integrated energy system”, “smart en-
ergy system” were set at the top to give out the clearest
research direction for this paper. The main purpose of the
current study is to outline the characteristics, applicability,
and challenges of “smart renewable energy”, “integrated
energy system” in smart cities. However, relevant publica-
tions are believed to have much greater importance
compared to the literature volume, it is thus necessary to
have the criteria aiming to limit and filter the scope
(Alamoush et al., 2020). As given in Table 1, it could be seen
two criteria including the inclusion and exclusion estab-
lished to select the most suitable papers for this current
work.
Although the exclusion criteria were inducted in the selection
and limit process of literature, it appeared to have very judgmental
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Table 1
Established criteria for selecting relevant literature (Alamoush et al., 2020).

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria

➢ Selected publications are peer-reviewed and academic, and the relevance ➢ Publications without thorough discussion or including the relevant information to the
and the ability to answer the questions of this research are compulsory. above-mentioned keywords would be not considered although they were peer-
➢ The extra useful knowledge and the relevance-based grey literature are reviewed and academic.
also carefully searched. ➢ Grey literature possessing repetitive results, or including weak references or context
would be not included. Furthermore, conference proceedings were limited to take
into consideration in this current work.

characteristics. Due to this reason, the authors have carried out a consumption and costs, as well as available energy options. Third,
test-retest process, in which a second-extraction process, even the smart grids enable an integrated approach in incorporating and
third time, after the random selection from primary studies was exploiting available distributed and RE resources within the current
conducted aiming to ensure high consistency in checking the energy systems. Smart grids have a critical presence toward
extracted data (Kitchenham and Charters, 2007). Indeed, a holistic achieving a sustainable energy future (Roslan et al., 2019). Not only
outline based on pre-explorative mapping was illustrated in Fig. 1a smart grids can enable the efficient and reliable incorporation of
to facilitate the discussion, and understanding of the main content distributed and RE resources into the current energy systems
of this current work. Such a holistic outline was constructed based (Atasoy et al., 2015), but they also advance the electrification of
on the categorization method available in the publications (Zheng modern transport fleets and offer new energy-related value-added
et al., 2020) (Salah et al., 2020) (Al-Shetwi et al., 2020). Finally, services. Indeed, the development and integration of smart grids
there were 1555 papers collected and reviewed; however, only 404 have the potential to fully transform the current urban landscapes
papers were selected to include in this review paper, which could given the prevalence and necessity of the power grid in every
be seen in the distribution of published works by year in Fig. 1b. aspect of modern cities and their dwellers (Villa-Arrieta and
Sumper, 2019). Furthermore, access to energy-related data, such
as consumption and usage pattern, production and distribution,
3. Smart energy system: concept, components, and roles
etc., will provide the blueprints for the design of future urban
infrastructure and services extending beyond the system’s “internal
From an energy system modeling standpoint, a smart city is an
operation.” Within an energy network, sources of energy demand
energy network consisting of many nodes and links. Within the
such as buildings and electric modes of transports are referred to
system, the sites of energy sources (generation) or energy sinks
energy sinks. They are also integral parts of smart energy policies,
(consumption/storage) are captured as the different nodes are
which aim to promote “zero-energy”, “nearly zero-energy” or “net-
connected by one or more links. These links are channels through
zero-energy” concepts (Z. J. Liu et al., 2019). Besides, energy storage
which energy flows occur between the sources and the sinks
facilities are capable to retain and dispatch the stored electricity to
throughout the entire network (Kushch and Prieto-Castrillo, 2019).
be used at a later time. There are several types of energy storage,
The introduction of SESs has enabled opportunities to explore
including smaller battery technologies equipped in electric vehicles
possible synergetic relationships between various sub-sectors.
(EVs) and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems intended for distributed
Applying the whole system approach, SESs take into account a
local storage (Sangeetha et al., 2020) (Sangeetha et al., 2021) and
system in its entirety in the process of choosing the most appro-
much larger grid-scale energy storage locations such as pumped-
priate structural designs and operational strategies. There are
storage hydroelectricity and compressed air and flywheels with
several key elements in smart cities such as energy supply, energy
the anticipation of bringing these types of energy storage into the
networks, energy demand, and energy storage. Particularly, the
demand-response schemes (Nguyen and Hoang, 2020). In recent
sources of energy in smart cities are capable of producing energy
years, the application of phase change materials to energy storage
from either distributed micro-generation sites or prevailing RE sites
has been found to offer high efficiencies (Ni zeti
c et al., 2021)
(Turner et al., 2014). Within an energy network, the links play an
(Jur
cevic et al., 2021). Particularly, there are various levels at which
important role in joining the sources and the sinks. Based on this
energy storage could be integrated within the SES. At the genera-
understanding, one can conceptualize smart grids as integrated
tion level, possible options include arbitrage, balancing, and reserve
electricity networks that encompass the key players in the gener-
power. Frequency control, investment deferral, voltage control, and
ation, distribution, and consumption of energy (e.g., producers,
capacity support are some examples of possible applications of
consumers, and prosumers) with the aim toward creating more
energy storage in managing the grid. Finally, energy storage offers
efficient, economical, and sustainable electricity networks
possible advantages in managing the consumption side of the grid
(Paardekooper et al., 2019). Hence, SESs can be defined as those that
in terms of peak shaving, managing time of use, and cost variables)
contain new technologies and infrastructures that introduce
(Calvillo et al., 2016). The progressive outlook on the different
innovative and flexible approaches in converting potential sources
innovative using the infrastructural systems to benefit the current
of energy into electricity (Dincer and Acar, 2017). Putting it another
climate, environment, social and economic conditions have always
way, it is an integrative strategy in linking up the various energy
been an integral part and a shared characteristic of most smart
and transport sectors to mitigate the inflexibility associated with
cities. As energy plays an increasingly essential role in modern life,
RE. Three key smart grid structural components presented in SESs
electrification has become a fundamental driving force in
could be illustrated in Fig. 2.
improving the quality of life and driving economic development
Smart grids provide three key roles in advancing the organiza-
(Cravioto et al., 2020). With the growth of electrification, the
tion and functioning of modern public life. First, the modernization
prevalence of sensors and smart communication devices in the
of the power system is achieved with the implementation and
future energy grids would enable the capturing and sharing of data
integration of smart grids through automation, remote monitoring
and energy-related information (Avancini et al., 2019) (Miglani
and control, microgrids, and smart grid self-healing framework
et al., 2020). The transformation of urban energy landscape intro-
(Talaat et al., 2020). Second, smart grids provide access to infor-
duced by the integration of SESs would require a higher degree of
mation and educate users on their past and current energy
3
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Fig. 1. (a) - Schematic diagram of selection criteria and filtering process for literature; (b) - Distribution of published works by year.

