Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Author:
Lau, Chi Bang Abe
Publication Date:
2009
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/20402
License:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/au/
Link to license to see what you are allowed to do with this resource.
July 2009
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Abstract
• the tedious amount of manual and subjective work involved with the
increasing amount of high resolution imaging data.
i
• increase the level of automation on the process of anthropometric pa-
rameter extraction.
ii
Acknowledgments
his work would not have been possible without the continue support of
T my supervisor, Prof. W.R. Walsh, and all fellow members of the Surgical
& Orthopaedic Research Laboratories.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Akira Maeyama for his
gracious help on acquiring patient data overseas.
I cannot say how grateful I am with my parents, for their values, their
character and their unfailing support throughout the years. To my lovely
sister Angela, for all her encouragements.
Last, I wish to thank my dear uncle Simon, aunt Mary, and my cousins Joyce,
Patrick and little Winnie for all the care and joy you bring during my stay in
Australia.
iii
iv
Contents
1. Introduction 1
3. Medical Imaging 19
3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2. X-ray Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2. Measurement Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.3. Generation of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.4. Applications in Radiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
v
Contents
4. Image Analysis 39
4.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2. Image Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2.1. The DICOM Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3. Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.1. Thresholding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.1.1. Fixed Global Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.1.2. Adaptive Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.2. Region Growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.3. Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.3.1. Gradient Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.3.2. Laplacian Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.3.3. Canny Edge Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.4. Model Based Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4. Image Geometric Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
vi
Contents
5. Shape Analysis 79
5.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2. Basic Geometrical Shape Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.1. Region Based Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1.1. Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1.2. Centroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1.3. Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1.4. Area Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2.1.5. Polar Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3. Object Description Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.1. Chain Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.1.1. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.1.2. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3.2. Fourier Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3.2.1. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3.3. Hausdorff Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.4. Corner Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.4.1. Moravec Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3.4.2. Plessey Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.4.3. Curvature Scale Space Detector . . . . . . . . . . 94
vii
Contents
7. Methods 123
7.1. Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2. Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.3.1. Model Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.1.1. Lesser Trochanter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.1.2. Proximal Femoral Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3.1.3. Transepicondylar Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3.1.4. Affine Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3.2. Trochanters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.3. Femoral Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.4. Distal Posterior Condyles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.4.1. Tangential Line Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.4.2. Cylinder Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.4.3. Posterior Condylar Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.3.4.4. Knee Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3.5. Neck Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3.5.1. Reslice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3.5.2. Parameter Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.3.6. Anteversion Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3.7. Trochlear Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3.8. Bow Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3.9. Misc Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.9.1. Greater Trochanter Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.9.2. Femoral Head Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.9.3. Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.9.4. Canal Flare Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.10. Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
viii
Contents
8. Results 163
8.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.2. Consistency Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2.1. Intra-rater Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2.2. Inter-rater Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.3. Repeated Scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.3. Parameter Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.1. Proximal Femoral Axis Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.2. Variation with Full Femoral Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.3.3. Posterior Condyles Slice Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.4. Verification with 3-D Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.5. Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.1. Condyles Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.2. Optimal Flexion Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.3. Australian & Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.6. Sheep Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9. Discussion 193
9.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.2. Software Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.3. Image Acquisition & Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3.1. Acquisition Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3.2. Automated Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
ix
Contents
x
List of Figures
2.1. Woven and lamellar bone. OC: osteocytes. HC: Haversian canal.
HL: Lamellae. IL: Interstitial lamellae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Osteons (Haversian systems) in cortical bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3. A BMU consisting of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in the resorption
and formation of bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4. Lateral view of the hip bone showing the acetbulum formed by
the ilium, ischium and the pubis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5. Femur (anterior and posterior view). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6. Proximal femur in a posterio-medial view showing the trochanters
and femoral head region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7. Angle of inclination (Anterior view) is defined as the angle span
between the femoral axis and the neck axis, and decrease over
active growth period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.8. The torsion angle is often defined as the angle spanned by the
femoral neck axis and the distal condylar axis. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.9. Medial view of a right femur, with anterior curvature on the
shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.10. Inferior view of the lower femoral epiphysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11. Proximal tibia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12. The Patella is a triangular-shared sesamoid bone with the pos-
terior surface articates with the patellar surface of the femur. . 17
xi
List of Figures
xii
List of Figures
xiii
List of Figures
xiv
List of Figures
7.1. Amira (Visage Imaging, Inc., Carlsbad, USA) is used for seg-
mentation of the CT stacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2. Mimics (Materialize, Inc., Leuven, Belgium). . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.3. Profile lines across the lesser trochanter region for base thresh-
old value evaluation. In cases where an optimal threshold cannot
be chosen, the reference is chosen to avoid over-segmentation
when possible. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4. The MATLAB development environment running on Gentoo
Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
xv
List of Figures
7.5. Extraction of PMC for initial lesser trochanter LT1 estimation. . 128
7.6. The initial estimation of the lesser trochanter LT1 (blue) from
the candidate list {PMC } (red). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.7. Second estimation of the lesser trochanter based on LT1 . The
furthest coordinates of the image perimeter from the femoral
axis (F A LT ) of each cross-section was taken as the PMC2 in the
second estimation of the lesser trochanter position. . . . . . . . . 129
7.8. Shape outlines on the flattened image. Two sets of line segments
were constructed to estimate the shape outline. {L τ=3 (BWper i m )}
(red), {L N =6 (BWper i m )} (blue), and the final epicondylar point
(green). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.9. Shape template {L T } for orientation matching. . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.10. Fallback TEA evaluation routine by corner (blue) detection.
The figure shows the result of the corner detection with high
sensitivity. The sensitivity of the corner sub-routine could be
lowered to eliminate false corners and to reduce the number of
candidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.11. The reference coordinate system. The proximal femoral axis (FA )
is taken as the longitudinal reference axis and the epicondylar
) is taken as the transverse axis for rotational reference.134
axis (TEA
7.12. Axial view of the reference axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.13. The trochanters (LT and GT ) re-evaluated after model alignment.136
7.14. Initial estimation of the femoral head centre. First best-fit
sphere (right) estimation of the femoral head based on the
proximal head region (blue). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.15. Final estimation of the best-fit sphere based on additional datum
points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.16. Extraction of the posterior condylar line by morphological oper-
ations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.17. The Lorentzian function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.18. The Lorentzian minimization function estimated using a log
function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.19. Cylinder (PCCYL ) fitted to the posterior condyles using the
Lorentzian minimization function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.20. The knee centre (KC ) is defined as the intersection between the
cylinder PCCYL and the distal femoral articular surface . . . . . 143
7.21. Initial estimation of the neck axis based on femoral head centre
HC and NB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
xvi
List of Figures
xvii
List of Figures
xviii
List of Figures
E.1. Variation between the use of proximal femoral shaft and full
femoral shaft as reference longitudinal axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
xix
List of Figures
xx
List of Tables
xxi
List of Tables
xxii
List of Tables
xxiii
List of Tables
xxiv
Nomenclature
CT Computed Tomography
EM Electromagnetic
erg force of one dyne exerted for a distance of one centimetre, or 0.1 micro-
joule
GT Greater Trochanter
xxv
List of Tables
HC Head Centre
HU Hounsfield Unit
KC Knee Centre
LaTeX This thesis was typeset with LATEX, a document preparation system
for the TEX typesetting program.
LT Lesser Trochanter
LyX LyX is the document processor in which this thesis was written on.
OA Osteoarithis
Sv Sievert
xxvi
Nomenclature
xxvii
Nomenclature
xxviii
Introduction
1
uman anatomy is one of the fundamental aspects in the comprehension
H of the human body. Initially used by Alphonse Bertillon in 1882 as a
scientific system to identify and match arrested criminals who had previous
criminal records, anthropometry refers to the measurements of human in-
dividuals. Since then, human anthropometry has been incorporated more
extensively in other disciplines such as biomechanics, forensic analysis and
orthopaedics.
1
1. Introduction
realized.