4
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 2. Key components of smart grid structure in SESs.
flexibility to adapt to the changing conditions (aging populations
and strict environmental regulations) and needs (decrease in en-
ergy costs or higher risk of natural disasters), as well as anticipate
the potential changes in each sub-sector and level-specific element
within the whole system (Powells and Fell, 2019). In SESs, sources
of RE such as bioenergy and intermittent RE (e.g., wind and solar)
would supply 100% of the energy demand. In contrast to the finite
supply of non-renewable fossil fuels, RE resources provide a more
sustainable strategy in terms of energy production and consump-
tion due to their ability to naturally replenish. With increased un-
derstanding of the environmental and climate effect of energy
consumption over the past several decades, experts have focused
their research efforts on promoting and advancing sustainable
energy topics related to smart and clean energy consumption (Cai
et al., 2018), green energy sources (Gibson et al., 2017), and sus-
tainable energy production and consumption (Chu and Majumdar,
2012). RE plays a key role in the path towards a sustainable energy
future allowing access to clean, safe, secure, and reliable energy
supplies in meeting the demand of current and future generations
while minimizing the negative effect on the natural environment.
The smart energy concept offers its appeal due to its holistic
approach in incorporating green energy, sustainable energy, and RE
concepts. Putting it another way, the main objective of smart en-
ergy is to satisfy current and future energy demands by utilizing
sustainable and clean sources of RE and also maintaining the sus-
tainability of non-RE sources (Bibri, 2018). As a result, the strategy
aims to ensure the least negative impact on the environment by the
production and consumption of energy. As previously mentioned,
the self-generating nature of RE makes these resources excellent
candidates in satisfying the world’s growing energy demands
(Dogru and Çelik, 2019). Considering its growing popularity in
recent decades, RE has been the topic of a vast number of studies
and scientific research with many of them focusing on the inte-
gration of RE resources in smart building and implementation
among smart grids. In study of Yang et al. (2019), the use of
5
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
advanced PV generators and storage units were tested as part of an
energy management system for a microgrid. Similarly, Camargo
et al. (2019) utilized a structural component with closely resem-
bled architecture that integrated both solar and wind in powering
and managing energy consumption in residential buildings. In
another study, a home energy management algorithm was pro-
posed by Halimi et al. (Halimi, 2020) that took into account the use
of RE resources subjecting to the customer’s comfort level.
Examining the subject from this angle, the Internet of Energy
(IoE) represents an integrated network of infrastructure that pro-
vides the interconnectivity and interoperability among the
different devices and technologies (i.e., smart meters, smart ap-
pliances, renewables, energy efficiency measures, and control and
monitoring tools on the production and distribution of electricity
(Lom et al., 2016). Moreover, the dynamic relationship among these
sub-components enhances the flexibility of the network because of
the standard protocols based on which these devices communicate
across the entire system. Achieving city-wide energy integration at
the point of consumption provides important benefits toward
promoting the environmental, and socioeconomic dimensions of
urban sustainability (Song and Song, 2020). There are four main
advantages related to distributed RE systems, including (i)- low-to-
zero carbon emissions, (ii)-reduction of expensive capital invest-
ment, (iii)-energy independence and network security, and (iv)-
promotion of social capital (Adil and Ko, 2016). Among the key
objectives in planning and building smart cities is the move toward
low to zero-carbon energy resources, provide comprehensive land-
use and management policies, and improve supply or demand-side
efficient management and response (Haszeldine et al., 2018).
Hence, the role of renewable energies and energy-efficient tech-
nologies is critical in this global energy transition towards the
standardization of clean, energy-efficient, and climate-friendly
smart cities of the future.
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
4. Smart energy model for smart city
4.1. Renewable sources for smart energy system
Concerning the smart energy concept, efforts to improve energy
efficiency in buildings, increase the availability of RE supplies
within the system, and gaining public and private access to green
modes of transportation in an urban setting. The secondary ob-
jectives include promoting public and citizen engagement, chang-
ing consumer behavior, improving quality of life, and exchanging
sustainable energy management best practices (Muo and Azeez,
2019). Being zero-emission resources, RE resources could be
depicted in Fig. 3.
As a RE resource, solar energy can be used for the generation of
electricity and heat under the photovoltaic effect when voltage and
electricity current is generated in a photovoltaic (PV) cell upon
exposure to sunlight (i.e., photons particles in solar radiation)
(Modi et al., 2017) (Gagliano et al., 2019). Several strategies could be
employed to take advantage of the abundant solar energy resource
without the need for large land areas (J. Z. Liu et al., 2019). By
incorporating solar PVs into the building envelope, such as Building
Added PV (BAPV) and Building Integrated PV (BIPV), these systems
can meet all or part of the building energy demand (Scognamiglio
et al., 2014). Solar PV shingles, also commonly known as solar
panels attached to building and garage roofs and supplying elec-
tricity for lighting, heating, and cooling, and charging of electric
vehicles (Akcin et al., 2016) (Marinic-Kragic et al., 2018). Further-
more, utility-scale concentrated solar power is an efficient form of
heat and thermal generation (Pelay et al., 2017). Based on conser-
vative estimations, solar PVs can achieve a power density of around
10 W/m2 (MacKay, n.d. 2009), and photovoltaic efficiency of 10%. In
a typical setting for the United Kingdom, the average solar irradi-
ation in the case of direct sunlight is around 100 W/m2 (NASA, n.d.
2014). Nevertheless, the solar resource capacity depends signifi-
cantly on locations and annual direct solar irradiation can reach
Fig. 3. RE resources for SES.
6
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
above 300 W/m2 in some regions. In certain instances, regions with
one of the highest rates of urbanization are also found in solar-rich
regions. As a case in point, India is one of the developing countries
with fast urban area growth while the vast portion of its total land
area has an annual direct solar irradiation exceeding 200 W/m2
(Singh and Banerjee, 2015). City-wide rollout and integration of
solar PVs have the potential to meet 62% and 60% of the demand for
electricity in Oeiras, Portugal (Amado and Poggi, 2014) and Cagliari,
Italia (Pinna and Massidda, 2020), respectively. On the other hand,
high energy-efficient rooftop solar PVs that are currently available
on the market could only meet between 19.7% and 31.1% of the daily
electricity demand in Mumbai, India (Singh and Banerjee, 2015).
The same study also showed that rooftop solar PVs could satisfy a
higher percentage (47.7e94.1%) of the city’s morning peak demand
(Castellanos et al., 2017) (Jurasz et al., 2020). In another example,
solar-powered urban microgrids with a 20% penetration rate could
eliminate midday peak demand in Cambridge, MA (Halu et al.,
2016). Solar-hot water systems yield a high thermal power den-
sity up to 240 wt/m2 and up to 80% in efficiency given optimal
conditions. Compared to conventional water heating technologies,
the average thermal power density attained by solar heat collectors
is only 67 wt/m2 (“Power density: a key to understanding energy
sources and uses,” 2015). In one particular study, researchers
pointed out the high adoption rate of domestic solar hot-water
heaters, up to 84% of the urban households in China, due to the
low-cost and compact size of the installed rooftop systems (Wei
et al., 2014). Furthermore, the use of solar thermal energy is also
appropriate for passive and active space heating in buildings.
Another innovative technology, also commonly known as seasonal
solar thermal energy storage, allows for the collection and saving of
thermal energy for solar heating during the summer to be then
released for heating during the winter months. In Richmond, Vir-
ginia, 91% of the total heating requirements are satisfied by this
particular type of technology (McLeskey et al., 2012). The structural
and design elements in an urban environment also can influence
the degree to which solar energy resources can be exploited.
Particularly, taller buildings offer higher potential for integrated
solar applications in the exterior taking advantage of the higher
surface-to-volume ratios (Zhang et al., 2019). However, it also has a
higher chance of vertical obstruction and shading (Freitas et al.,
2015). Despite the larger area offered by building facades (i.e., 3
times the area of building roofs), the vertical exterior area of
buildings only receives 41% of the total solar irradiation, as recorded
in Karlsruhe, Germany (Fath et al., 2015). This percentage is
improved up to 45% in greater London subjected to optimized ur-
ban form. On the other hand, only 9% improvement is recorded for
rooftops (Sarralde et al., 2015). In general, the countries using solar
energy for electricity generation could be illustrated in Fig. 4.
Wind energy is another form of RE resource which is created by
the movement of large air masses. Driven by the uneven heating of
the earth’s surface by the sun, the difference in atmospheric pres-
sure over land and water surfaces causes air to flow from high to
low-pressure areas (Khare et al., 2013). More recently, with the
development of modern wind turbines, electricity is generated
from urban wind turbines situated on top of tall buildings and
skyscrapers, as well as large wind turbines in on-shore and off-
shore wind farms (Anup et al., 2019) (Kassem et al., 2019). There
are two common types of wind turbines. Horizontal-axis wind
turbines (HAWTs), which are typically found on wind farms, can
generate from 2 to 3 W/m2. On the other hand, counter-rotating
vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) have as many as 10 times the
power density up to 30 W/m2 compared to the horizontal axis wind
turbines (Dabiri, 2011). Besides the higher power density, VAWTs
excel in their performance over their counterparts in an urban
setting. The benefits include lower reliance on wind direction,
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 4. Top 10 countries in solar-based electricity generation according to data collected in 2019 (Ember and Solar Edition 2019).
capable of handling increased turbulence and high fluctuation in
terms of wind speeds, cheaper manufacturing costs, and lower
potential effects on birds and aircraft (Ishugah et al., 2014). In
addition, the ground mounting of the generator and gearbox of
VAWTs facilitates the periodic service of the equipment (Ishugah
et al., 2014). Several studies have examined urban wind-flow
characteristics and arrived at favorable conclusions on the poten-
tial application of VAWTs for urban electricity generation. Accord-
ing to previous research, VAWTs could supply up to 33% of
electricity demand, excluding electric thermal heating, in residen-
tial buildings in major urban centers in New Zealand (Mithraratne,
2009). This percentage increases up to 40% for the case of San
Cataldo, Sicily (Gagliano et al., 2013). For other examples, there are
vertically arranged VAWTs on top of the Bahrain World Trade
Center located in Manama, Bahrain that provides between 11 and
15$ of the building’s electricity demand (Ishugah et al., 2014).
Another popular example of VAWTs can be found in Guangzhou,
China. Although the two installations of VAWTs supply only 5% of
the building’s energy needs (Ishugah et al., 2014), these urban wind
turbines offer several important design advantages. Particularly, as
air is funneled from the curved glass façade into the VAWTs at the
increased speeds of 1.5e2.5 times the ambient wind speed, the
power generation of wind turbines could increase as much as 15
times the typical stand-alone wind turbines (Kamal and Saraswat,
2014). Furthermore, the diversion of wind through the building
also reduces the amount of pressure exerted on the building
structure by the wind forces, hence decreasing the amount of steel
and concrete materials required to ensure its structural stability
and integrity (Kamal and Saraswat, 2014). Besides being a source of
RE, there are several other benefits associated with urban wind
energy including wind-driven natural ventilation and air pollutant
dispersion, and provide a solution for the urban heat-island effect.
Because of challenges and concerns over the availability of space,
high variability in urban wind direction and speed, potential safety
issues related to vibration, noise, shadow flicker effect, as well as
potential aesthetic choices, urban wind energy faces obstacles in
gaining wider adoption.
Geothermal energy is a form of energy that is generated and
stored inside the earth’s core. Geothermal energy is a promising
resource for the heating and cooling of buildings (Moya et al., 2018).
7
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
One of the primary forms of geothermal energy has a relatively
low-temperature range of up to 30
C that is drawn from the
relatively stable temperature inherently found in groundwater and
shallow ground temperatures. In a conventional geothermal heat-
ing model, the cooler air once drawn from the ground is then
heated up to the desired temperature using heat pumps (K. Wang
et al., 2018). Utilizing the underground thermal storage mecha-
nism, geothermal energy is considered a key resource for a wide
range of industrial applications (Dumas, 2016). Geothermal energy
can be exploited for the generation of both electricity and heat.
There is a certain degree of flexibility in terms of site selection for
geothermal plants as they can be constructed on multi-purpose
lands. Nevertheless, the construction and operation of these
plants could negatively affect the surrounding land area and its
geology (Bayer et al., 2013) (Paulillo et al., 2019). Considering the
different factors, an average electrical power density of a typical
geothermal power plant is between 50 and 80 W/m2. Particularly,
geothermal energy is more efficient in utilizing as a heat source. As
in the case of Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant situated in the
capital city, Reykjavik, Iceland, the combined heat and power sta-
tion can produce hot water at 25,000 wt/m2 (“Power density: a key
to understanding energy sources and uses,” 2015). Unfortunately,
the majority of urban areas are found outside of optimal
geothermal resources. In the UK, studies have found that conven-
tional geothermal resources would only provide as little as
0.017 W/m2 in terms of electrical power density (MacKay, n.d.
2009). However, there is a large potential associated with deep
geothermal energy (>10 km below the surface) and could account
for as much as 10% of urban energy supply (Reber et al., 2014).
Compare to conventional geothermal energy, deep enhanced
geothermal systems offer a much better power density (from
0.59 W/m2 to 1.19 W/m2) that rely on the temperatures of the
available resource (Lopez et al., 2012). Even though applications of
geothermal energy in electricity production remain rather
restricted, there are more than 60 countries that are currently
taking advantage of this vast potential energy resource as a source
of heating supply for residential and commercial buildings and
industrial activities (Lund and Toth, 2020). In some regions, the
high potential of geothermal energy is available at moderate
depths. In the US, ground-source heat pumps typically have an
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
average thermal power density of 40 wt/m2. These residential
systems are often accompanied by 1e2 m below ground horizontal
closed loops. On the other hand, systems with boreholes of at least
150-m deep could deliver a power density up to 100 wt/m2
(Zarrella, 2016). According to another study on building structures
in Chinese cities, the authors estimated that ground-source heat
pumps could meet between 10% and 15% of the heating and cooling
demands in residential buildings and between 25% and 30% in
public buildings (Zhu et al., 2015). In Westminster, London, the
ground source heat pumps could provide between 58% and 70% of
the total heating demands in buildings across the city. Even better,
if the presence of a well-operated and high-efficient district heating
system were possible, such a system would be able to satisfy the
heating demands of the entire city (Zhang et al., 2014). Large
metropolitan areas are subjected to the urban heat-island effect in
which the temperatures recorded in cities and major urban areas
are higher than those observed in the surrounding rural areas.
Hence, ground-source heat pumps would rather be suitable in ur-
ban applications. Given the human-induced heat fluxes that are
introduced into the subsurface formation below the urban locales,
the increased groundwater temperatures would further enhance
the available geothermal resource. Particularly, these anthropo-
genic heat fluxes have been estimated to sustain 32% and 9% of the
annual space heating in the residential sector in Karlsruhe and
Cologne, Germany, respectively (Benz et al., 2015).
Derived from forestry and agricultural residues, municipal
waste, and biogas, biomass is another form of RE (Hoang et al.,
2021a) (Marousek et al., 2020a). Either in solid or gaseous form,
these resources can be burnt in combined heat and power units for
electricity and heat production. As shown in Fig. 5, the illustration
depicts a typical biomass conversion process (Aslani et al., 2013).
Because the combustion of biomass releases carbon dioxide stored
during plant growth, special attention should be paid to the con-
sumption of biomass in large-scale energy production to avoid the
emissions of greenhouse gases (Nguyen et al., 2021). Depending on the
regional climate characteristics and the types of plants found in that
location, the power densities of biomass can vary (Jandacka et al.,
2017). Biomass that is derived from traditional food crops offers po-
wer density ranging between 0.05 and 1.7 W/m2. Genetically modified
crops grown with the availability of fertilizer and irrigation in tropical
regions commonly yield the highest energy densities (MacKay, n.d.
2009). Considering the ongoing food versus fuel debate, the
continued reliance on food crops as the source of biomass energy
proves to be unsustainable while considering the various social and
environmental justice implications (Hoang et al., 2020b). Hence, there
is an incentive in finding alternative sources of biomass that would be
more suitable for energy production (Marousek et al., 2020b). Urban
biomass might offer a potential life-cycle assessment in the con-
version and utilization of biomass as biofuels (Marousek, 2015).
Fig. 5. A typical biomass conversion process into alternative energy (Aslani et al., 2013).
8
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
Short growing season varieties of poplar grown on marginal lands
in Boston, Massachusetts could potentially meet up to 0.6% of the
annual primary energy demand in the city (Saha and Eckelman,
2015). Considering the low power densities, urban crops might be
more suitable for food than energy as these products offer a source
of locally grown, fresh produces for the urban communities. The
presence of urban farms also helps to mitigate the urban heat-
island effects, reduce urban storm water impacts, and lower food
transportation milage (Ackerman et al., 2014). In studying a com-
munity farm located in South London, one study has performed a
life-cycle analysis and concluded the greater potential for green-
house gas emissions reduction offered by sustainable urban food
supply systems compared to those achieved by parks and urban
forests (Kulak et al., 2013).
Commonly known as the source of clean energy carrier,
hydrogen is labeled as a future source of clean fuel for the energy
storage and transport sector (Ni zeti
c et al., 2019). There are several
benefits associated with hydrogen as an energy source due to its
source-independent and high energy content per mass relative to
petroleum-based fuels (Hoang and Pham, 2020). Electrolysis and
gas storage are common technologies involved in the production
and conversion of hydrogen. In a typical electrolysis process,
hydrogen is extracted from water molecules and can be stored as
chemical energy without the emissions of any pollutants. In recent
years, the bio-based processes for hydrogen production have been
paid much attention to due to its friendly-environmental charac-
teristics (Brindhadevi et al., 2021) (Sivaramakrishnan et al., 2021).
However, special tanks are needed for hydrogen storage as the
accumulated hydrogen is compressed up to pressure of 200e250-
350 bar that is appropriate for residential usage (Mura et al., 2015).
Even though waste-to-energy is not considered a 100% renew-
able resource, it could offer potential benefits in achieving sus-
tainable urban energy strategies. Considering the amount of waste
generated in a typical household, urban residents produce up to
twice the amount of waste coming from their rural counterparts
(Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). As shown in Fig. 6, growth in
municipal solid waste is driven by the rapid pace of urbanization
despite the availability of conventional management methods such
as recycling, burning, or landfilling.
For certain types of solid waste, recycling might not be appro-
priate due to the lack of economic evidence and impracticality.
Waste-to-energy plants and landfill-gas-to-energy systems are two
commonly known types of waste-to-energy production facilities
(Hoang et al., 2020a) (Liew et al., 2021). Furthermore, as the bio-
logical degradation process of organic materials contained in
municipal solid waste takes place, landfill gas which contains 50%e
60% of methane and 40%e50% of carbon dioxide is often collected
and combusted for energy production. In landfill-gas-to-energy
systems, the average power density that could be attained from
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 6. Estimated urban waste for other areas in the world (Kammen and Sunter, 2016).
landfill gas is approximately 4.1 W/m2 but could be as high as 10 W/
m2 in theory (Amini and Reinhart, 2011). On the other hand, the
direct incineration of municipal solid waste in a waste-to-energy
plant typically generates between 0.6 MWh and 1.8 MWh per ton
of municipal solid waste (Themelis and Mussche, 2014); however,
toxic compounds generated from the direct combustion of
municipal solid waste (such as rubber, plastics-originated wastes)
must be treated to reduce the negative impacts on the environment
(Chau et al., 2020). Besides, the integration of cogeneration in
waste-to-energy plants could exploit the excess thermal energy for
heating. Hypothetically speaking, if all the amount of municipal
solid waste generated in the US in 2011 were sent to waste-to-
energy plants, it could supply enough power and heat for 12%
and 8% of American households, respectively (Themelis and
Mussche, 2014). Moreover, waste-to-energy plants can be
enhanced by the additional installation of carbon-capture systems
with the potential to eliminate up to 90% of the carbon dioxide
emissions (Amen et al., 2021). Even though there has been signif-
icant economic progress and cost parity achieved with conven-
tional fossil fuels, renewables have fallen short of proving their
competitiveness due to their lower power densities preventing
their widespread application in urban environments. As shown in
Table 2, a list of popular distributed RE resources and their appli-
cations are provided in the context of smart cities (Calvillo et al.,
2016).
4.2. Design principle and key criteria for smart energy model
Research on energy system modeling has a history spanning
Table 2
The most common distributed RE sources in the smart city.
RE sources Power generation
Electric Thermal
Photovoltaic solar Y N
Concentrated solar power Y Y
Wind Y N
Geothermal Y Y
Biomass Y Y
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
over the past few decades with increasing new development to
expand and improve on current techniques by incorporating new
technologies, paradigms, and externalities (i.e., environmental ef-
fects) (Bhattacharyya and Timilsina, 2010). Within the energy
sector, this type of system modeling is typically used in power
system planning and operation, as well as grid management. In
reference (Soroudi and Ehsan, 2010), a system expansion model
was proposed for the current distribution network that takes into
account various factors related to the distributed generation re-
sources including sizing, placement, and timing, as well as network
reinforcements. In another research illustrating the operation of
power systems, the authors performed a simulation of a smart grid
based on software agents with the main objective of replicating the
dynamic behavior exhibited by smart cities (Karnouskos and De
Holanda, 2009). However, the above simulation only considered
electricity as the main underlying interaction. In other instances,
studies on distribution network operations would be exemplified
by several European Commission funded projects (The European
project DISCERN, 2015) (Sustainable: smart distribution system
operation for maximizing the integration of renewable
generation, 2015) (Sustainable-smart grid open system for the
aggregated control, monitoring and management of energy,
2015). As shown in (Foley et al., 2010), stochastic programming is
the method of choice in most power system modeling studies that
included a minimizing objective function under several input
constraints. Recent explorations on the uses of other techniques
(e.g., artificial intelligence, genetic algorithms, game theory, etc.)
have also been explored. Considering the integral role of the power
grids in modern infrastructures and services, one would agree on
Operation efficiency Common application
<30% Household; buildings; thermal; district; electricity; power plant
<60%
<60% District; power plant
>60% Household; buildings; thermal; district; electricity; power plant
<60% Household; buildings; thermal; district; electricity; power plant
9
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
the importance of such distribution networks in the design and
implementation of smart cities. As cities move toward the inte-
gration of smart grids, they also gain access to new energy-related
services along with the creation of additional economic values and
business opportunities. At its foundation, the changing nature of
the power grids with the flood of utility-related information and
network communication devices further enhances the interactions
among the various market actors (producers, end-users, operators,
etc.). These advances have not only fundamentally altered the ways
that the power system has been traditionally operated, but also
enabled new avenues for active stakeholder engagements in power
system planning and energy market operation that in turn would
provide social and economic benefits (Cai et al., 2017). Despite
these advantages gained by the implementation of smart grids, it is
also cautioned by the potential conflicts and the difficulty in
balancing the competing interests and objectives of the various
actors and groups, as well as the society as a whole (Bompard et al.,
2015). With the introduction of smart grids, operators can handle
the integration of a large number of distributed generation, RE
resources, and local microgrids (Hernandez et al., 2014) (Coelho
et al., 2017) (Liu et al., 2015) (Li et al., 2017). On the other hand,
their presence also increases the degree of complexity in managing
grid operation due to the increased variability of power in feeds and
two-way power flows (Puianu et al., 2017). Demand can also be
expected to increase with the availability and access to the smart
grids (Wei et al., 2017) as new lines of power flow and information
exchanges are enabled among consumers (i.e., peer-to-peer ex-
changes of power among individuals and communities) and con-
sumers/producers and grid operators (i.e., better service quality
and more efficient management of energy supply and demand)
(Menniti et al., 2014) (Kumar et al., 2017).
In the development of SES modeling, it is necessary to incor-
porate tools and models that span across the different energy
sectors including electricity, heating, cooling, and transportation.
Hence, the required infrastructures are capable of providing sup-
port for the connected grids (i.e., the distribution network of
electricity, thermal heating, and gas pipelines). Moreover, modeling
tools that are selected for the simulation and planning of SESs are
required to have a high temporal resolution to account for the high
seasonal variability of RE resources and capable of efficient storage.
Concerning the latter, it is essential for the integration of various
storage technologies to handle different energy carriers. More
importantly, these tools and models can capture the inputs, out-
puts, and contents of each storage type over time depending on the
studied period. Indeed, there is a high complexity inherently in
modeling a whole urban energy system. In Fig. 7, a graphical
Fig. 7. Design model for SES (Calvillo et al., 2016).
10
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
representation of an energy-system model depicts the main com-
ponents included in the studied intervention areas, as well as the
main necessary inputs (left) and desired outputs (right). There are
currently several techniques (e.g., analytical, iterative, and hybrid
methods) that can be employed in the planning and operation of
these energy systems. A classification method was presented in
(Upadhyay and Sharma, 2014) as a way to categorize the different
approaches in distributed energy resource dimensioning. Special
consideration should be placed on the information of inputs and its
selection due to the significant influence that model inputs over the
quality of results (Calvillo et al., 2016). It also provides suggestions
for the selection of inputs in optimizing the model design of energy
systems, and how the selection of inputs has varying impacts on the
modeled system in terms of its profitability and performance).
Noteworthy, even though some inputs have stronger relationships
than others, all selected inputs should have the same relevance
towards the outcome.
Besides the special focus placed on the important role of the
energy system in network planning and operation of smart cities,
urban planning, specifically land-use types and urban space designs
can exert considerable influence on urban energy consumption and
emissions of pollution. Due to the lengthy lifecycle of the urban
infrastructure network, such systems have a direct effect on urban
residents and the surrounding environment over extended periods.
Hence, it is critical to take into account urban planning models in
the design and implementation of smart cities to ensure sustain-
able growth (Peris-Ortiz et al., 2017). For example, Santoli et al. have
presented a model that is capable of assessing the RE potential and
the feasibility of urban energy-supply plants development in
locating the optimal location and type of RE production subjected
to the different geographical and environmental constraints (de
Santoli et al., 2019). In testing the proposed model, the authors
used a residential neighborhood in South Korea as a test case in
analyzing its performance and applicability. Taking a similar
approach, the advances of information technologies have been
leveraged to propose strategies for urban planning improvements
concerning greater energy efficiency (Mari c et al., 2016). Particu-
larly, the use of geographic information systems (GIS) and 3-D
modeling in the design of urban facilities to maximize the bene-
fits received from the urban land topography, sun angle, and
orientation, and wind effects (Yang and Lee, 2019) (Panigrahi et al.,
2020). More than often, cities often choose to emphasize either RE
or energy efficiency as part of the urban sustainable development
strategies. Few case studies where cities aim for a strategy that
enhances the synergy of various energy-related activities on mul-
tiple scales (Lenhart et al., 2015). Furthermore, the lack of GHG
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
emissions inputs in most urban-planning models remains a serious
issue (Zubelzu et al., 2015). Among other referenced materials