As a starting point, the femur bone was chosen as the study object. Articulating
with the hip and knee joints, the femur provides weight support to the skeletal
structure at up-right position, and is of particular interest in the field of
orthopaedics due to being a common fracture site. With the femur playing
an important role in body support and gait cycle, the understanding of its
anthropometry is also of importance in bio-mechanics.
Without being very application specific, the scope of the current study is
to present a general framework for anthropometric analysis of the femur.
The focus is towards the investigation of a more automated means at the
parameter extraction procedures in anthropometric analysis to eliminate the
massive amount of manual work required.
2
Intra-class correlation and Cronbach’s α were employed to evaluate the intra-
rater, inter-rater and repeated scans consistency of the proposed methodology.
All scans were processed successfully, and high correlation values (mean > 0.95)
were observed, indicating a satisfactory consistency achieved.
The following page gives an outline of the thesis, with the focus of each chapter.
Thesis Outline
3
1. Introduction
4
Anatomy and Bone Histology
2
Contents
2.1. Histology of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1. Types of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2. Bone Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3. Woven and Lamellar Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4. Cortical and Trabecular Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.5. Modelling and Remodelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2. Anatomy of the Human Femur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1. Hip Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2. Femur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3. Proximal Tibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.4. Patella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
There are four types of cells in bone tissue, namely osteogenic cells, osteoblasts,
osteocytes and osteoclasts. Located at the endosteum and the inner portion of
the periosteum, osteogenic cells are capable of mitotic division and develop into
osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are not capable of mitotic division and are the cells
that form bone. Osteoblasts secrete collagen and other organic compounds
necessary for the formation of bone matrix and are found on the surface of
bones and at the margins of growing bone. In the process of bone formation,
osteoblasts are encased in the bone matrix they form and remain as osteocytes
(Hancox, 1972). Each osteocyte occupies its own cavity or lacunae in the bone
matrix and maintains its metabolism in exchanging nutrients and waste with
the blood. Osteocytes must be within 100-150μm of a blood vessel to prevent
necrosis (Martin and Burr, 1989). Osteoclasts are large multi-nucleated cells
that are formed by the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes, which is a type
of white blood cell. Osteoclasts resorb bone matrix by means of lysosomal
enzymes.
Calcium hydroxyapatite is the primary bone salt present in bone tissue, with
the unit cell formula of 3Ca3 (PO4 )2 -Ca(OH)2 . Crystal of calcium hydroxyapatite
in bone has a thickness of few unit cells, with a rough dimensions of 5 × 5 × 40
nm.
With its major component being mineral salts, bone is a major reservoir of
calcium in which 99% of the total amount of calcium in the body is stored.
It serves as a vital component of the homeostatic mechanisms in regulating
concentrations of Ca2+ , H+ , and (HPO4 )2− .
6
2.1. Histology of Bone
Figure 2.1.: Woven and lamellar bone. OC: osteocytes. HC: Haversian canal.
HL: Lamellae. IL: Interstitial lamellae.
Reproduced from Hancox (1972).
Lamellar bone is stronger and consists of fine collagen fibres lined in a parallel
manner. The fibres are grouped into layers called the lamellae. The central
canal of each functional unit is called a Haversian canal, named after Havers
(1691) and grouped with its concentric lamellae is named as an osteone or
Haversian system. Lamellar bone is replaced in trabeculae and cortical bone
at a rate of about 25% and 5% respectively (Martin R.B. and N.A., 1998). The
orientation of lamellar bone formation is known to be affected by external
machanical stimuli in which the collagen fibres tends to line with the direction
of stress (Martin and Burr, 1989).
7
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
Trabecular bone, also known as cancellous bone or spongy bone are irregular
latticework constructed with thin columns of bone called trabeculae of about
8
2.1. Histology of Bone
200 μm in thickness. The space between the trabeculae is filled with marrow
or myeloid tissue.
Most short, flat and irregularly shaped bone is made up of trabecular bone.
It also exists in epiphyses and around the marrow cavity of the diaphyses
of long bones, which are areas that are not subject to enormous mechanical
stress. Trabecular bone is usually surrounded by a shell of cortical bone for
increased strength and rigidity. The distribution of the types of bone varies
depending on the need for strength or flexibility.
Frost (1973) has compiled and analysed the bone remodeling phenomenant
and the principle summary are quoted as follows:
3. Dynamic flexure causes all affected bone surfaces to drift towards the
concavity which arises during the act of dynamic flexure.
9
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
The femur, also commonly known as the thigh bone, is the longest and heaviest
bone in the human skeletal system. The femur comprises of a shaft section
with two ends, where the proximal end articulates with the hip bone forming
the hip joint, and the distal end articulates with the tibia and the patella
forming the knee joint.
The hip bone is a bony structure at the base of the spine, articulating behind
the proximal part of the sacrum forming the sacroiliac joint and to the proximal
end of the femur forming the hip joint. This results in a connection between
the trunk and the lower limbs. The hip bones form the pelvic girdle that meet
at the pubic symphysis, and forms the anterior and lateral walls of the pelvis.
Each hip bone is made up of the ilium, ischium and pubis, with which they
meet at the acetabulum as shown in figure 2.4 on the next page. The hip
bones are initially separated in the acetabulum by the Y-shaped triradiate
cartilage and begin to fuse during adolescence.
10
2.2. Anatomy of the Human Femur
Figure 2.4.: Lateral view of the hip bone showing the acetbulum formed by
the ilium, ischium and the pubis.
Reproduced from Gray (1918).
2.2.2. Femur
The femur is the longest and heaviest bone in the human skeletal system
transferring the entire body weight between the trunk and the lower limb,
with its length being roughly one-fourth to one-third of the human body
length. It consists of two ends and a mid-shaft section. With its proximal
end, it articulates with the hip bone forming the hip joint, which is a synovial
ball-and-socket joint and with its distal end, it articulates with the tibia and
patellar forming the knee joint.
The head of the femur is a partial two-third sphere that faces upward, forward
and medial. The fovea capitis, located slightly below and behind the centre, is
a pit in which the ligament of the head of femur is attached. Apart from the
fovea capitis, the entire femoral head region is covered with articular surface
and in many cases, the articular surface extends upon the anterosuperior
region of the neck.
The neck region is a bar of bone connecting the head to the trochanter region.
In front, the neck and the trochanter region is separated with a relatively
11
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
12
2.2. Anatomy of the Human Femur
Figure 2.7.: Angle of inclination (Anterior view) is defined as the angle span
between the femoral axis and the neck axis, and decrease over
active growth period.
Reproduced from Moore (2007).
prominent trochanteric line that runs downwards and medially. The line
becomes more indistinguishable near the lesser trochanter and the neck-
trochanter ridge, the intertrochanteric crest, is relatively smooth at the back
of the femur.
The intertrochanteric crest is the ridge that connects the greater trochanter
with the lesser trochanter posterially. Compared to the intertrochanteric
line which connects the greater trochanter with the lesser trochanter at the
anterior side of the femur, the intertrochanteric crest is relatively smoother
and more indistinguishable.
The angle of inclination (Figure 2.7) is the angle between the superomedially
projected neck and head axis and the shaft-axis and has a typical value of
between 110◦ − 145◦ , with an average of about 126◦ . It is usually smaller in
female and decreases during the active growth period (Harty, 1957). The
angle of inclination of the femur allows the long axis of the neck and head
to intersect with the acetabulum cup in a more perpendicular manner, and
allows for a large range of motion in the hip joint.
13
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
Figure 2.8.: The torsion angle is often defined as the angle spanned by the
femoral neck axis and the distal condylar axis.
Reproduced from Moore (2007).
Figure 2.9.: Medial view of a right femur, with anterior curvature on the
shaft.
Reproduced from Gardner et al. (1969).
The angle of torsion (Figure 2.8) of the head of the femur, also known as
the anteversion angle, is the angle between the long axis of the head and
neck region and the transverse axis of the femoral condyles when viewed
superiorly along the shaft axis. It is reported the average anteversion angle is
around 12◦ −15◦ (Breathnach, 1965). If the angle is larger than the range, it is
called anteverted, and if the angle is less than the normal range, it is called
retroverted. The effect of an anteverted and retroverted torsion angle could
be noted by external and internal rotation of the femur, causing out-toeing
and in-toeing (pigeon toe) respectively (Norkin C., 1992).
2.2.2.2. Shaft
The femoral shaft connects between the proximal and distal femur. A sig-
nificant characteristic of the shaft is its anterior curvature (Figure 2.9) in a
medial view. The functional role of the anterior curvature is unknown and
no correlations have yet been found on the curvature and other functional
parameters such as body mass or size.
14
2.2. Anatomy of the Human Femur
The distal end of the femur is characterized by two spirally curved condyles,
continuous in front, and separated below and behind the intercondylar fossa
(Figure 2.10). The two condyles articulate with the tibial condyles to form
the knee joint. The front of the condyles characterizes a vertical groove and
divides the patellar surface into two unequal parts.
The lateral side of the groove is wider, extends further and articulates with
the lateral articular facet of the patella. The medial groove is narrower
and articulates with the medial articular facet of the patella. Below the
intercondylar fossa, the lateral condyle is broad and straight compare with
that of the medial condyle which is relatively curved and narrow. The posterior
part of the condyles articulates with the tibial condyles only in knee flexion.
The medial surface is convex and rough, and features a prominence named
the medial epicondyle. Likewise, the lateral epicondylar is a prominence on
the lateral surface of the lateral condyle, but is not as convex as that of the
medial epicondyle. A pit immediately above the lateral epicondyle marks the
lateral head of the gastrocnemius. Often, a groove that lodges the tendon of
the popliteus in knee flexion runs upward and backward of the pit. When the
leg extends, a notch in the articular margin lodges the tendon.
Two regional structures of bone masses could be noted from the proximal end
of the femur. The calcar femorale is the bar of cortical bone that extends into
the neck from the lesser trochanter region on the medial side. The cervical
torus is a thickened band of cortical bone on the upper region of the neck
15
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
between the femoral head and the greater trochanter region on the upper
neck.
The tibia (Figure 2.11), also known as the shin bone has a length roughly
one-fourth to one-fifth of the body length, and is located on the anterior and
medial side of the leg. It transmits body weight from the femur to the ankle
and foot. The tibia has an upper and lower end, separated by a shaft, with
the upper end rotated more medially than the lower in superior axial view.
The upper end of the tibia is large, expanded and bent slightly backward. The
upper surface comprises of the medial and lateral condyles, a large ovoid and
smooth surface that articulates with the femoral condyles. Laterally, the tibia
articulates with the fibula.
2.2.4. Patella
The patella (Figure 2.12 on the next page), also known as the knee cap, is a
triangular-shaped sesamoid bone of roughly 5cm in diameter and is located
anterior to the knee joint. It articulates with the patellar surface of the femur.
The anterior surface is convex and contains vertical ridges and many small
openings for nutrient vessels. The two lateral and medial borders converge
to form the apex. The posterior surface is a smooth and oval area divided
into two articular facet; a larger lateral articular facet and a smaller medial
articular facet, separated by a vertical ridge. Part of the posterior aspect is
not articulated and gives the attachment point of the ligamentum patellae.
16
2.2. Anatomy of the Human Femur
Figure 2.12.: The Patella is a triangular-shared sesamoid bone with the pos-
terior surface articates with the patellar surface of the femur.
Reproduced from Gardner et al. (1969).
17
2. Anatomy and Bone Histology
18
Medical Imaging
3
Contents
3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2. X-ray Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2. Measurement Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.3. Generation of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.4. Applications in Radiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.5. Biological Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.6. Strengths and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3. Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.1. Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.2. Hounsfield Unit Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.3. Quantitative Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.4. Applications in Radiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.5. Biological Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.6. Strengths and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4. Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.1. DXA Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.2. Biological Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.3. Strengths and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.1. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.2. Biological Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
19
3. Medical Imaging
3.1. Overview
Discovered in 1895, X-rays are one of the oldest and most widely used source of
electromagnetic (EM) radiation in medical imaging. It is also called Röntgen
ray, named after the discoverer, Professor Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-
1923) from the University of Wurburg.
X-rays are high energy, ionizing EM radiation that lies between ultraviolet
light and gamma rays with wavelengths roughly between 10 nanometers
(10 ∗ 10−9 ) and 10 picometers (10 ∗ 10−12 ), equivalent to a frequency of 30
petahertz (30 ∗ 1015 ) to 30 exahertz (30 ∗ 1018 ). It can further be divided into
hard X-rays and soft X-rays, with soft X-rays having longer wavelengths and
thus lower energy. The cutoff wavelength between soft and hard X-rays is
around 100 picometers. Note that the soft X-rays spectrum overlaps with
extreme ultraviolet, while hard X-rays spectrum overlaps partially with gamma
(γ) rays, in their shorter and longer wavelengths ranges respectively. The
distinction between gamma (γ) rays and hard X-rays are thus often referred to
the source of the radiation instead of a cutoff wavelength, with X-ray generated
by the emission of X-ray photons by energetic electron bombardment, and
gamma (γ) rays by energy state transition in the nuclei level.
20
3.2. X-ray Imaging
3.2.1. Principles
Projection X-rays imaging makes use of the fact that different body tissues
have different X-ray attenuation. Below are the three main processes that
contribute the most towards X-ray attenuation:
• Photoelectric Absorption
• Compton Scattering
Compton refers to the inelastic photon scattering, which results from a collision
with orbital electrons. Some energy is transferred to the electron, which is
knocked out of the atom. The frequency of the photon is lowered due to energy
losses and direction change. The Compton effect occurs mostly in photons
with an energy range of around 2 keV to 2 meV.
• Pair Production
21
3. Medical Imaging
at least twice the rest mass energy of two electrons (1.022 MeV). It was first
observed by Patrick Blackett, the winner of Nobel Prize in Physics in 1948.
Table 3.1 shows the probability of each of the above processes in water at
various X-ray photon energies.
I = I 0e −μd (3.1)
22
3.2. X-ray Imaging
Röntgen(R) is a unit used to define the radiation field in air. Due to the fact
that attenuation of X-rays when passing through different matters vary, a unit
called rad(radiation absorbed dose) is defined in the measurement of absorbed
dose. 1 rad is equal to the dose of radiation resulting in the absorption of
100 ergs (10−7 Joules) per gram in any material.
rem, abbreviated from röntgen equivalent in man, is the traditional unit for
radiation dose measurement, defined as the product of the dose absorbed in
R(röntgen) and the biological efficiency. It defines the estimated dose of any
radiation that would produce the same biological effect delivered by x or γ
radiation.
23
3. Medical Imaging
X-rays visualize the target by measuring the X-rays attenuation after passing
though the exposed structure. It is especially effective in the visualization
of the pathology of the skeletal system, which has an excellent attenuation
coefficient towards X-rays. It is also commonly used in identifying lung
diseases. Soft tissues, however, have a lower attenuation coefficient towards
X-rays and in general produce less contrast in an X-ray image, which makes
discerning fine details more difficult. Phase-sensitive X-ray imaging (Pfeiffer
et al., 2006; Schneider et al., 2008) is a new concept in recent years to generate
higher contrast from detection of the phase shift of X-rays passing through
the sample in addition to X-ray attenuation detection.
24
3.2. X-ray Imaging
Due to the high energy, penetrability and ionizing nature of X-rays, they
interact with living tissue resulting in damage to healthy living cells. Under
substantial exposure, more serious damage to, for instance the DNA of the
cell could occur and may lead to a higher risk of heritable defects and cancer.
According to the ARPANSA Radiation Protection Series No. 1 (Republished
2002) published by the Australian Government. The effective dose limit for
general public is 1mSv per year, while an occupational dose limit of 20 mSv per
year applies. Table 3.2 lists some examples on the radiation dosage received
in various events.