(Zubelzu and Alvarez, 2015), and (Zubelzu et al., 2015) provided a
detailed analysis on the carbon footprint of industrial and resi-
dential activities, respectively that highlighted the critical role of
urban planning models in major decision making concerning
climate change risk prevention and mitigation strategies. The
former study stressed the significant role of municipal govern-
ments, stakeholders, and key policymakers in achieving lower
carbon footprints through smart and sustainable urban-planning
decision variables, such as choosing the sites for heavy polluters
and carbon emitters including industrial park, solid waste man-
agement plants, transport networks, non-urbanized tracts, etc. In
the latter study, the authors highlighted the decisions made by top
policymakers that could positively affect the GHG emissions from
various sources (e.g., gas and electricity consumption, trans-
portation, etc.) by integrating sustainable design criteria and ele-
ments in the city’s master plans and infrastructure development
projects. As pointed out in (Lenhart et al., 2015), discrete actions
taken by individual operators of independent smart buildings
might not yield the most optimal result as these underlying in-
teractions among these different structures are often lost or
forgotten in the analysis. Hence, a system model should take into
account full energy cycles that span across all intervention areas of
concern to deliver a holistic and all-inclusive urban planning
project. There are several important features of smart grids and
cities including the ability to provide fairly accurate weather fore-
casts and making real-time decisions. To ensure system flexibility,
detailed information is needed for careful system planning in
determining which investment choices are the most cost-effective
to achieve the mid-to-long-term adequate performance, integrity,
and reliability of the system. Hence, the integration of distributed
resources needs new strategies to improve upon their reliability
within the grids (Bretas et al., 2018). It is also important to point out
that increased variability due to the higher numbers of distributed
renewable resources can also lead to uneconomic decision-making
and reduce system resiliency in situations where the system does
not have sufficient anticipatory capabilities to recover from faults
and glitches. On the other hand, the utilization of ICT also opens up
for new cybersecurity concerns because there is a certain degree of
risks associated with the smart and integrated network where
there is an open flow of data and exchanges of information among
all connected devices (Bretas et al., 2017). Due to the fast-evolving
and dynamic nature of potential data privacy attacks and vulner-
ability identification, the collection of defense systems and pro-
tection layers (Ayar et al., 2017) should be subjected to close
monitoring and real-time maintenance to ensure it can keep up
with the latest updates and upgrades. This approach, however, is
distinctly different from the traditional lifecycle of other common
electronics and electrical systems. Indeed, technical solutions can
be found based on currently available and foreseeable technologies.
Therefore, the real obstacles in the design and implementation of
smart grids and smarter grids are anticipated to be those that are
non-technical problems, but a more institutional, market, and so-
cial ones. To fully realize the potential of smart grids, several ob-
jectives must be met including the availability of retail electricity
markets with established practices and protocols, the ability of
community/local energy markets to accept and process automatic
mini-transactions among prosumers, reliability, and protection of
end-user data and information privacy, and active trading in the
demand market (Chekired et al., 2018). For these reasons, smart
grids play a positive and active role in the planning and imple-
mentation of smart cities (Brunelli and Rossi, 2016) by setting the
foundational structure for the integration of several system ele-
ments including technical, market, financial, and revenue streams,
11
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
service providers, utilities and end-users to improve upon the en-
ergy system’s “smartness”.
4.3. Tools for design and optimization of the smart energy system
Depending on the optimization objectives, different results can
be obtained. For a typical decision-making process concerning SES
design, either a single-objective or multi-objective optimization
method can be employed. In a simple one-objective optimization
function, the most optimal solution is selected among all possible
outcomes based on a single indicator or objective. In reality, the
results are often evaluated based on multiple criteria functions in
which trade-offs among these competing objectives are thoroughly
analyzed. Hence, the use of multi-objective optimization functions
is more advantageous over single-objective functions as they can
take into account these different trade-offs. At the heart of SES
optimization lies system modeling as an important component that
supplies the necessary quantitative energy performance data and
information used in decision making (Lund et al., 2017). Examples
of energy modeling software include EnergyPLAN, HOMER, Energy
Hub, and TRNSYS that have been used in solving optimization
problems.
Used for large-scale energy system analysis to inform long-term
energy plans and strategies, the EnergyPLAN model is capable of
performing various types of analysis such as technical, market ex-
change, and feasibility study of different energy systems at regional
and national levels (Østergaard, 2015). Fig. 8 provides a schematic
diagram of the EnergyPLAN model that is found in energy system
analysis (Lund, 2017). In performing an analysis on the system’s
hourly energy performance, the model would incorporate the
defined inputs to deliver the optimal results relying on a variety of
simulation strategies based on available technological and market
economy conditions. The model’s output data can include values
for electricity production, energy import/export, expenditures and
revenues, fuel consumption, and CO2 emissions that are repre-
sented in either annual, monthly, and hourly data (Feng et al.,
2019). In performing the analysis, it is necessary to include the
demand time series for the individual energy components. Besides,
the hourly distribution curves for RE are also included in the
analysis (Bacekovic and Østergaard, 2018). In a study of Thellufsen
et al. (2019), the authors employed the EnergyPLAN model in
comparing two different strategies in the implementation of large-
scale integration of RE. Also used the EnergyPLAN model, some
researchers have performed a simulation with a model consisting
of 100% RE resources in Europe in 2050. Specifically, the model
applied a multi-energy conversion to realize the benefits and the
potential impact of RE resources on the economy and the envi-
ronment (Amer et al., 2020) (Child et al., 2019) (Alves et al., 2020).
Being an early study, van Sluisveld et al. (van Sluisveld et al., 2017)
constructed a model using the EnergyPLAN in informing Danish
policymakers in drafting the national energy planning strategies
based on current energy investment opportunities available
throughout the country. As a result, the model revealed that power
production from wind energy is capable to meet up to 40% of
Denmark’s total electricity demand in the future. Finally, Hansen
et al. (2019b) conducted a feasibility study in implementing a RE
system in a region of Germany in which a 100% integrated RE
system model was simulated and tested for 2050. In analyzing
large-scale RE integration, Connolly et al. (2013) examined a total of
37 types of energy models to inform their analysis. Nevertheless,
several of them could not be included in the assessment of the SES
concept due to several limiting factors. Hence, these models are
considered inappropriate for the analysis of systems in which a
range of different intermittent renewable energies and energy
storages are fully integrated because they cannot account for the
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 8. EnergyPLAN model for the analysis of SES (Lund, 2017).
short-term variability. For these various reasons, there is a strong
case in supporting the use of EnergyPLAN as an analysis tool for the
SES concept due to the model’s full sector approach and the hourly
time resolution over an annual cycle (Diaz et al., 2019). There are
two key elements in the Energy PLAN model, including the ability
to perform the conversion between different energy carriers and
the integration between various sectors, that have given Ener-
gyPLAN an advantage over other SES simulation and design tools
(Menapace et al., 2020). In performing the simulation from a
technical standpoint, the model tries to replicate and predict the
optimal behavior of dispatchable units, including energy conver-
sion units, storages and demand resources) subjected to energy
efficiency and the systems load-following capability. Besides,
simulation of the energy systems can also be performed based on a
business-economic objective (Marczinkowski et al., 2019). From
this angle, decisions to dispatch units would be based on short-
term marginal costs while taking into account the external elec-
tricity market. On the one hand, accurate system costs and market
prices are two important variables used in the forecast of the sys-
tem operation in the latter approach. On the other hand, the former
approach relies much more on the technical characteristics of the
individual energy production units. Comparing these two different
optimization strategies, the latter strategy provides a more relevant
approach in explorative analyses in realizing the true system costs
beyond the known and identifiable market and costs structures
(Fathollahi-Fard et al., 2019) (Reynders et al., 2018) (Mehranfar
et al., 2019).
HOMER is another widely used energy modeling tool for
optimal design problems of hybrid RE systems. As an early study,
Helal et al. (2012) applied HOMER as the main analysis tool in
determining the feasibility of constructing a zero-energy home in
Newfoundland, Canada, and the required capacity for a micro-wind
energy system for this residential structure. Similarly, HOMER was
also selected in the optimization study by Li et al. (2013) when
assessing the potential of a wind-PV-battery hybrid energy system
installed in China’s Urumqi region. In this study, a hybrid optimi-
zation model was developed to assess the economic and technical
reliability of the system. The HOMER model was also utilized in the
research carried by Nag et al. (Nag and Sarkar, 2018), in which the
12
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
optimization was presented for an energy system designed for a
solar-wind-hydrokinetic-bioenergy energy system in rural India
(Fig. 9).
The objective for the above optimization problem is to minimize
the system’s net present cost by maximizing the production and
supply of RE components because cost being a core factor for
evaluating how feasible any RE project will be. In a study of Fodhil
et al. (2019), the application of HOMER aimed to optimize the
configuration of the PV-diesel-battery hybrid energy system in
Algeria that consisted of 93% solar PVs while balancing several
important variables such as PV penetration efficiency, cost, and
reliability. In addition to the application of the HOMER model,
PVsyst software was also believed to be suitable for the design and
simulation of PV-based renewable energy systems (Yadav et al.,
2015). In a recent study of Malvika et al. (Satish et al., 2020), they
have employed PVsyst software to evaluate the feasibility of
installing a PV system aiming to supply the electric load, in which
the feasibility was characterized by the performance of a PV system,
the total produced energy amount and various losses. They indi-
cated that the achieved results by using PVsyst software had a
relatively high accuracy in determining the annual performance
ratio of the PV-based energy system. In the case of wind-based
renewable energy systems, Emmanuel et al. (Osei and Essandoh,
2014) have used RET Screen Wind Energy Project Model to deter-
mine technical and financial competition at a certain minimum
feed-in-tariff. They found that the project of a 50 MW grid-
connected wind power plant would be financially viable after 20
years of operation based on the calculation of net present value.
Similar results could also be observed in other works (Kaisar and Al
Sakib, 2020) (Samuel, 2021).
Because there is no restriction on the size of its application, an
energy hub can be applied for either a single home energy system
or a city-wide energy system. An energy hub can be classified into
one of the following four categories according to the purpose of
energy use: residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural
energy hubs (Majidi and Zare, 2018). Within each of these main
sectors, individual energy systems can be seen as a micro-energy
hub. Considering each energy system, one should be able to iden-
tify its main objective subjected to the type of sector and end-user
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 9. Hybrid model based on the combination of RE sources by using the HOMER model (Nag and Sarkar, 2018).
(Ma et al., 2017). For example, residential customers would try to
lower their energy costs, while company managers and plant
owners prioritize the shape of the load profile, peak load, and
service quality as much as the overall energy costs (Mohammadi
et al., 2018). In analyzing the sub-sector performance of these en-
ergy hubs, the optimization objective depends much on the con-
sumer perspective. On the contrary, the main objective of macro
energy hubs is to optimize the energy usage of the entire system
from the operator viewpoint. Additional discussion on the concept
and review of various types of energy hubs are presented in
(Mohammadi et al., 2017). Last but not least, the transient system
simulation program or TRNSYS is another popular application
found in a wide range of fields, including power generation, RE,
HVAC, as well as the design planning and optimization process of
an SES. In their study, Chabaud et al. (2017) utilized TRNSYS for
their optimization problem in designing the energy system for a
residential building in France. In the course of the study, 32
different combinations of equipment were tested in the simulation.
Combining both TRNSYS and MATLAB, Sudhakar et al. (2019)
examined a potential zero-carbon building energy system. The
authors used the TRNSYS model to estimate energy use in building,
while MATLAB was used to construct the energy system models. In
another study, Diallo et al. (2017) applied TRNSYS in performing a
dynamic simulation of an energy-efficiency ventilation system that
aimed to maximize the performance of the heating and AC unit,
while optimizing the thickness of the building’s insulation layer. As
a result, the optimized system can lower the primary energy use
between 16.5% and 23.5% when compared with conventional
building energy-saving approaches. Lastly, another study included
three case studies of Spanish cities and their multi-production
energy technology to examine the dynamic performance of these
centralized units connected by the district heating network as the
primary distribution system. Using TRNSYS, the simulation was
carried out for three cities under all weather conditions. As a result,
the optimal operational strategy is to integrate several types of
13
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
renewable technologies in its energy supply mix (Soutullo et al.,
2016). Some other methods for optimization of the SES could be
found in a study of Østergaard et al. (Østergaard and Maestosi,
2019) (Xu et al., 2020) (Ghorab, 2019) (Simeoni et al., 2019)
(Pardo-García et al., 2019). In design optimization, the objective,
system modeling, and optimization algorithms are often consid-
ered the most critical components. The descriptions of these ele-
ments and other energy-systems-related information are included
in Table 3 that have been collected from case studies and examples
included in existing studies in the current literature on SESs.
4.4. Integrated energy model-based smart energy system
Due to the high population density and large demands for en-
ergy across many sectors, urban settings present a big potential and
opportunities for energy-efficient improvements and sustainable
operation. In achieving such objectives, there should have a com-
bination of flexible sources of energy conversion and shifting of
demands via energy storage and smart system control (Finck et al.,
2018). Taking the advantage of the available RE resources and
technological advances resulting in more competitive grid parity
costs, the integration of renewable energies across the different
sectors within the SESs offers significant environmental and eco-
nomic benefits (Boulakhbar et al., 2020). Particularly, a 50% decline
in the installed cost of solar energy was recorded between 2010 and
2015 that further ascertained its integral role in the future urban
energy landscape (DOE, 2015). Furthermore, the increase in market
penetration of renewable and low-carbon energy resources, as well
as greater energy efficiency in power production and consumption,
can be achieved by exploiting the right energy management stra-
tegies (Shakeri et al., 2020). Depending on the geographical dis-
tance among the various energy loads (electrical, heating, and
cooling) within an urban setting, the use of co-generation and tri-
generation, in which the heat produced during the main power
generation process is captured and directed for space and water
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Table 3
Design objects and as-used models for optimization of the SES.