25
3. Medical Imaging
Veip (2005) pointed out that the use of digital X-ray receiver could deliver
twice the contrast compared to conventional X-ray film. Still, the upper limit
of the dynamic range is bounded by the allowable radiation dosage, while the
lower limit of the dynamic range is restrained by the noise floor.
Phase-sensitive X-ray (Pfeiffer et al., 2006) is another new concept that aims
to deliver a better contrast by detecting phase changes in addition to X-ray
attenuation.
3.3.1. Principle
CT is another imaging technique utilizing X-rays and is also based upon the
fact that different tissues express a different degree of X-ray attenuation. In
CT, a thin fan shaped beam of X-rays is emitted from the tube perpendicular to
the long axis of the body. An array of detectors are positioned on the opposite
side of the X-ray source as shown in Figure 3.6 to convert X-ray intensity into
electrical signals. The resulting images are then combined to form the final
cross-sectional slice by a method called tomographic reconstruction.
26
3.3. Computed Tomography
The Hounsfield unit (HU) scale is used in CT, named after Sir Godfrey Newbold
Hounsfield, the inventor of the first CT machine. It represents the linear
transformation based on the original linear attenuation coefficient μ where
adjustments are made such that water and air have values of 0 and -1000
respectively, given in expression 3.2.
μx − μ H2 O
X 1000 (3.2)
μH2O − μai r
where μx , μH2O and μai r are the attenuation coefficients of the scanned tissue,
water and air respectively. A change of 1 HU corresponds to around 0.1% of
the attenuation coefficient, given the fact that μai r 0.
With the large range of values defined in the HU scale, difficulties exist in
visualizing the entire spectrum in modern display devices, which can commonly
resolve only 256 (8-bit) gray levels. Windowing and contrast compression
techniques are often applied to visualize the HU range of interest only. Window
centre or window level is the centre value of the visualizing range, while
window width is the maximum HU deviation from the window centre in which
the shades of gray will be distributed over. For instance, a window center of
1000 and a window width of 100 will effectively display the HU range between
(1000±100)HU on screen. Values above 1100 HU or below 900 HU would be
displayed as pure white and black respectively.
27
3. Medical Imaging
CT has become a valuable tool in medical imaging since its introduction, and is
used in the diagnosis of a large range of diseases. Examples include diagnostic
of complex fractures at extremities and joints; abdominal diseases such as
urinary stones and appendicitis; fractures and organ injury due to trauma.
Contrast agents such as barium sulfate can be used to further enhance the
attenuation difference for more specific diagnosis.
28
3.3. Computed Tomography
This section below aims to provide an overview on some of the most common
artifacts in CT imaging, with focus in the field of orthopaedics.
When X-ray beams with photons of different energies pass through the exami-
nation object, photons with lower energy has a higher attenuation compared
to the high energy photons, as shown in figure 3.8. This effect is known as
beam hardening.
29
3. Medical Imaging
hardened more than that those through the edges (Figure 3.9), resulting in
lower HU values towards the centre of the cylinder, as shown in Figure 3.10.
Filtration with metallic material to pre-harden the X-ray beam before passing
through the examination object is often used to reduce the effect of beam-
hardening. Scanners can be calibrated for different pre-defined types of
examinations, and specific correction algorithms could be applied during the
reconstruction stage to compensate or minimize the effect of beam hardening.
The partial volume averaging effect occurs on slices across structure edges,
due to the effect of averaging the output Hounsfield values across tissues
with very different attenuation properties within the same voxel. It is usually
observed across the z-axis of the CT volume with anisotropic voxel size, where
slice thickness is larger than the spatial resolutions. A smaller slice thickness
could minimize the effect of partial volume averaging.
Photon starvation occurs when insufficient photons reach the detector because
of high attenuating region, resulting in a noisy projection and often results
in serious streaking artifacts. Figure 3.11 shows a CT cross-section of a
30
3.3. Computed Tomography
shoulder phantom where photon starvation occurs when the X-ray beam
projects through horizontally.
Photon starvation can be reduced by increasing the tube current, but with a
drawback of a higher radiation dose to patient. An alternative solution is to
vary the tube current automatically at different angular orientation, a process
known as milli-amperage modulation, such that a sufficient tube current is
achieved when needed.
Metal objects possess high density and attenuation coefficient that is out of the
handling range of normal CT system and can cause serious streaking artifacts.
The presence of metal objects in CT examinations are not uncommon in the
field of Orthopaedics, where surgical nails and prosthesis are commonly used
metal devices.
Metal objects are generally removed from patient’s body before scanning
commences. For unremovable metal objects, reduction of streaking artifacts
could be achieved with special software correction algorithms by replacing the
out-of-range values. Additional measures to reduce artifacts resulting from
beam-hardening are always applied, as mentioned in section 3.3.6.1.
31
3. Medical Imaging
Ring artifacts occurs when one of the detectors among the detector array is
out of calibration, as shown in figure 3.12.
32
3.4. Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry
33
3. Medical Imaging
DXA for bone densitometry is often performed on lower spine and hips. Mar-
shall et al. (1996) have shown that DXA results performed on hip may be a
good indicator on relative hip fracture risk.
While most DXA devices use dual-energy X-rays for BMD measurements,
newer and more economical portable DXA devices make use of ultrasound on
peripheral sites such as heels and forearm. However, its use are currently
limited to screening purposes (Kirk et al., 2002) while studies (Barr et al.,
2005) show that peripheral DXA could be effective in predicting fracture risk
of older women who are at increased risk of future fracture.
34
3.5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
DXA employs a very low dose X-ray and it is estimated that the effective dose
received by patient per examination on conventional pencil-beam DXA machine
is around 0.08 - 4.6 μSv (Njeh et al., 1999). The effective dose received by
patient on newer and higher resolution fan-beam DXA examination is reported
to be around 6.7 - 31 μSv . It is generally considered that the very low dose of
X-ray used in a DXA examination does not pose any biological hazard to the
general public.
DXA is still currently the most widely used method for BMD measurements.
It is economical, easily accessible and use very low dose ionizing radiation,
which pose negligible biological hazard to the patient.
However, due to the two dimensional nature of DXA scans, Kolta et al. (2005)
pointed out that DXA-derived BMD are not true bone mineral density, but,
more appropriately, an areal density only. Various studies (Goh et al., 1995;
Cheng et al., 1997b; Lekamwasam and Lenora, 2003) have shown that anatom-
ical variations and different hip positioning could lead to as much as 50%
variations on the resulting BMD values. While the extreme variations re-
ported should not happen from a well-trained professional radiologist with
proper patient hip positioning, the effect of anatomical variations such as the
anteversion angle is still unlikely to be eliminated.
35
3. Medical Imaging
3.5.1. Principles
This section serves only as a brief explanation on the basic principles of MRI.
The detail physics involved in MRI is beyond the scope of discussion here.
MRI makes use of the nuclear resonance of an elementary subatomic particle
with an odd atomic number, such as 1 H , 31 P or 13C , which acts like a magnetic
dipoles. Under strong magnetic field, usually generated by an electromagnet
in an MRI machine, the atoms start to align with the axis of the external
magnetic field with a resonance frequency known as the Larmor frequency,
named after a French physicist. The Larmor equation is
w0 = g B0 (3.3)
where w 0 is the Larmor frequency, B 0 is the magnetic field and g is the constant
gyromagnetic ratio, specific to each type of atomic nucleus mentioned above.
However, only a slight majority of atoms are aligned (parallel protons) in the
direction of the magnetic field and the remainings are aligned in an opposite
fashion (anti-parallel protons). This creates a slight net magnetic moment in
the tissues under the strong magnetic field. When a radio wave pulse exactly
the same as the Larmor frequency is applied, some of the already aligned
protons will be pushed out of their alignment under the original magnetic
field. A tiny but detectable change in the magnetic field when the protons
relax back to their original states can be detected by a receiver coil.