Country Design objectives As-used models Goals Year Ref

Hong Kong Cost TRNSYS Nearly-zero-energy building 2015 Sun (2015)

Switzerland Environment, energy Energy hub Integration of decentralized energy 2015 Orehounig et al. (2015)
consumption, grid interaction systems
China Environment, cost, energy Fuzzy algorithm CCHP system 2016 Li et al. (2016)
consumption
Finland Energy consumption, cost Energy hub District energy system 2016 Sepponen and Heimonen
(2016)
Spain Energy consumption TRNSYS Centralized poly-generation 2016 Soutullo et al. (2016)
System
Hong Kong Life cycle cost TRNSYS, GA HVAC system for commercial 2016 Cui et al. (2017)
buildings
Italy, Energy consumption EnergyPLAN Cross-border system and cross- 2017 Thellufsen and Lund
Denmark sector system (2017)
Italy Environment, cost, energy EnergyPlus, MATLAB, GA Building energy system 2017 Ascione et al. (2017)
consumption
Iran Total net-cost Energy hub, mixed-integer nonlinear Multi-energy micro-grid system 2017 Amir et al. (2017)
programming, GA
United Energy consumption TRNSYS HVAC system 2017 Diallo et al. (2017)
Kingdom
France Cost, energy consumption TRNSYS Home energy system 2018 Ferrara et al. (2018)
China Environment, cost, energy Mixed-integer nonlinear CCHP system 2018 Zheng et al. (2018)
consumption Programming
Indonesia Environment, cost, technical SuperPro Designer Municipal Solid Waste to Electricity 2018 Octavianthy and Purwanto
Performance /UniSim Design (2018)
Germany Energy consumption MPC/RBC Power-to-gas 2018 Fischer et al. (2018)
Croatia Environment, cost, energy EnergyPLAN SES with 100% RE 2018 Bacekovi
c and Østergaard
consumption (2018)
India Cost, energy consumption TOPSIS MADM Hierarchical architecture of an SES 2019 Ahuja and Khosla (2019)
India Cost, energy consumption ANN Efficient lighting 2019 Mohandas et al. (2019)
Ghana Barriers, cost Two-step fuzzy DEMATEL Smart energy city 2019 Addae et al. (2019)
United Smart energy management Computational Intelligence/Machine Learning SES 2019 O’Dwyer et al. (2019)
Kingdom
Korea Economic and energy efficiency MRESES 100% Electrified and hydrogen cities 2020 You and Kim (2020)
Denmark Techno-economic analysis TRNSYS PVT-based smart energy 2020 Behzadi et al. (2020)

heating, would be appropriate (Keirstead and Shah, 2013). As
already mentioned, special focus has been placed on the role of heat
pump technologies on the path toward de-carbonization of the
electrical grid. Additionally, the market traction gained by the
adoption of renewable technology as biomass and solar energy for
heating and cooling demand has significantly altered the energy
landscape (Buffa et al., 2019) (Peltokorpi et al., 2019). Among the
available literature, studies have provided examples of how various
renewable and low-carbon energy technologies (Luo et al., 2019),
energy storage (van der Heijde et al., 2019), and district energy
networks (Golpîra and Bahramara, 2020) have been integrated into
the total energy supply mix. Particularly, strategies to implement a
hydrogen grid along with current electricity and heating networks
were proposed in (Jahangiri et al., 2019). The study highlighted the
potential of fuel cells for energy storage technology. To enable the
successful realization and deployment of these advanced technol-
ogies, it is important to take advantage of recent advances in data
science and modeling techniques as they provide the necessary
technical tools in informing decision making, in which some
studies have provided a discussion on the concepts and evaluation
models such as Multi-Energy Systems (Guelpa et al., 2019) or Mixed
Integer Linear Programming (Vesterlund et al., 2017) (Moazeni and
Khazaei, 2020). There are strong incentives for the integration of a
greater number of distributed generation resources into the current
energy systems which enables a wider selection of technology
options for consumers. The limit of large open space available in
cities and urban areas is the biggest constraint for the development
of wind energy, however, the use of small vertical wind turbines
has the potential (Kumar et al., 2019). Despite strong growth in
solar energy uptake in recent years, the surge in surplus energy
production from solar PVs facilities also demands capable battery
technologies and sufficient storage capacities that would allow for
the temporal redistribution of energy to meet peak demand later in
the day (Behzadi and Arabkoohsar, 2020). There are several types of
storage technologies currently available on the market offering a
wide range of time scales from milliseconds to months or seasons
(Flynn and Sire n, 2015). Among these, several less popular options
are also considered, including mechanical flywheels (Nguyen and
Hoang, 2020) and supercapacitors (Liu et al., 2020). On the other
hand, phase change materials have good potential to absorb and
release energy due to their higher energy density than water (Nazir
et al., 2019). A combination of centralized power generation (e.g.,
large-scale nuclear and fossil-fuel power plants serving baseloads),
medium to small scale distributed resources (e.g., co-generation
plants, small scale diesel generators), RE resource (Mathiesen
et al., 2015), biofuels and hydrogen-based fuel cells, and energy
storage technologies presents a diverse energy supply mix (Matuli c
et al., 2019). Moreover, it is equally important to pay attention to
the linkage among the different energy networks (i.e., electricity,
thermal and transport). As there are several possible combinations
in choosing the energy supply mix as illustrated in flywheel-wind
turbine-diesel generator (Sebastia n and Pen~ a-Alzola, 2015) and
renewables/nuclear (Goh and Ang, 2018), it is critical to select
appropriate design and operation strategies that would able to
address this additional layer of details and complexity, while still
ensuring that the environmental, economic and social objectives
are met (Ceglia et al., 2020).
Besides electricity, the heating source presents a major
component of the energy system. From a heating sector standpoint,
several possible solutions have been previously mentioned. In their
study, Mathiesen et al. (2015) discussed several examples of
energy-flow-diagrams to demonstrate the different supply