The realignment of the nuclei relaxation after short pulse in the Larmor
frequency is called longitudinal relaxation. The time required for the tissue
magnetism to reach back to 63% of the value before the pulse is applied, is
termed T1. A common value of T1 is 500ms to 1s. The transverse relaxation
time, which is the local de-phasing of the spins after a transverse pulse, is
named T2. A common value of T2 is 50ms to 100ms.
By using different time period between the radio pulses, echo time and other
parameters, images with very different contrast can be achieved.
36
3.5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
37
3. Medical Imaging
38
Image Analysis
4
Contents
4.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2. Image Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2.1. The DICOM Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3. Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.1. Thresholding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.2. Region Growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.3. Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.4. Model Based Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4. Image Geometric Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.1. Affine Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5. Morphological Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.1. Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.2. Dilation and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5.3. Opening and Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.4. The Hit-or-miss Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.5. Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.6. Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.7. Convex Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6. Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.6.1. The Hungarian Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
39
4. Image Analysis
4.1. Overview
Image acquisition is the first step of image analysis. Being the initial source
of all imaging analysis, the image acquisition step has a profound effect on all
the subsequent steps down the analysis pathway. An overview of commonly
used clinical medical imaging techniques and their comparison, strengths and
artifacts are discussed in section 3 on page 19.
Output of the image acquisition step is often stored in a digital form for
further processing. In clinical medical imaging; the DICOM (Digital Imaging
and Communications in Medicine) format is the most commonly used.
40
4.3. Image Segmentation
4.3.1. Thresholding
⎧
⎨1 i f I (x, y) > T
I (x, y) = (4.1)
⎩0 i f I (x, y) ≤ T
41
4. Image Analysis
⎧
⎨1 i f T1 ≤ I (x, y) < T2
I (x, y) = (4.2)
⎩0 i f I (x, y) < T1 or I (x, y) ≥ T2
With the thresholding segmentation technique, the central question lies upon
the method of choosing an optimal threshold T .
f gˆk−1 + bgˆk−1
Tk = unt i l Tk = Tk−1 (4.3)
2
where f gˆk−1 and bg k−1 are the sample mean of the gray values on all foreground
and background pixels respectively, with Tk−1 as the threshold value. The
42
4.3. Image Segmentation
Another widely used method, the Otsu’s method (Otsu, 1979) aims to search
for a threshold to minimize the weighted within-class variance, or equiva-
lently to maximize the between-class variance, under the assumption of a
bimodal histogram with uniform illumination. In the case of single foreground
background separation, the weighted within-class variance is defined as
43
4. Image Analysis
The basic idea is to start with a set of predefined points in the image called
“seed” points and regions are grown by iteratively grouping neighborhood
pixels which satisfy certain similarity criteria. The procedures of seed points
selection is image specific, and often require a prior knowledge of the image
type. Without extra prior information, an alternative method of seed point
selection is to apply the defined similarity criteria on all pixels across the
image, and assign seed points based on the resulting seeded regions.
44
4.3. Image Segmentation
Region growing and its derivatives are also commonly used for more automated
segmentation in areas where manual segmentation is tedious (Tuduki et al.,
2000; Dehmeshki et al., 2008) or in ultrasound imaging (Hao et al., 2000).
An edge is a set of connected pixels that separates two regions. Note that an
edge is in general a more local measure when compared to an ROI boundary.
Ideally, the intensity values across an edge is distinct with its intensity profile
line perpendicular to the edge being a step function as shown in figure 4.3.
Nonetheless, edges are always presented as a more gradual transition of
intensity level in practice, due to imperfections introduced in the image
acquisition stage. Noise is another major factor in edge detection. This raises
the question on the actual location of a blurred or noisy edge and hence
various techniques were developed. Figure 4.4 on the following page shows
the effects of random Gaussian noise towards a ramp edge and its first and
second derivatives. Note that while the ramp edge is still distinguishable
when σ = 10.0, the magnification effect of the noise in its first and second
derivatives makes the use of derivatives alone in edge detection not very
feasible in noisy cases.
From a viewpoint in the frequency domain, edges are considered local regions
with high frequency components. Theoretically, edge extraction could be
achieved by applying a high-pass filter in, for instance the Fourier domain,
45
4. Image Analysis
Figure 4.4.: Effect of noise to ramp edge. Left column (top to bottom): Ramp
edge corrupted by random Gaussian noise of σ = 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 re-
spectively with its profile line plotted. Middle column: First
derivatives of the corresponding ramp edges. Right column: Sec-
ond derivatives of the corresponding ramp edges.
Reproduced from Gonzalez and Woods (2002)
46
4.3. Image Segmentation
Figure 4.5.: top: image demonstrating a ramp edge; middle: intensity profile;
bottom: first derivative
⎡ ⎤
∂f
−→ Gx ∂x
∇f = ⎣
= ∂f ⎦ (4.5)
Gy
∂y
Gy
α(x, y) = arctan( ) (4.6)
Gx
47
4. Image Analysis
⎡ ⎤
i1 i2 i3
A = ⎣ i4 i5 i6 ⎦
i7 i8 i9
Figure 4.7.: The Roberts Cross operator kernel (left: vertical, right: horizontal)
and magnitude
−→ ∂f 2 ∂f 2
∇ f = |∇ f | = ( ) +( ) (4.7)
∂x ∂y
∇ f ≈ |G x | + |G y | (4.8)
The first derivative at point i 5 in figure 4.6 using the Roberts cross operator is
Gx = i9 − i5 (4.9)
G y = i8 − i6 (4.10)
∇ f ≈ |i 9 − i 5 | + |i 8 − i 6 | (4.11)
48
4.3. Image Segmentation
Figure 4.8.: Edges extracted from the Roberts (top right), Prewitt (bottom
left) and Sobel (bottom right) operators from the circuit (top left)
image
Original image courtesy of Steve Decker and Shujaat Nadeem, MIT, 1993.
The Roberts cross operator has an advantage of simplicity and thus quick
to compute. However, because of its small kernel size, the method is very
sensitive to noise (Figure 4.9 on the next page, top right), and its performance
in blurred edge is poor.
A slight variation of the Robert cross operator is called the Prewitt operator
(Prewitt, 1970) (Figure 4.10 on the following page), which is a 3 by 3 kernel
with a clear centre compared to the 2 by 2 Robert cross operator.
Another variations based on the Prewitt operator is called the Sobel operator
49
4. Image Analysis
Figure 4.9.: Gradient operators under noise Top left: circuit with added noise
(Gaussian σ2 = 0.01). Top right: Roberts. Bottom left: Prewitt.
Bottom right: Sobel.
Original image courtesy of Steve Decker and Shujaat Nadeem, MIT, 1993.
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
+1 +1 +1 −1 0 +1
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 +1 ⎦
−1 −1 −1 −1 0 +1
50
4.3. Image Segmentation
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
+1 +2 +1 −1 0 +1
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ −2 0 +2 ⎦
−1 −2 −1 −1 0 +1
Figure 4.12.: top: ramp edge; bottom: second order derivative of the horizontal
intensity profile
Despite using first-order derivatives for edge detection, edge points can be
detected by searching for zero crossings of the second-derivative. A second
order derivative of an exaggerated ramp edge is shown in figure 4.12.
∂2 f ∂2 f
∇2 f = ∇ • ∇ f = + (4.12)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
51
4. Image Analysis
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
0 −1 0 −1 −1 −1
⎣ −1 +4 −1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 +8 −1 ⎦
0 −1 0 −1 −1 −1
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
30
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
For digital images, two commonly used discrete convolution kernel for ap-
proximation is shown in figure 4.13. Similar to the Sobel edge operator, the
left kernel on figure 4.13 is isotropic only on the horizontal and vertical edge,
while the kernel on the right is isotropic on multiples of 45◦ rotation.
1 x 2 +y 2
−
G(x, y) = e 2σ2 (4.13)
2πσ2
where σ is the standard deviation. Figure 4.14 shows a 3-D plot of a two
dimensional (30x30) gaussian kernel with σ = 3.
52
4.3. Image Segmentation
⎡ ⎤
0 0 1 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 1 2 1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 2 −16 2 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 2 1 0 ⎦
0 0 1 0 0
−3
x 10
−1
−2
−3
−4
30
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
Figure 4.16.: 3-D plot of a two dimensional Laplacian of Gaussian filter kernel
1 x 2 + y 2 − x 2 +y2 2
LoG(x, y) = − 4 1 − e 2σ (4.14)
πσ 2σ2
As discussed above, edge points will give rise to zero-crossings in the resulting
Laplacian output. Nevertheless, zero-crossings may also occur at any region
with changes in the intensity gradient, not necessarily edges. A straightfor-
ward approach for zero-crossing detection is to apply a threshold that sets
53
4. Image Analysis
all positive pixels to logical 1 and all negative pixels to logical 0, resulting in
a binary image. Zero-crossing points can then be retrieved by searching for
all foreground pixels that has a background neighbor. One drawback of this
technique is the bias of the edge towards either the foreground or background.
An alternative is to consider both the foreground and background edge, and
choose the one with a lower magnitude of the Laplacian output.
The level of detail of the LoG output is governed by the standard deviation
used in the Gaussian smoothing kernel. The higher σ is set, the less level of
detail will be retrieved. Also note that while the 3 by 3 convolution kernel
in figure 4.13 on page 52 is only isotropic in 45◦ rotational increment, LoG
kernel used in practice is an isotropic filter, thus it is not possible to extract
edge orientation directly from the transformation output.
Computationally, the LoG kernel could easily give rise to extremely positive
or negative values which lies out of bound of the original pixel data type. It
is important to ensure the output data type is able to handle the larger range
of values from the operation.
Several variants of the LoG exist, with the most common one named the
Difference of Gaussian (DoG) filter, which is an approximation of the LoG
using just the difference of two Gaussians of different size, defined as
−(x 2 +y 2 ) −(x 2 +y 2 )
1 1 2σ2
1 2σ2
DoG(x, y) = e 1 − 2e 2 (4.15)
2π σ21 σ2
Figure 4.18 on page 56 shows the plot of a DoG function (σ1 = 3 , σ2 = 2), which
is very similar to the LoG filter. Another even coarser approximation is the
Difference of Boxes filter, which is the difference of two different-sized mean
filter. It has an advantage of being much faster than the LoG operator.
54
4.3. Image Segmentation
Figure 4.17.: Top left: noisy circuit image (Gaussian σ2 = 1). Top right: zero-
crossing threshold = 0, σ = 2. Bottom left: zero-crossing threshold
= 0.01, σ = 2. Bottom right: zero-crossing = 0, σ = 5.
Original image courtesy of Steve Decker and Shujaat Nadeem, MIT, 1993.
55
4. Image Analysis
0.005
−0.005
−0.01
−0.015
−0.02
−0.025
30
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
Figure 4.18.: 3-D plot of a two dimensional Difference of Gaussian filter kernel
The Canny edge detector was proposed (Canny, 1986) aiming to construct the
optimal edge detection with the criteria of marking as many real edges as
possible, marking as close to the real edge as possible, and avoid duplicate
marking of edges. Unlike previously discussed gradient operators and the
Laplacian operator, the Canny edge detector is a multi-step procedure.
The image is first smoothed using a Gaussian filter for noise reduction using
the kernel as described in equation 4.13 on page 52. The gradient is then
computed using any gradient operator described in section 4.3.3.1 on page 47
to obtain
G(x, y) = G x2 +G 2y (4.16)
G y (x, y)
θ(x, y) = arctan (4.17)
G x (x, y)
A threshold T is applied to suppress most of the noise while try to keep all
edge candidates.
56
4.3. Image Segmentation
Figure 4.19.: Left: noisy circuit image (Gaussian σ2 = 1). Right: Canny edge
detector (T = 0.1, T2 = 0.2, σ = 1.5])
Original image courtesy of Steve Decker and Shujaat Nadeem, MIT, 1993.
⎧
⎨G(x, y) i f G(x, y) > T
G T (x, y) = (4.18)
⎩0 ot her wi se
Two binary images G T1 and G T2 are generated using two thresholds T1 and
T2 respectively where T2 > T1 . Comparatively, the binary image G T1 is more
noisy and contains more false positives. The final step involves applying edge
linking on image G T2 with the use of pixels in G T1 as bridging purpose only.
The output of the Canny edge detector (Figure 4.19) depends on three ad-
justable parameters. The width of the Gaussian smoothing kernel affects the
balance point between noise sensitivity and sensitivity towards finer object
details. The higher the upper threshold T2 , the less edge fragments; and the
higher the lower threshold T1 ,the higher the chance of having edges broken
up especially in noisy situation.
One drawback of the Canny edge detector is the defect on Y-junctions, where
three edges connect at the same point. Application of the Canny detector will
result in having two of the edges linked, with the remaining edge approaching
the centre point, but not connecting.
57
4. Image Analysis
Figure 4.20.: Typical adaptation results with the use of deformable model.
Note that part of the model is attracted and settled on false
boundaries (white arrows).
Active shape models (Cootes et al., 1995; Kelemen et al., 1998) a commonly
employed refinement approach, which is analogous to that employed by Active
Contour Models (commonly known as snakes, Kass et al., 1988). Statistically
based techniques are employed for constructing deformable shape templates
with the deformation constrained by the statistical parameterization. It is a
fast and robust automatic segmentation method, but its segmentation accuracy
could be limited due to its restriction to a model with a few parameters (Weese
et al., 2001).
58
4.4. Image Geometric Transformation
Several authors (Kaus et al., 1999; Weese et al., 2001) proposed the use of
shape constrained deformable model, in an attempt to combine the benefits
of active shape and elastically deformable models. It involves adaptation
to the image by means of an external energy from local surface detection,
combined with an internal energy constraining the deformable surface to stay
close to the predefined shape model. Kaus et al. (1999) reported success in
applying the method to MRI images of grade 1-3 brain tumors (meningiomas
and astrocytomas) in various locations. Nevertheless, it was pointed out
an intrinsic limitation exists; the pre-defined template cannot account for
any pathological structures. While successful segmentation was achieved in
simple tumors, the authors called for additional investigations in improving
the elastic matching technique to explicitly handle pathological structures.
Image output from the acquisition stage may contain irregularities, distortion
or other unwanted artifacts. While many modern equipments have sophisti-
cated calibration procedures to minimize its effect to the final image quality,
image pre-processing is often required to tailor to special analysis need. In
medical imaging, extra processing steps for artifact reduction, calibrations as
described in section 3 on page 19 are often done within the image acquisition
system, resulting in usually acceptable image quality provided that optimal
imaging parameters are employed. However, one uncontrollable factor in real
world medical imaging, precise patient or specimen positioning, often exist
in practice. While patients are often positioned in a standardized position
before any medical imaging procedures commences, the consistence is often
not sufficient, or the positioning may not be suitable for analysis purpose. A
transformation on the coordinate system may be necessary or desired for ease
of analysis.
59
4. Image Analysis
x = Ax + B (4.19)
x 1 0 x tx
= + (4.20)
y 0 1 y ty
x cos θ − sin θ x
= (4.21)
y sin θ cos θ y
x sx 0 x
= (4.22)
y 0 sy y
60
4.4. Image Geometric Transformation
x 1 mx x
= (4.23)
y 0 1 y
x 1 0 x
= (4.24)
y my 1 y
where equation 4.23 is for shearing operation parallel to the x axis and
equation 4.24 is for shear parallel to the y axis. m x and m y are the shearing
factor correspondingly.
x x
=A (4.25)
y y
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x x
⎢ ⎥ A B ⎢ ⎥
⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ (4.26)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
0 0 1
1 1
where A and B are the matrices defined in equation 4.19 on the facing page.
This representation simplifies the transformation parameter into a single
homogeneous matrix and is often used in software packages like Matlab .