14
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
strategies in meeting electricity and heating demand. Using
energy-flow-diagrams, the authors were able to showcase a range
of energy efficiency improvement between 30% and 40% from the
worst case to the best-case scenario (Fig. 10a). Despite the optimal
solutions captured in these diagrams, there are remaining limita-
tions in the energy system designs that should be sufficiently
resolved. Particularly, the integration of CHP can significantly
improve energy loss due to direct heating. More importantly,
integrating heating and/or cooling with the electricity sector can
further improve the overall energy efficiency of the entire energy
system. The use of large-scale heat pumps is a potential alternative
to cover the portion of the energy supplied by the boilers, whereas
concurrently facilitates the efficient integration of variable inter-
mittent RE resources. According to research results, the new inte-
gration of heat pumps in the systems (Fig. 10b) with 25% wind
power could reduce the overall fuel consumption, while the avail-
ability of heat pumps could sufficiently address up to 40% inter-
mittent RE resources without compromising the overall system’s
fuel efficiency.
For larger systems, the use of large CHP and heat pumps
accompanied by thermal storage is recommended in the integrated
design of the energy systems with a large portion of intermittent RE
resources via the merger of the electricity sector and the heating
sector (Helin et al., 2018) (Pieper et al., 2019) (Simeoni et al., 2019)
Fig. 10. Energy-flow-diagrams; (a) - an integrated CHP energy system with heat
pumps; (b) - and an integrated CHP energy system with 25% wind power (Mathiesen
et al., 2015).
15
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
(Olympios et al., 2020). According to Abu-Rayash et al. (Abu-Rayash
and Dincer, 2020), the use of a multigeneration system incorpo-
rating several RE technologies was proposed to supply the energy
demand, including electricity and heating, of a small city. The
referenced system aims to optimize the efficiency of the integrated
electricity grids and heating networks. As shown in Fig. 11, the
primary objective of reduced GHGs emissions and 100% renewable
supply was achieved. Particularly, 70 MW of heating demand could
be met by a combination of solar and geothermal energy. The same
amount of energy demand otherwise would have been supplied by
natural gas supplied from Ontario and would have resulted in the
release of 12.7 million tCO2. The heating loading for the building
sector was 67.7 W/m2, while the total measured cooling load was
17,176 MWh with a COP of 3.6. The authors recorded 7.6 kg/kWh as
the modeled actual steam rate for the geothermal system. As a
result, the total heating degree days for the modeled system was
3873
days, while the recorded cooling degree days are only 1201

days. Furthermore, an acceptable system efficiency was observed
through concurrent energy loss minimization and sub-sector sys-
tem efficiency improvement. Besides, the systems could also pro-
vide water desalination and domestic hot water as additional
benefits.
In their study, Bacekovic et al. (Ba
cekovic and Østergaard, 2018)
presented two potential alternatives (i.e., independent vs inte-
grated system) in the development of a 100% RE system for Cro-
atia’s capital city, Zagreb. The first of these two options consist of a
conventional non-integrated system approach in which each en-
ergy sector operates as an independent component. In contrast, the
second option presents an SES concept that leverages the syner-
getic relationships among the different energy sectors within the
interconnected and integrated network. For each of these ap-
proaches, an energy model was developed for the city of Zagreb’s
using EnergyPLAN. The authors concluded that intermittent RE
resources accounted for up to 49% of the annual total electricity
production within an SES. On the other hand, a non-integrated
system consisting of greater than 50% biomass energy was
deemed as a sustainable option (Fig. 12).
In the case of Zagreb, these two options presented similar costs
when they are weighted solely from an economic perspective.
However, an SES had a technical advantage over the traditional
non-integrated approach. In their study, Lund et al. (2015) per-
formed an analysis of the potential of RE resource integration into
the existing power grids of three different cities (Delhi, Shanghai,
and Helsinki). In its current state, up to 20% of RE integration was
deemed acceptable. The additional expansion could be achieved
with the addition of electricity storage resulting in an increase to
the above percentage up to 50e70%, 40e60%, and 25e35% for
Shanghai, Delhi, and Helsinki, respectively. Even though the pri-
mary approach is taken in this paper favors sector integration and
the application of low-cost energy storage over electricity storage,
the referenced Helsinki case study shows an agreement with the
conclusions provided in this present research. Indeed, a greater
degree of sector integration does demonstrate a higher network
functionality in supporting the integration of intermittent RE re-
sources (Mathiesen et al., 2015).
There have been examples of case studies highlighting the
increased effectiveness and feasibility in combining the use of
district heating, thermal storages, and heat pumps rather than each
technology separately (Kontu et al., 2020). District heating has been
considered as an appropriate solution for areas with high
geographical heat demand density (Averfalk and Werner, 2017).
Nevertheless, increasing constraints might affect the feasibility and
the extent of district heating (Østergaard and Andersen, 2018)
(Østergaard et al., 2019). The use of individual heat pumps would be
a good alternative to district heating in these cases as long as the
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 11. Multi-generation energy system with all subcomponents (Abu-Rayash and Dincer, 2020).
Fig. 12. Mixed scenarios for electricity production (Bacekovic and Østergaard, 2018).
building stock supports it (Stegnar et al., 2019) (Vivian et al., 2018).
Both using Danish energy system as a primary subject of study,
Dyrelund et al. (2008) and Lund et al. (2010) examined the usage of
several heating technologies in three different scenarios included
in a feasibility study and suitability of selected heating systems in
energy systems with a large portion supplied by RE. In the case of
the Danish energy system, district heating currently is the primary
heating source providing close to 50% of the country’s heating
demand. In performing a GIS-based analysis, several studies
(Fallahnejad et al., 2018) (Chicherin et al., 2018) were able to map
out suitable areas for district heating by matching areas with
existing district heating networks to those facilities that are
currently serviced individually by natural gas. As a result, between
63% and 73% of the heating demand could be satisfied by the use of
district heating. Furthermore, the use of energy system analysis
was carried out to assess the optimal approach in maintaining the
current level or increasing the coverage of district heating to other
16
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
levels (Groppi et al., 2018). Three different scenarios presented
separate levels of extension to which district heating would cover
the heating demand of the building stock. In the first scenario,
conversions of individual boilers to district heating were performed
in all buildings located in areas with current or planned access to
district heating networks. In the second scenario, the conversion
was extended to all buildings supplied by natural gas located in the
adjacent areas to district heating networks. Finally, the third sce-
nario included all buildings either in areas that were 2nd-degree
neighbors to district heating areas or within an acceptable distance
to district heating networks. For each of the above scenarios, five
options of district heating sources (e.g., air-sourced heat pumps,
geothermal heat pumps, electric heating, hydrogen-micro CHP, and
gas-micro CHP) were examined. Using a technical optimization
method, the following parameters, including fuel demand, CO2
emissions, and socio-economic costs were calculated and
compared against three reference cases (2006, 2020, and 2060). As
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
a result, the scenario in which Demark utilizes a combination of
heat pumps, electric heating, and district heating is considered the
most environmentally friendly and cost-effective approach in its
path toward achieving 100% RE supply by 2060. Micro CHPs are
deemed as a less cost-effective and reliable resource for power
production in the above scenarios due to the availability of surplus
supply from intermittent RE resources (Padinger et al., 2019).
Similar studies have arrived at the same conclusions, in which
large-scaled integrations of district heating and thermal heat
storages could achieve significant improvements in fuel efficiency
across Europe while resulting in lower costs and less greenhouse
gas emissions (Connolly et al., 2014a) (Persson et al., 2014)
(Mamaghani et al., 2017). Alternatively, heat pumps provide a good
alternative for heating in areas with low heat density for district
heating (Yang and Svendsen, 2018) (Meesenburg et al., 2020).
However, the lack of a connected system among these individually
heating systems also means lower flexibility when applying heat
storages or batteries in these buildings as opposed to district
heating systems (Lund et al., 2011) (Hedegaard et al., 2012).
With the introduction of heat-saving measures, the integration
of low-cost energy resources in existing district heating networks
has some potential (Volkova et al., 2018) (Lund et al., 2018). In cases
of major retrofitted buildings or new constructions, the primary
choices of heating should be district heating and ground source
heat pumps. Particularly, one should take into account the changes
in consumer preference over time and variations in household
behavior in one dwelling to another that could significantly alter
the desired comfort levels of the residents (Lund et al., 2014a).
Among the available literature, studies have been carried out to
explore the potential of low-energy dwellings (Gupta and Gregg,
2018) (Gupta et al., 2018) (Whaley et al., 2018); notably, zero-
emission buildings (Zinzi and Mattoni, 2019) (Wiik et al., 2018)
(Moschetti et al., 2019) and difficulties related to such approach
(Kristiansen et al., 2019). The main conclusions drawn from these
various studies provide support for major building retrofits and
various low-cost energy savings (Wang and Holmberg, 2015) (Mata
et al., 2018). However, the analyses also highlight the balance be-
tween how much to retrofit and at which point brand new RE
heating systems should be installed instead. Among the studies on
the Danish and European case study, up to 50% of the existing de-
mand would be appropriate for the implementation of various
heat-saving measures. The integration of electricity and heating
sectors through the use of CHP plants, thermal heat storage and
heat pump technologies facilities the increased percentage of
intermittent RE, reduced biomass energy consumption and
lowering the amount of heating supplied from conventional boilers
(Mathiesen et al., 2012) (Mathiesen et al., 2015). To attain a 50%
electricity production from RE resources, a combination of strate-
gies that increase flexible demands within the existing electricity
consumption and enhance demand response with individual heat
pumps for new demands has promising potential despite just short
of the benefits gained from the deployment of large-scale heat
pumps (Mathiesen and Lund, 2009). To incorporate a higher per-
centage of intermittent RE resources within the transportation
energy network, Mathiesen et al. (2015) have illustrated how a
partial transformation of the transport sector could be achieved.
Assuming that up to 50% of total energy demand for road trans-
portation can be met by personal electric vehicles, the greater
market penetration of electric vehicles could significantly enhance
the integration of intermittent RE in the transport energy system.
Hence, the increased prevalence of electric vehicles can lower fuel
consumption and improve overall system efficiency (Meinrenken
and Lackner, 2014) (Nguyen et al., 2020). Several studies have
provided evidence in making the case for the electrification of the
transportation sector that would further enhance the integration of
17
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
RE resources (D. Wang et al., 2018) (Doroti c et al., 2019) (Pfeifer
et al., 2018) (Li and Chang, 2019) (Mortensen et al., 2020). Never-
theless, there are major obstacles in the deployment of a trans-
portation energy system fully supplied by RE as these intermittent
energy resources should be capable to replace the functionality
offered by the consumption of conventional fossil fuels although
the use of fossil fuels for vehicles has been reported to generate
many types of toxic emissions such as CO, HC, NOx, PM, aromatic
compounds, and others (Manigandan et al., 2021) (Atarod et al.,
2020) (Bui et al., 2021). Results from previous research analyses
have supported the feasibility of deploying fully electric vehicles or
hybrid vehicles (Sabri et al., 2016) (Joshi et al., 2018) (Hu et al.,
2019). In conclusion, fully electric vehicles are considered more
promising than hydrogen fuel cell vehicles as a strategy in
achieving an integrated transportation energy system. Particularly,
the use of hydrogen-fueled vehicles promotes system losses and
increases the need for energy generated from centralized plants to
power the electrolyzers (Mathiesen, 2009). Furthermore, electrified
trains and locomotives can offer greater improvements in terms of
fuel efficiency more than those achieved by personal vehicles
(Allen, 2019) (Zenith et al., 2020), however, it would mean a greater
amount of electricity required by the transport sector (Shafiei et al.,
2017) (Taljegard et al., 2019). Among major European cities,
building and transportation energy make up 67% of the total energy
consumption (Balances et al., 2016). Out of these, 80% of the energy
consumption within the transportation sector comes from road
vehicles including both personal and service type automobiles.
However, there is a heavy reliance on petroleum-based products in
the transport sector, the puzzling question remains on how much
RE resources could be practically and feasibly incorporated into the
existing transport energy system. Several examples have been
presented in the case of the Danish transportation system. A vision
of a 100% fully RE transport energy system was proposed by the
Danish Society of Engineers (IDA) as part of the Energy Plan 2030
(Mathiesen et al., 2008). In this study, an integrated energy systems
analysis was performed using the EnergyPLAN that involved mul-
tiple steps on the path toward achieving such an ambitious
objective. The study incorporated several approaches including the
maintenance of current levels of demand for passenger trans-
portation by the continued use of personal vehicles and trains,
rolling out electric vehicles and more efficient forms of transport,
and promoting the use of biofuels. In 2009, a subsequent and more
detailed analysis was presented in the IDA Climate Plan 2050
(Mathiesen et al., 2011). Both of these studies adopted an integrated
approach as part of the main analysis for the path toward achieving
a more sustainable transport sector that prioritizes RE integration
and electrification of transport energy systems. A good portion of
the current fossil fuel consumption by transport vehicles could be
replaced by biomass given the comparable high energy density and
easy application within the existing infrastructure network. How-
ever, an overdependence on bioenergy would happen in a scenario,
in which the potential in recycling the waste materials generated
from the biofuel conversion for other higher-value products, the
resulting conversion losses would be on par with those that
occurred from the production of the 1st generation biofuels
(Mathiesen et al., 2015). For this reason, there is a stronger moti-
vation to promote the electrification of the transport system. In
situations where the use of direct electricity is not feasible,
renewable electrofuels produced by the electrolysis process pow-
ered by renewable-sourced electricity should be considered (Ridjan
et al., 2014) (Connolly et al., 2014b).
In their study, Oldenbroek et al. (2017) compared the integrated
system design for a smart urban area under two different scenarios,
Near Future and Mid Century. All energy flows for both scenarios
could be observed in Fig. 13. In the near future scenario, 89% of the
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 13. Energy balance scenario; (a) e In near future; (b) e For mid-century scenario (Oldenbroek et al., 2017).
total energy demand would be met by wind energy, while the
remaining 11% can be sourced from solar energy. On the other hand,
electricity generated from solar and wind energy sources each
would be able to supply half of the total energy demands in the Mid
Century scenario. They indicated that the bulk of the hydrogen is
used in the balancing of energy demand for the soon scenario. On
the other hand, the same amount of hydrogen used in energy de-
mand balancing is used for fueling transport vehicles in the Mid
Century scenario. The latter scenario achieves a lower conversion
loss due to higher fuel cell efficiency. Specifically, the Near Future
scenario records a 48% energy loss due to conversion, while it is
only 40% for the Near Future scenario. Consequentially, a balance
can be attained with the 20% integration of fuel-cell vehicles out of
the entire personal vehicle fleet in a Mid Century scenario.
At the heart of the SES concept, building the interconnections
across several energy sub-sectors (e.g., electricity, heating, indus-
trial, and transport) (Lund et al., 2012) is the most integral element
in the design and planning for a more efficient and sustainable
energy system. These future energy systems are supported by the
integration of several forms of energy, including intermittent RE
resources, district heating, biofuels, sustainable transport, and
different types of heat, electricity, and fuel storage technologies
(Lund et al., 2016). Moreover, SESs also promote cross-sector inte-
gration (e.g., electricity-to-transport, electricity-to-gas, electricity-
to-heat, and electricity-to-cooling) (Lund et al., 2014b). Mathiesen
et al. (2015) have made a strong case for the SESs approach as an
important concept in finding optimal solutions in incorporating a
higher share of intermittent RE resources in the existing energy
system, as well as constructing a 100% renewable-based energy
system. On a continental-scale, a Europe-centric investigation was
carried out by Connolly et al. (2016) to find out whether it would be
feasible to deploy a 100% renewable-based energy system across
the EU. The study assessed these scenarios to avoid the overreliance
18
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
on biomass resources and energy imports from outside of the re-
gion. On the national level, several case studies on the use of the
SES concept can also be found (e.g., Denmark (Gorron ~ o-Albizu,
2020), Italy (Bellocchi et al., 2020), and Australia (Strengers et al.,
2019). In their research, Thellufsen et al. (2020) provided an anal-
ysis for modeling a 100% RE system for the city of Aalborg, Denmark
by 2050. Fig. 14a presents a summary of energy demands and re-
sults obtained from the EnergyPLAN software, in which the design
of smart energy cities should satisfy the local energy demands
while also taking advantage of the local resources. More impor-
tantly, the consumption of these resources should facilitate the
sustainable path toward full integration of RE in the deployment of
SESs at both the municipal and national level, as well as the whole
of Europe. In this particular case, excess heat generation is excluded
from the industrial demand; instead, it is considered as a local
energy resource according to the recommended methodology. The
reason for such adjustment is due to the fact that the city’s in-
dustrial energy demand accounts for the share of the national in-
dustrial energy demand. In examining the diagram, one could
clearly see the distribution of electricity consumption from various
RE resources, such as wind, solar and biomass. In the case of Aal-
borg, wind energy makes up the largest portion of the electricity
supply. A major bulk of biomass is gasified, while waste resources
are sent to incinerator for direct combustion. The production of gas
supply for power stations, transport fuels, and industrial demands
relies on the biomass and electricity used in electrolyzers. As pre-
viously stated, the biomass consumption equates to Aalborg
Municipality’s local resources which are equal to the nationally
designated biomass resource. On the other hand, building heating
demand is largely satisfied by the use of electric heat pumps, while
a combination of heat pumps, geothermal sources, and heat
generated from gas-fired cogeneration plants is sufficient in
meeting the remaining district heating demands. The interaction
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
Fig. 14. (a) e Aalborg’s energy system in 2050; (b) e Connection in the SES (Thellufsen et al., 2020).
and working relationship among these systems can be seen in
Fig. 14b which sufficiently captures the basic principles. Special
attention is needed in the discussion of electricity balancing in the
integrated market. Furthermore, the progressive drops in installed
prices for RE technology (Rodríguez et al., 2014) provide a strong
economic incentive for the deployment of more wind turbines and
temporarily switch them to downtime over periods of oversupply.
Besides, the role of individual communities should be highlighted
in the system-wide approach as a more optimal strategy over
disconnected and localized solutions. Considering such an over-
arching objective, key questions and challenges related to the
practicality of the design and implementation approach in the path
towards a more sustainable energy future. In conclusion, it is
important to highlight the most cost-effective solution which
consists of the flexible operation of power to heat using heat pumps
with the addition of thermal storage, district heating, and battery
storage. The options widespread battery and electricity storage
options, other than electric vehicles, remain limited and impractical
compared to production curtailment. On the other hand, the
19
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
potential of steam storage and overcapacity in electrolyzers are
worth noting. Such conclusions are supported by previous major
works (Lund et al., 2014b) (Lund et al., 2016).
However, the rise in biofuel consumption has caused concerns
over the potential impacts on the environment, such as the
competition over valuable arable land suitable for food production,
threats of deforestation, and negative land-use trends (Eickhout
et al., 2008). In their exemplified work, Connolly et al. (2014b)
presented several electrofuels pathways that could facilitate the
replacement of biofuels in 100% RE systems. Among these, the
methanol/DME pathway would be able to satisfy 50% of the
transport demand. The production of renewable electrofuels relied
on the use of electricity in splitting water to form hydrogen through
an electrolysis process that is combined with carbon generated
from CO2 recycling or biomass gasification process. Excess heat
generated in the power production process can be utilized for
district heating as part of interlinking the heat and transport sector.
According to the results from the CEESA research project, electricity
is considered the most cost-effective and efficient form of energy in
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
fueling future transportation (Mathiesen et al., 2014) (Connolly
et al., 2014b). However, the need for high energy density fuels is
still critical to fuel the portion of the transport sector in which the
use of electric vehicles or battery-powered public transportation is
not feasible (e.g., long-distance trucks, planes, and ships). Hydrogen
is not a good option for these types of transportation due to the
high costs associated with hydrogen production and storage option
(Li, 2011). As a possible alternative, either gaseous or liquid-based
fuels would be able to supplement the electricity as part of the
future energy system powered by 100% RE. Methanol/DME has the
most promising potential due to its more efficient production
compared to methane (Lerner et al., 2018) (Das and Bhatnagar,
2018). Fig. 15 provides an illustration of the bio-electro fuel, in
the form of methanol/DME, production process using RE.
Considering the similarity between the two technology path-
ways (i.e., methanol/DME and methane), the difference among
these two options may not as important in the near term. Rather,
the focus should be spent on continual development to further
improve these technologies before the final selection. Among the
popular processes, the highly developed chemical synthesis stands
out (Hoang et al., 2021b), while both biomass gasification and
electrolysis still have rooms for improvement (Safarian et al., 2019)
(Khan et al., 2020). The selection from the available combination of
renewable technologies depends on the studied location and
existing circumstance because the location characteristics have a
significant influence on the access to different RE resources, it
might affect the options available for the RE system integration. As
shown in Table 4, a simple rule applies to the combination process
so no single combination can be listed twice. These combinations
are configured as separate functioning systems serving different
load demands.
The deployment of smart technologies can enable the imitation
of more sustainable behavior in daily life (e.g., energy-saving
measures). For instance, the installation of a smart street lighting
system can prompt energy-saving behavior resulting in lower uti-
lization and power demand. In their study, Mohandas et al. (2019)
proposed a smart street lighting system that was based on the use
of an Artificial Neural Network and supported by a fuzzy logic
controller. These smart street lighting systems were placed among
popular residential streets under various circumstances and
climate conditions based on digital technology (Nwaiwu, 2018). As
a result, the investigation was able to provide evidence in sup-
porting the argument for the use of advanced smart street lighting
Fig. 15. Methanol/DME synthesis and use pathway for SES (vad Mathiesen et al., 2013) (Connolly et al., 2014b) (Mathiesen et al., 2015).
20
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
systems in promoting energy-saving behavior and resulting in
lower lighting demand and power consumption. In another recent
study, Gu et al. (2019) attempted to examine the existing knowl-
edge gap concerning the linkage between household transport and
behavior related to energy choices. In their investigation, the au-
thors set up a stated choice experiment comprising two mobility
selections (e.g., electric vehicles and e-bike) and home RE equip-
ment (e.g., solar panels and heat pumps). Other attributes related to
the alternative mode of driving an automobile were also considered
such as price/cost, travel time, and availability of the car-sharing
vehicle, and free parking. In this particular study, a mixed logit
model was used as the main methodology to evaluate the impact of
mobility selections on the decisions to install RE and energy-
efficient technologies (e.g., solar panels and heat pumps) at the
household. As a result, the study results supported the role of
mobility tools on the home RE equipment decisions. The decision in
buying an electric vehicle is positively correlated with preferences
to install solar panels and heat pumps to save on energy costs and
reduce environmental footprint. Hence, it can be concluded that
mobility and household energy decision are highly dependent on
one another. This conclusion lends further support for policy
measures supporting cross-sectoral issues (i.e., transport and
household energy consumption).
Putting the design and analysis issues aside, the challenging task
of operating multiple distributed and integrated RE systems in real-
time would require the assistance of advanced control structures
and well-developed software frameworks to be able to arrive at the
optimal decision. The creation of the energy hub concept offers the
ability to account for the interconnectivity and linking among the
different network infrastructures (Geidl and Andersson, 2007).
Orehounig et al. (2015) provided a detailed discussion on decen-
tralized energy system integration based on the above concept
supported by examples of benefits gained from the successful
adoption of such integration approach. In studying a network
consisting of three different energy hubs, it was able to predict 11%,
29%, and 11% emission reductions obtained through the optimized
operation of the network (Maroufmashat et al., 2015). Examining
the issue from a control perspective, the application of MPC can
offer important benefits to micro-grids and smart-grids by offering
the ability to optimize the decision-making process by accounting
for the various system constraints and forecasts of system outputs
and external environmental variables (Wang et al., 2015). In a study
of Arnold et al. (2009), the process of applying MPC to MES was
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Table 4
Main findings of integrated RE systems for smart cities.