61
4. Image Analysis
Representation Explanation
a∈A a is an element of A
a∉A a is not an element of A
4.5.1. Preliminaries
The basic relationship between objects in the set theory is the membership
relation. Let A be a set in Z2 , which is a general representation of a binary
image as mentioned above and for any a in Z2 , the membership relations are
listed in table 4.1.
The content of a set is denoted by two braces, with A = {a} meaning the set A
contains an element a ,. Furthermore, the expression B = {b|b = −a, f or a ∈ A}
means the set B contains element b in which b is composed by multiplying
every element in the set A by −1. Another common notation is the empty set,
denoted by Ø. Table 4.2 on the facing page shows a set of commonly used
notations in set manipulation.
62
4.5. Morphological Processing
63
4. Image Analysis
Image dilation and erosion are one of the most fundamental and commonly
employed morphological techniques and serve as a basis of a wide range of
morphological operations.
4.5.2.1. Dilation
A ⊕ B = {z|(B )z ∩ A = Ø} (4.27)
64
4.5. Morphological Processing
element are set to the foreground value, or else the pixel values are left
unchanged.
Dilation on grayscale images are similar, in which the maximum pixel inten-
sity level of the superimposed structuring element window is taken as the
output pixel value. This operation in general results in a brightened image,
with bright regions surrounded by dark regions enlarged, and dark regions
surrounded by bright regions shrank.
4.5.2.2. Erosion
A B = {z|(B )z ⊆ A} (4.28)
The erosion result of a set A using a structuring element B is the set B with
all translation combination z in which (B )z is completely contained in set A .
65
4. Image Analysis
A ◦ B = (A B ) ⊕ B (4.29)
A • B = (A ⊕ B ) B (4.30)
Similarly, figure 4.22 on the next page shows the geometric interpretation of
the morphological closing operation. Instead of tracing the structuring element
along the inner boundary, the rolling disc is traced outside the foreground
object following the outer object boundary. Note that while we use the term
“rolling” in the above description, the structuring element only undergoes
translation but not rotation, and this interpretation extends similarly to other
non-symmetrical structuring element.
The opening and closing operation are often considered duals of each other.
Table 4.4 on the facing page shows some common properties of the opening
and closing operations.
66
4.5. Morphological Processing
Property Equation
Duality A ◦ B = A c • B and A • B = A c ◦ B
Translation (A)z ◦ B = (A ◦ B )z and (A)z • B = (A • B )z
Idempotence (A ◦ B ) ◦ B = A ◦ B and (A • B ) • B = A • B
Extensivity A ⊆ (A • B )
Antiextensivity (A ◦ B ) ⊆ A
67
4. Image Analysis
Figure 4.23.: Left: Noisy fingerprint image. Middle: Opening of the image.
Right: Opening followed by closing.
Reproduced from Gonzalez et al. (2003), original image courtesy of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
A B = (A X ) ∩ [A c (W − X )] (4.31)
68
4.5. Morphological Processing
Figure 4.24.: left: Set A (gray). right: foreground template W and background
template (W − X )
Reproduced from Gonzalez and Woods (2002)
A B = (A B 1 ) ∩ [(A B 2 ) (4.32)
Figure 4.25 shows the complement or set A and the erosion of set A using X
as the structuring element. Geometrically speaking, the result represents a
possible match of the template X within set A .
The next step is to compute the erosion of set A c with the background template
(W − X ), as shown in figure 4.26 on the next page.
The final step is to compute the intersection of the two erosion results, giving
the final match as shown in figure 4.26 on the following page. While the
erosion step shown in figure 4.25 is already a matching operation, the beauty
69
4. Image Analysis
4.5.5. Thinning
A ⊗ B = A − (A B ) (4.33)
• it is an isolated pixel
70
4.5. Morphological Processing
71
4. Image Analysis
A B = A ∪ (A B ) (4.34)
4.5.6. Skeleton
72
4.5. Morphological Processing
K
S(A) = S k (A) (4.35)
k=0
where
S k (A) = (A kB ) − (A kB ) ◦ B (4.36)
and
K = max{k|(A kB ) = ∅} (4.37)
K is chosen such that it is the step before the set A turns into an empty set.
The structuring element B is chosen to be an approximation of a disc. Given
K and the structuring element B , reconstruction could be done using the
equation
K
A= (S k (A) ⊕ kB ) (4.38)
k=0
73
4. Image Analysis
Figure 4.30.: Top left: original segmented human chromosome image. Top
right: Thresholded image. Bottom left: Skeleton of the image.
Bottom right: Skeleton followed by spur removal.
Original image courtesy of Gonzalez et al. (2003)
Figure 4.30 shows the skeleton of a human chromosome, delivering a good rep-
resentation on the structural shape of the object. Spur removal is repeatedly
applied to remove tiny spurs which is common in a skeleton image.
A set {A} is said to be convex if all points lying between the line segment
constructed between any two points in {A} lies in {A}. The convex hull C (B ) of
a set {B } is defined as the smallest convex set containing {B }. The term convex
deficiency is often used to denote the set difference {C (B ) − B }.
74
4.5. Morphological Processing
D i = X i when X ki = X k−1
i
(4.40)
4
C (A) = Di (4.41)
i =1
Various algorithms for computing the convex hull have been proposed. Being
one of the simplest while comparatively not very efficient, Jarvis (1973)
proposed a 2-D case named the Jarvis march, also known as the gift wrapping
algorithm, having a complexity of O(nh) where n is the number of points in
{A} and h is the number of points in the final convex hull. A more efficient
algorithm was proposed by Graham (1972) reducing the complexity to O(n log n).
Other even more efficient methods (Kirkpatrick and Seidel, 1986; Chan, 1996)
based on output-sensitive algorithms were proposed, further reducing the
complexity down to O(n log h).
75
4. Image Analysis
76
4.6. Miscellaneous
4.6. Miscellaneous
Starting with an n ×n cost matrix c where c i j denotes the cost associated with
assigning the i -the worker to the j -th job, the algorithm could be summarized
into the following steps:
3. Use the minimum number of lines to cover all zeros in the resulting cost
matrix. If k lines are used, and k < n , compute m which is the minimum
uncovered number in the cost matrix. Subtract m from all uncovered
number, and add m to all number covered with two lines (one horizontal
and one vertical) and restart step 3. If k = n , go on to step 4.
4. Start from the top row to make assignments. Unique assignment can
be made when there is exactly 1 zero in the row. Delete the row and
column associated with the assigned element. In the case with which all
remaining rows containing more than 1 zero, where unique assignment
could not be made, iterate in columns starting from the left-most column.
Similar to the row assignment, unique assignment can be made when
there is exactly 1 zero in the column. Delete the row and column
associated with the assigned element. Switch between row and column
assignment until all unique assignments can be made.
77
4. Image Analysis
78
Shape Analysis
5
Contents
5.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2. Basic Geometrical Shape Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.1. Region Based Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3. Object Description Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.1. Chain Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.2. Fourier Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3.3. Hausdorff Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.4. Corner Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1. Overview
Direct geometrical measurements are one of the most common ways of struc-
turally describing an object. This section aims to provide descriptions on some
79
5. Shape Analysis
5.2.1.1. Area
5.2.1.2. Centroid
xd A yd A
Cx = , Cy = (5.1)
A A
where A is the area of the shape defined as A = f (x)d x . The centroid on a
digital image could be simplified, and denoted as
n n
1 x 1 y
Cx = , Cy = (5.2)
n n
5.2.1.3. Eccentricity
80
5.2. Basic Geometrical Shape Parameters
The area moment of inertia, also known as the second moment of inertia, or
just moment of inertia, measures the resistance of an object towards bending.
The area moment of inertia about an x-axis is defined as
I xx = y 2d A (5.3)
where y is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the area element, and
A is the element area. Equation 5.3 is valid for sections that are symmetrical
about the x-axis. For other cases, equation 5.4 applies.