Integrated system Design objectives/analysis Main findings Ref

types

Solar-Wind Electric production for home application The performance of renewable energy systems depends significantly on the Panayiotou et al.
location’s climate characteristics. (2012)
Mobile telephony base stations The study analysis has shown an effective cost of electricity of $0.372/kWh produced Kusakana and
from a hybrid system consisting of two 7.5 kW wind generators and a 10-kW solar Vermaak (2013)
PV module. Hybrid RE systems have shown to be more cost-effective and
environmentally friendly in terms of electricity generation.
Electric production for mobile medical As shown in the study, the designed hybrid RE system is capable of producing up to Higier et al. (2013)
clinic 3 kW of continuous and up to a maximum of 6.8 kW power is continuously produced
with a maximum RE generation of 6.8 kW. An automatic control system allows for
the switch-on and switch-off of the generator when needed to lower potential fuel
consumption.
Electric production A lower levelized energy cost of a hybrid system was obtained in comparison with Suhane et al.
per unit energy cost for DG in satisfying a maximum 10 kW of demand load. (2016)
Electric production Electricity generated from the hybrid RE system yields a lower effective cost Ghose et al. (2017)
($0.0618/kWh) compared to the average residential electricity cost ($0.116/kWh).
Energy, exergy, and parametric sensitivity The rise in ambient air temperature has been observed to negatively impact system Ji et al. (2017)
analysis performance.
Electrical performance Up to an 8 percent increase in the power amount generated by the PV module could Y. Wang et al.
be obtained with a wind speed of 3.0 m/s. (2018)
Electric heater An annual reduction of 15,470 tons in carbon dioxide emissions could be realized by Ding et al. (2019)
the optimized RE systems. Among these, the highest net value ($27.67 M) was
calculated for the wind-solar hybrid system.
Economic analysis From an economic perspective, there is a strong preference for a single source, wind Carvalho et al.
energy system over a hybrid solar-wind system. The continual integration of solar (2019)
resources into wind energy systems results in a lower yield in profitability.
Economic analysis According to the analysis, the yearly net real rate of return can be calculated based Ssenyimba et al.
on the net present value of the income stream which was calculated at 12,935,468 (2020)
UGX at r ¼ 5% annual real rate of interest resulting in a 3.5% yearly net real rate of
return.
Solar-Biomass Techno-economic assessment The hybrid system yields a 0.33/kWh in levelized cost of energy while sustaining a Garrido et al.
more durable power bank. However, it is necessary to minimize the operational (2016)
costs of the gasifier.
Electrification Although up to 14% of the annual electricity demand can be satisfied by a solar- Ghenai and
biomass hybrid energy system consisting of 74% solar PV and 26% biogas generator Janajreh (2016)
by capacity, the system falls show of being cost-effective.
Technologies, climate, economic Due to the intermittency and seasonal variation of solar energy, the integration of Hussain et al.
performance biomass into existing RE systems can ensure higher reliability in terms of power (2017)
production.
Micro hybrid power plant Hybrid systems have yielded high socio-economic values while supplying electricity Makai and
for a wide range of residential and commercial activities, including lighting, Chowdhury
refrigeration, entertainment, as well as biogas for heating and cooking. (2017)
Energy, exergy, economic analysis With the multi-source RE system, the study has obtained the following key results, Sahoo et al. (2018)
including a 49.85% optimized energy efficiency, a 20.94% exergy efficiency, a
7278 kW VAR of cooling output, a 4405 kW of desalination output, and 14,606 kW of
total energy output.
District heating system The integration of biomass-based CHP components into the existing solar energy Aste et al. (2020)
system could yield potential benefits and reduce the need for drawing supplemental
energy from the grid during the winter seasons when solar capacity is low.
Methanol production The study has analyzed the load match and grid interaction indicator when a Herdem et al.
biomass gasification system is combined with a 50.4 MW solar PV station yielding (2020)
high profitability potential (e.g., 0.56 MV in Toronto and 0.44 MV in Crotone for each
generated kW).
Techno-economic assessment The use of the hybrid supply system has provided enough surplus energy while Hossain and
indirectly contributing to the effort in lowering CO2 emissions. Rahman (2020)
Solar-Hydro Analysis of complementarity for small A reduction of 10% in solar energy output yields a more optimized overall result. Kougias et al.
hydropower stations -solar systems (2016)
Techno-economic assessment For a 687-kW PV system, the analysis has shown that continuous operation and Jurasz and Ciapała
generation when maintaining an average flow rate of 1.3 m3/s and solar irradiation (2018)
of 1050 kWh/m2.
Seasonal and daily patterns of power In a hybrid solar-hydro system consisting of 73 kW of generating solar panel and Mehrjerdi et al.
production 39 kW of hydropower, the seasonal operation yields a CO2 emissions reduction (2019)
potential of 39,546 kg and up to 50.3% in total cost reduction.
Hydro-PV generation in combination with In order to meet existing demand, an increase by a factor between 13 and 25 in Martínez-
pumped hydro storage terms of solar generation capacity is required along with the doubling of pumping Jaramillo et al.
capacity. (2020)
Solar-Fuel cell Techno-economic analysis of power The study has shown a hybrid system comprising a 106-kW solar PV, 8 kW fuel cells, Singh et al.
generation 45 kW electrolyzer and a 150 kg hydrogen tank can satisfy current energy demand. (2020b)
There are 30 kW grid purchase and 25 kW grid sale capacities that are accounted for
in the proposed grid-connected system.
Supervisory control strategy for a solar/fuel- An improvement in the dynamic response of the fuel cell system can be indicated by Na and Gou (2014)
powered system the proposed hybrid system as it can mitigate the voltage drop problem resulting
from load changes reduce the size of the system capacitor.
(continued on next page)

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A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Table 4 (continued )

Integrated system Design objectives/analysis Main findings Ref

types

Designing a grid-connected RE system i) The proposed grid-connected hybrid 500 kW solar and 100 kW fuel cell energy Ghenai and
system demonstrates a capability of meeting the desired load with the following Bettayeb (2019)
energy generation ratio including 26% grid purchase, 42% solar PV production, and
32% fuel cell production.
ii) Overall, the proposed grid-connected hybrid solar-fuel cell energy system that
permits the sale of electricity back to the grid possesses a high percentage of
renewable generation capacity (40.4%) while offering a lower levelized energy cost
(71 $/MWh) and low carbon dioxide emissions (133 kg CO2/MWh).
Cost Optimization According to the study, an annual electricity demand of 68 MWh can be met by a Singh et al.
hybrid system consisting of 129 kW solar PV, 15 kW fuel cell, and a 34 kW (2020a)
electrolyzer, and a 20 kg hydrogen tank with an LPSP of 0.053%. The analysis also
yields a $0.228/kWh in terms of levelized cost of energy (LCOE)
Wind-Biomass Analysis of energy and exergy approaches The application of the comprehensive energy system has shown an increase of Bamisile et al.
based on steady-state and transient 24.91% and 27.42% in exergy and energy efficiency, respectively, while generating (2020)
conditions electricity between 26.08% and 35.22% from multiple renewable sources.
Wind-Hydro Designing a RE based microgrid The application of microgrids in rural settings offers the potential energy Pathak et al.
independence from imported fossil fuels while mitigating the negative of energy (2019)
consumption on the environment.
Analysis of the operating efficiency The simulation has indicated a strong dependence of the proposed wind-hydro Briongos et al.
energy system on the existing operational strategy. Under fewer restrictions on (2020)
wind generation, the overall system efficiency can be expected to increase. Between
the best (80%) and worst (40%) strategy, the efficiency level can increase up to two
folds.
Wind-Fuel cell Determination of an optimal configuration Some important parameters include wind speed profile, wind generator cost, fuel N’guessan et al.
cell cost, and battery cost. Specifically, 65.52% of the initial cost was indicated with (2020)
the change in wind speed profile.
Designing of micro-electric power grid According to the analysis, a smooth operation of the proposed system was observed Atawi et al. (2019)
based on wind-fuel cell in satisfying the existing loads taking into account the disturbances. The concurrent
energy production from wind and fuel cells working in tandem so that the energy
generated from the wind turbines mainly serves the demand load, while fuel cells
can provide the backup power if needed.
Solar-Wind- Economic and environmental assessment i) According to the analysis, the most optimal system consists of a 150-kW biogas Jahangir and
Biomass generator and an 80.7 kW solar PV system along with batteries and converter. The Cheraghi (2020)
system has an average cost of energy between $0.128 and $0.223/kWh. If the prices
of biomass increase from $20 to $60 per ton, it effectively lowers the amount of
energy generated from the biogas generator by at least 86%.
ii) An insignificant amount of CO2 emissions has been detected from the proposed
hybrid RE system compared to that emitted from a conventional coal-based power
plant. Based on the current approach, a potential $8000 in annual savings could be
achieved from lower CO2 emissions.
City-integrated RE design Overall, it costs 4 percent less per kWh of renewable-source electricity for industrial Bagheri et al.
(0.385 USD/kWh) than commercial applications (0.399 USD/kWh). Furthermore, the (2019)
cost of electricity produced from the solar/wind/biomass plant is three times less
than that of the solar/wind power system.
Design and management of smart energy There are several benefits gained from the application of the proposed hybrid energy Bhattacharjee and
system including lower overall energy cost, improved supply, and demand balance. Nandi (2020)
A successful year-round operation of the hybrid energy system was indicated by the
analysis in satisfying the load demand given the seasonal variability. The surplus
generated electricity can be sold back to the grid.
Economic and environmental assessment i) The study has demonstrated both the economic and environmental benefits Hossen and
gained from the proposed energy system in terms of net present cost (NPC) and CO2 Shezan (2018)
emissions reduction. An annual reduction of 31.65% in NPC and up to 16 tons of CO2
emissions could be saved compared to conventional power plants.
ii) The optimized system has a Net Present Cost (NPC) of US$ 294,382 and Cost of
Energy (COE) of US$ 0.381/kWh.
Techno-economic feasibility A 50 MW in generating capacity can be obtained from the proposed hybrid power Ahmad et al.
system. At a peak load of 73.6 MW, the cost of the hybrid system is US$ 180.2 million, (2018)
while the levelized cost of energy is $0.05744/kWh.
Solar-Biomass- Optimization of unit cost and operation of In rural settings, the application of proposed hybrid energy is a significant cost- Gupta et al. (2011)
Hydro the energy system effective strategy. The energy independence gained from such a system can also
deliver positive values to the quality of life in these remote areas.
Technical - economic analysis Within the proposed Solar-Biomass-Hydroelectric hybrid system, a synergetic and Romero et al.
complemental effect can be realized to supply continuous power to the customers. (2019)
Besides, these hybrid systems can be equipped with an energy backup system such
as batteries in the case of disruption to the power generation.
Solar-Wind-Fuel Electric production The hybrid system can minimize the chance of power disruption due to the lower Haddad et al.
cell generating capacity of solar PV systems during the winter months. (2020)
Economic optimization The intermittency of wind and solar energy resources due to the variability in wind
speed and solar radiation can be taken into account when designing the hybrid
energy system.
Comparison of energy output, economics, Based on the optimization result, the proposed hybrid energy system consists of a Ramunenyiwa
and emissions 12.25-kW solar PV system, 1 kW wind turbine, 4 kW fuel cell, 10.5 kWh capacity et al. (2020)
battery, and a 3.75 kW converter. The analysis shows a 50% (Net Present Cost and

22
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161

Table 4 (continued )

Integrated system Design objectives/analysis Main findings Ref

types

Cost of Energy). The hybrid energy system produces 80% fewer emissions and has
10,079 kWh in surplus electricity production.
Microcontroller-based energy flow control The hybrid energy system yields an overall system efficiency of 48.60%. Koca et al. (2017)
Optimization algorithm for reliable i) The initial investment costs of the proposed solar field ($5,005,000), the wind farm Khayyamim et al.
generation ($2,574,000), and the fuel cell package, which consists of an electrolyzer and a hydro (2016)
tank ($12,686,468) are considered.
ii) Due to the high financial commitment of these RE systems, the long-term payback
on the initial investment costs can be realized by the cost savings from fuel purchase.
The system also can ensure a continuous and reliable generation of energy.
Solar-Biomass-Fuel Technical - economic analysis In the analysis, the per kW initial cost of the fuel cell can range between $2000 and Heydari and
cell $4000 per kW generating capacity. Given the present PV/BG/FC system and an Askarzadeh (2016)
assumed loss of power supply probability (LPSP) of 2%, the study has indicated an
increase in the rated power of the fuel cell system from 33.34 kW to 213.54 kW. On
the other hand, a drop in the rated power of the biomass system from 145.00 kW to
0.11 kW has also been observed. Moreover, the total area occupied by the
photovoltaic system decreases from 373.40 m2 to 0.96 m2.
Solar-Wind-Hydro Development of a model to combine energy A unit cost of Rs. 6.5/kW h has been shown for the chosen hybrid energy system Ashok (2007)
components providing 100% supply of electricity from RE and effectively eliminating the use of
diesel generators.
Solar-Wind- Optimal design and implementation A combination of different RE sources, including 10 kW solar PV, 1 kW wind power Ahmad et al.
Biomass-Hydro generator, 15 kVA biogas engine-generator, 1 kW/6 kWh VRFB storage, has yielded (2018)
the most optimal result.
For the proposed hybrid energy system, the study has determined the project
payback period and the IRR to be 4e5 years and 23% respectively. Hence, it can be
considered both technically and financially feasible to the application of such a
hybrid system.
Development of models for optimal sizing A practical approach can be considered in the application of an integrated RE system Rajanna and Saini
of integrated RE that can achieve between 1.0 and 0.8 optimization power factor values. (2016)
Solar-Wind- Optimal dispatch incorporating demand The result indicates a 14.79% mean improvement in total micro-grid costs and Acevedo-Arenas
Biomass-H2 response 16.211% in LCOE. et al. (2019)
Solar-Wind- Technical - economic analysis To ensure optimal performance and sustainable operation of the microgrid, it is Wandhare et al.
Hydro-Fuel cell important to take into account the system’s hierarchical control. (2013)
Solar-Wind-Tidal- Reliable designing and economic analysis Minimizing the hybrid system net present cost and satisfying the reliability Naderipour et al.
Fuel cell constraint (2021)
SolareWind-Diesel Triple multi-objective design Reduction of CO2 emission and cost Dufo-Lopez and
eHydrogen Bernal-Agustín
eFuel cell (2008)
Geothermal- Designing The proposed hybrid energy system yields lower energy production costs, higher Tafavogh and
Hydro-Biomass- energy efficiency, and positive environmental values. Zahedi (2021)
Solar-Wind The application of a biodiesel/diesel/hydrogen power system can significantly
reduce CO2 emissions compared to conventional fossil-based electricity generation.

performed with special attention paid to the selection of an
appropriate prediction horizon. Patteeuw et al. (2015) proposed
several active demand response strategies for electric heating
systems combined with energy storage. In their study, the
modeling approaches were introduced to minimize computational
effort without losing the modeling validity and accuracy. Given the
complex nature of these objectives, the requirements to account for
the presence of multiple actors and their objectives necessitate the
application of a game theory framework. These approaches are
described in detail in (Kulkarni, 2017) (Jing et al., 2018), with the
application to energy hubs discussed in (Sheikhi et al., 2015).
5. Existing problems and challenges for smart energy system
in smart city
Above the full integration of RE resources, the strategies over
efficient energy management in smart cities are thought to be a big
challenge and an existing problem in domestic energy demand is
expected to rise by another 24% in the next several decades (Erol-
Kantarci and Mouftah, 2011). Therefore, the efficient management
of household-level energy consumption has the potential to realize
the full benefits extending beyond sustainable energy management
at the municipal level. In order to solve such problems and chal-
lenges, there have been some suggestions aiming to manage
renewable sources-based integrated energy systems efficiently. In
their study, a home energy management system was proposed
based on power line communication with the main optimization
objective of reducing power consumption and enable the smart
control of appliances (Son et al., 2010). In a different study, a de-
mand response analysis was conducted by Pipattanasomporn et al.
(2012) using an intelligent algorithm for home energy management
as a way to monitor the performance of household appliances with
high-end demands. Nonetheless, the application of these systems
has an enormous effect on the household’s total energy con-
sumption. Due to this reason, solutions for the efficient operation
and management of smart grids were proposed in a study of
Mohsenian-Rad et al. (2010) as they applied game theory in energy
consumption schedule. The authors observed the benefits gained
from using the strategy in lowering total energy demand, total
energy cost, and cost of daily electricity usage per person. Similarly,
Erol-Kantarci et al. (Erol-Kantarci and Mouftah, 2011) have found
that achieving an efficient supply-demand balance, reducing en-
ergy costs and carbon emissions are the key factors in-home energy
management of the smart city. More importantly, they have
explored that the utilization of home energy management in the
management of grid operations allows for the maximum potential
for energy utilization at the city level. In recent years, the use of
smart meters could also be believed to offer a higher level of
granularity in the measurement and management of distributed
generation resources (Sayegh et al., 2017). With the availability of
distributed technologies, there is a vast potential for the inclusion
of newer types of energy producers in the energy system (Hasse

23
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
et al., 2016). For example, residential buildings and large data
centers acting as prosumers could become capable of heat and/or
power production (Brange et al., 2016). As a result, the urban en-
ergy landscape will be shifted from a centralized production and
decentralized consumption to a new highly integrated and inter-
connected network of distributed supply and demand resources
(Bencsik et al., 2018). Besides, it should take account into consid-
eration of the competitive factors relating to the price of the
renewables-based energy system and the conventional energy
systems to have a more comprehensive analysis (Urbancova, 2013)
(Vochozka et al., 2020).
The voltage regulation and control is also considered as another
challenge of renewable source-based integrated energy systems.
Investigation on the role of IoT in the ongoing development of
smart grids and integrated SESs is highlighted in (Georgios et al.,
2019) (Ni zeti
c et al., 2020). In the Malaga use case included in
(Ruiz-Romero et al., 2014), the role of voltage regulation strategies
is emphasized in the energy system with a high degree of RE
penetration. Hence, it further highlights the role of demand
response (Kreuder and Spataru, 2015) and coordination (Olama
et al., 2018) in these circumstances. With the integration of a
highly diverse set of distributed networks of supply and demand,
resilience could be an important feature and a big challenge that
needs to be gained by the energy system (Sharifi and Yamagata,
2016). Despite the variation in the definition of resilience, the
term can be understood as the system’s ability to bounce back after
a temporary setback. In other words, it can quickly return to
equilibrium after the initial shock (Barata-Salgueiro and Erkip,
2014). For example, the sole reliance on a single centralized en-
ergy production source only increases the vulnerability of the
system from prolonged downtime and wider system impact if it
were to experience a single shock or unexpected disruption.
However, the risk could be significantly reduced when smart in-
tegrated energy systems consist of multiple distributed generation
sources. Indeed, the key factors such as spatial distribution of
generation, collocation of supply and demand, diversification of
fuel mix and generation type, back-up energy stocks, storage, and
standby generation capacity were found to have significant impacts
on the resilience of energy systems (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016).
Nonetheless, in the absence of appropriate trading mechanisms of
capacity, the availability of distributed generation capacity falls
short of its potential. Therefore, Gregoratti et al. (Gregoratti and
Matamoros, 2015) offer a potential strategy to perform trades of
capacity among several separate microgrids to enable two-way
trading between localized distributed energy resources and the
grid that aims to minimize the total incurred energy cost (Xu and
Zhang, 2016).
Energy storage is another important challenge in the SES. As
discussed in previous studies, the direct storage of electricity and
later exporting the current up onto the grid could cause unnec-
essary difficulties, and thus should not be the primary choice (Lund
et al., 2016). Therefore, the end-user approaches could overcome
the round-trip losses of electricity storage. In cases of localized grid
issues such as bottlenecks, electricity storage could offer a possible
solution in enhancing grid stability. Moreover, improving the
interconnection among the heating, cooling, and transport sector
could enhance the overall synergetic effects on available storage
options (Lenhard et al., 2019). In addition to the energy storage
issue of SES, the stability of the power generation system based on
renewable energy sources, and the availability of renewable energy
sources is also noticeable challenges because the operation of units
for power generation relies on the availability of fuels and energy
supply sources in the system. Moreover, the units in the energy
system should be dispatchable to enhance the flexibility of the
energy system. Indeed, the flexibility enhances of the current
24
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
energy system can be obtained in the presence of the readily
available fuels and energy sources within the SESs. Due to this
reason, the successful realization of SESs would significantly alter
the role of dispatchable units. Alternatively, finding various
renewable energy sources to integrate into the main energy system
should take account into consideration. For example, the utilization
of heat pumps for primary electricity conversion, and transport fuel
production using electrolysis could allow for a much higher per-
centage of intermittent RE resources to be integrated into the
existing power system and potentially reduce the risk of power
deficiency (Zhang et al., 2015). In addition, the biogas production
from bio-based waste could be considered as a sustainable method
to utilize the RE sources (Marousek et al., 2020c). Although these
types of generation would only account for a small fraction of the
annual electricity supply (Mathiesen et al., 2015), the available
capacity of dispatchable units is still critical during periods of
production deficiency resulting from the variability of the inter-
mittent RE resources. Fact shows that the biggest contrast of
renewable energy systems will be the greatly reduced number of
operation hours compared to a current standing. Therefore, the
smart and highly flexible system design will solidify the continual
supply security and grid reliability from seconds to years, resulting
in the necessity for including standby power capacity in future
energy systems (Mathiesen et al., 2015). Besides, periods with high
variability due to the integration of intermittent RE resources are
believed to be another challenge of the integrated renewable en-
ergy system. During such occasions, the inherent nature of the SES
design would be able to handle such fluctuation by absorbing and
storing the energy produced from these resources for consumption
at a later time. Depending on the progress towards the full inte-
gration of intermittent RE resources representing 100% of the
electricity supply in a future scenario of an SES concept, it would
facilitate the requirement for certain forms of energy storage.
Furthermore, the move to 100% intermittent RE should involve
significant financial investment. Once all of the cross-sector grid
flexibility has been exploited, there is evidence to support the over-
investment in intermittent RE resources rather than potentially
significant investment in electricity storage. In other words, it could
cause the waste of the amount of excess energy generated during
peak production due to the remarkable difference between de-
mands and supply. In these circumstances, the economic optimi-
zation analysis should be conducted on the basis of both the future
boundary condition and availability of renewable sources, as well as
technology costs.
Beyond the notion of energy and its application, the integration
of the smart energy system into every dimension of urban life in the
smart city could also be thought to be another challenge (Bibri and
Krogstie, 2017). Indeed, the interaction of the energy networks
spans beyond its boundary to influence all other important ele-
ments within the urban landscape of which water (Fang and Chen,
2017) and waste management (Persson and Münster, 2016) draw
the most attention. Considering the prime example set by the
water-energy nexus, these interactions should be fully examined to
explore their potential synergetic effects along with similar chal-
lenges can be observed in both the water and energy sector. Spe-
cifically, the reliability and security of supply are among the top
concern as the demand for these resources are increased with the
city’s high population density. In turn, water-saving strategies can
be implemented as a potential added benefit in lowering energy
consumption. As an example, the collection of rainwater and the
recycling of wastewater have been explored for the above purpose.
Developments in these aspects will surely receive beneficial inputs
from intelligent approaches (Sample and Liu, 2014) and increased
data acquisition (Campisano et al., 2017). Moreover, the on-site
generation and recovery of biogas from treatment plants could
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
enhance fuel diversity within the smart energy system (Marousek
et al., 2020c). However, the efficiency analysis and determination
of such an integrated energy system is very difficult and complex
because each unit in the smart energy system based on renewables
could be suffered from various dominations such as supply sources,
operation parameters, costs for investment, and labor. Therefore, it
should be developed a suitable approach to evaluate the benefits,
efficiency, and costs with taking account of such system complexity
(Chen and Chen, 2016) (O’Dwyer et al., 2018). Furthermore, any
major changes across all environmental sectors should be subjected
to full life-cycle assessments that include the analysis of materials
used, supply chains, operation, waste, and emissions (Ludin et al.,
2018) (Mahmud et al., 2020).
As a concept, a smart city is still at its early inception stage and is
expected to continually evolve. Testing of designs and models, as
well as preliminary deployment, is rather limited while being
bounded by the context of energy systems found only in developed
countries. Nevertheless, the potential and diverse benefits of smart
cities are undeniable, especially within the urban setting. Hence, it
is important to prioritize research gearing toward finding solutions
for cost-effective design and successful implementation of smart
city concepts across the globe. A diverse selection of available
technological tools and resources could be employed in a sustain-
able, cost-effective, and reliable fashion to address the notable
energy-related issues found within smart cities. The construction of
these SESs was assessed based on the criteria, including efficiency
and environmental performance, the efficient use of energy and
material resources. Among the available technology, RE resources
are considered cleaner energy technologies. The utilization of
alternative renewable resources alleviates the reliance on conven-
tional fossil fuels. Given that lower emissions per unit product
could be achieved by increasing the number of products coming
from one energy source, the application of renewable energies is
even more attractive due to the ability to generate several desired
products from the same source. There is a strong incentive to
integrate more RE resources in smart city operations that are
supported by the integrated energy system concept. Particularly, a
wide range of optimal studies available for exploring the various
possible combination of integrated RE systems subjecting to the
evaluation based on its feasibility and performance reliability.
Among the available literature, additional work is currently con-
ducted based on the solar PVs and wind energy combinations
which also receive keen interest from the policymakers. Before the
adoption of any proposed integration, at least one full year’s worth
of data should be available for analysis to provide a detailed
assessment of the potential resources. Considering the dynamic
load demand, integrating renewable resources can sufficiently
meet the system requirements given the independent operation of
these systems. Recently, the deployment of smart grid technology
can further enable the full integration of RE resources. However, the
available tools, techniques, and system technologies must have the
capacity of performing system sensitivity analysis. However, it is
noteworthy to continue developing the optimization solutions to
integrated renewable energy systems based on key criteria (such as
low emissions, environmentally friendly characteristics, low costs
for investment, easy control and management, stable and safe
operation, large range of power, and high reliability). Particularly,
additional work might be needed at a later time to provide the most
up-to-date information related to energy management and prob-
lems related to the integrated renewable resources and system
function.
6. Conclusions and future perspective
The fossil-based energy consumption was demonstrated to
25
Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127161
generate a huge amount of carbon emissions and other toxic pol-
lutants, indicating that the application of renewable and green
energy would lead to minimal impacts on the environment,
particularly for the smart city with the strict requirements over the
environment quality. Hence, the application and integration of
various renewable energy sources into the energy system of the
smart city could optimize the benefits of bio-economy once the
renewables could be thoroughly utilized. According to this aspect,
the use of renewable sources for producing energy could bring good
opportunities to transform waste into energy; therefore, both waste
and carbon emissions/toxic pollutants could be reduced or elimi-
nated, contributing to the more sustainable and cleaner production
process in the future. From the analysis of decisive roles, core tar-
gets, opportunities, and challenges of the integrated renewable
energy system in smart city, it could be found that the strategies for
reduction of carbon-based emissions and toxic pollutants, and the
greener and cleaner energy production process could be only
achieved by integrating energy renewable sources into the energy
system of smart cities. Through this paper, the core principle and
primary tools for designing the integrated energy system based on
renewable sources were completely presented. More importantly,
key targets including performance, costs, environmental benefits,
feasibility, which each smart energy system of smart city needs to
attain, were critically analyzed. As a result, at least two renewable
energy components (such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, fuel cell,
and geothermal) could be used to integrate into the energy system
at various scales (like household or industry) although solar and
wind have been popularly utilized. However, challenges of inte-
grated renewable energy system such as management issues,
optimization of integrating the level of renewable components,
system performance, connection problems and interactions be-
tween various renewable energy systems, operating parameters,
and cost should be further studied before installing and applying
the integrated renewable energy systems at large scales. Despite
the large deployment of integrated energy systems in smart cities
still face difficulties and challenges, the application of integrated
renewable energy systems could be considered as “killing two birds
with one stone” based on the long-term environmental, economic,
emission benefits.
Reliability, energy efficiency, and integration of low carbon en-
ergy supply are among the major characteristics of future smart
cities. The interlinking of multiple energy sub-sectors, including
electricity, heat, and gas, has been enabled by the synergetic re-
lationships of these individual systems. As a result, there are
tremendous opportunities for integrating full RE system integration
into the SES as well as managing such SESs based on real-time
principle. With the aid of automated algorithms, the future SES
would be capable of capturing and analyzing user demand and
usage profiles using historical consumption data. The system is
then able to optimize, coordinate, and control the interconversion
and distribution of various energy sectors while being subjected to
the system’s infrastructural constraints, market demand, and policy
objectives. With the prevalence of embedded algorithms at multi-
ple levels within the energy network, the intelligent tools would
essentially hold an integral role in perceiving automated decisions
and behave accordingly to the changes that occur in system dy-
namics. Reliability and continuity are key requirements of energy
supply as a public utility service. Hence, system disruptions are
likely to result in severely negative consequences, including loss of
revenue, a decrease in consumer satisfaction, lower public confi-
dence. Furthermore, if mechanical or thermal stresses are borne by
the system resulting from the operational choices set by the algo-
rithm, it would result in lower system lifespan and overall higher
power cost over time. In another approach, the application of smart
meter and real-time energy pricing from distributed generation
A.T. Hoang, V.V. Pham and X.P. Nguyen
resources would enable the implementation of embedded smart
solutions for end consumers as these rule-based systems can act on
behalf of the users in making the optimal decisions subjected to the
consumer’s preset minimization of costs or maximization of com-
fort. Furthermore, the decentralization of energy system networks
resulting from the increased availability of embedded SESs has led
to the rise in peer-to-peer trading of energy between various actors
and the sale of stored electricity from vehicles to the grid. The use of
intelligent algorithms is required to occur at multiple levels/scales
that would facilitate the maintenance of system stability and reli-
ability given the varying operating conditions. Moreover, the uti-
lization of these methods enhances the detection of emerging
system errors or faults before the occurrence of the irregular inci-
dence. Among the top issues related to SESs, the risk of cascading
system failure is amplified under the full integration of the multiple
energy networks. The incorporation of intelligent tools should
allow for early detection of these potential hazards and timely
corrective measures in real-time to avoid the potential system-
wide damage (i.e., islanding or isolating a failed section of the
network). The energy management system should be designed in a
manner that is capable of recommending and select fallback
operational mode during emergency events. System resilience is
another important ability that the system should be able to bounce
back, recover completely, or attain a partial restore of the system
post-blackout or failure event. The presence of intelligent algo-
rithms is critical in providing a diagnostic report on the event that
when and what system failure has happened, which parts of the
network have been impacted, and what options in restoring the
system are available. Last but not least, the Smart Living and People
dimension of the smart city concept pays attention to the overall
wellbeing of city dwellers as urban planners face significant chal-
lenges in ensuring sustainable management and growth of cities
around the world. As energy continues to hold a significant role as
part of the local and national policy agenda, it warrants further
examination of its key functions and related variables as research
development on the subject of integrated energy systems in smart
cities continues to advance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Anh Tuan Hoang: Writing e review & editing, Conceptualiza-
tion. Van Viet Pham: Review & editing. Xuan Phuong Nguyen:
Writing e review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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