Ix y = x yd A (5.4)
where A is the element area, x and y are the perpendicular distance to the
element A from the x-axis and y-axis respectively. The parallel axis theorem
also states that given the area moment of inertia of an object about the centre
of mass, the area moment of inertia of any arbitrary parallel axis I cm is
defined as
I cm = I cm + Ad 2 (5.5)
where I cm is the area moment of inertia through the centroid, A is the shape
area, I cm is the moment of inertia through an axis parallel to that of I cm , d is
the perpendicular distance between the axes of I cm and I cm .
Jx = r 2d A (5.6)
where J x is the polar moment of inertia (m 4 ), r is the radial distance from the
element to the axis of rotation, A is the infinitely small element area.
81
5. Shape Analysis
82
5.3. Object Description Techniques
5.3.1.1. Principles
Chain code (Freeman, 1961; Freeman and Saaghri, 1978) was first introduced
by Freeman in 1961, by describing a method in encoding any arbitrary curve
into a piecewise linear sequence using a pre-defined set of 8 vectors. Figure 5.1
shows the 8 direction of the vectors, and each is represented with an integer
from 0 - 7.
Freeman stated that the coding schemes must satisfy the following three
objectives:
While the above three objectives could be mutually exclusive to a certain level,
most of the derivatives were proposed based on different levels of compromising
the three ideal goals.
83
5. Shape Analysis
Figure 5.2.: Steps in computing the shape number from chain code
Reproduced from Gonzalez et al. (2003).
84
5.3. Object Description Techniques
5.3.1.2. Applications
Chain code and its derivatives are widely used as a base in shape representa-
tion because of its information preservation property while having substantial
reduction of data size. Martín-Landrove et al. (2007) reported successful
use of chain code based analysis in brain tumoral lesions diagnosis on T-2
weighted MRI images. Min and Choi (2006) employs a modified chain code
algorithm based on the vertex chain code (Bribiesca, 1999) in connecting
intersection points for contour extraction from 3D ultrasound volume of pipe-
shaped human organs. Shi and Mao (1995) suggested the use of chain code
in the classification of direction and curvature features on movement tracks
in frontal chewing patterns.
Fourier descriptors and its derivatives have been widely used to generate
unique shape signatures. Fourier descriptors are based on the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT), a specific form of Fourier analysis designed for discrete-time
signal in a finite domain. DFT is based on the Fourier transform which
transform a function x(t ) from the time domain to the frequency domain
defined as follows:
∞
∞
85
5. Shape Analysis
1 K−1
X (n) = s(k)e −i 2πnk/K n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , K − 1 (5.10)
K K =0
The complex coefficients X (n) are called the Fourier descriptors. The inverse
discrete Fourier transform is given by equation 5.11
K
−1
x(k) = X (n)e i 2πnk/K k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , K − 1 (5.11)
K =0
The inverse Fourier transform of equation 5.9 gives back the original s(k)
coefficients, as shown in equation 5.12.
K
−1
s(k) = a(n)e i 2πnk/K (5.12)
n=0
If only the first P coefficients instead of all K coefficients are used in the
inverse Fourier transform in equation 5.12, this will yield an approximation
of s(k), ŝ(k).
P
−1
ŝ(k) = a(n)e i 2πnk/K (5.13)
n=0
This approximation still contains the same number of coordinate points as the
original boundary, with the high frequency component filtered out. With higher
frequency components representing finer details of a shape, the procedure is
equivalent to filtering out the level of fine details defined by P . Figure 5.3 on
the facing page shows the increase in detail levels of the reconstructed shapes
using an increasing number of Fourier coefficients.
86
5.3. Object Description Techniques
87
5. Shape Analysis
However, the Fourier descriptors are not directly invariant to scale, rotation
and translation, but with the properties of Fourier transform, the changes of
the descriptor coefficients could be summarized in table 5.1. Rotation scale
all the Fourier coefficients by a constant term e i θ while scaling affects the
Fourier coefficients by a multiplicative factor of α. Translation of the shape
affects only the first coefficient X (0).
5.3.2.1. Applications
88
5.3. Object Description Techniques
where
where h(A, B ) is called the Hausdorff distance from A to B , and ||∗|| is the norm,
which is usually taken as the Euclidean distance. The Hausdorff distance is
thus the distance from a point a
A to its nearest neighboring point in B , in
which a is the point in A that is furthest away from any point in B. One major
drawback for the Hausdorff distance described above is its over-sensitivity to
89
5. Shape Analysis
noise, with which a single outlier point within the point sets of two similar
shapes will result in a large Hausdorff distance. To circumvent this, Rucklidge
(1997) proposed a modified Hausdorff distance
h f (A, B ) = f a
A
th
min ||a − b|| (5.16)
b
B
where instead of the maximum value, the f-th quantile value is chosen.
In general, most corners detectors (Harris, 1987; Kitchen and Rosenfeld, 1982;
Smith and Brady, 1997) works as follows (Figure 5.4 on the next page):
90
5.3. Object Description Techniques
maximas in the cornerness map. The goal is to eliminate all false cor-
ners which are shown as local maxima in the cornerness map, while
preserving as many true corners as possible. Nonetheless, the dilemma
is always present in the selection of an optimal threshold, to balance
between the number of false-positive fake corners and the number of
true corners detected.
Moravec (1977, 1979) proposed the concept of “points of interest”, defined as the
occurrence where intensity variations are large in all directions, by computing
the local auto-correlation in four directions and taking the lowest of the four.
91
5. Shape Analysis
A threshold was applied and any local non-maxima were suppressed. However,
because the goal of Moravec research was not in accurate identification of
corner position, but only to distinct regions in an image that enable registration
of consecutive image frames in order to navigate a Standford Cart through a
clustered environment. The proposed method is in general considered as a
more generalized one. Figure 5.5 shows the general idea of how the algorithm
is able to extract regions where the corners reside, where there is only a
small minimum intensity variation by shifting the window position (in red)
upon 4 directions at positions in cases A or B, while both positions in cases C
and D give a large intensity variations for all shifting directions, and thus
considered a “point of interest”.
Harris (1987) pointed out that the proposed algorithm is anisotropic because
only four auto-correlation directions were used, or in general only over a
discrete set of principle directions, and that the response could be noisy
and sensitive to strong edges due to the fact that the minimum of the auto-
correlation measurements were taken, but not truly the intensity variations as
originally proposed. A new operator was proposed (Harris and Stephens, 1988)
as an enhancement to address the limitations and it is commonly referenced
as the Harris operator or the Plessey operator.
The general idea of the Plessey operator is that the sum of difference between
two neighborhood Moravec windows can be a rough approximation of the
gradient and Harris and Stephens proposed the use of a simplified Prewitt
92
5.3. Object Description Techniques
⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 +1
⎢ ⎥
X : [ −1 0 +1 ]; Y : [ 0 ]; Di ag onal : ⎢
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎦ (5.17)
+1 −1 0 0
2
δI i δI i
Vu,v (x, y) = u +v (5.18)
∀i d e f i ned wi t h (x,y) cent r e δx δy
where δIδx
i
and δI
δy
i
are calculated with the simplified Prewitt operator in equa-
tion 5.17, and different u and v could be selected to denote intensity variations
along different directions. To further eliminate noise and to impose empha-
sis based on the Euclidean distance from the pixel to the window centre, a
Gaussian window w is additionally convoluted with V , and the results could
be simplified and expressed as
u
Vu,v (x, y) = u v M (5.19)
v
A C 2 2
δI δI δI δI
where M = , A= δx
⊗ w, B = δy
⊗ w, C = δx δy
⊗w
C B
To extract the final cornerness of each pixels, Harris and Stephens proposed
the following cornerness measure:
Threshold and non-maximal suppression are then applied and the resulting
non-zero points are marked as final corners.
93
5. Shape Analysis
where X (u, σ) = x(u)⊗ g (u, σ) and Y (u, σ) = y(u)⊗ g (u, σ), g (u, σ) denotes a Gaus-
sian with width σ (the scale parameter). The evolution of Γ gradually smooths
the curve with increasing simplification of the shape.
94
5.3. Object Description Techniques
where
δ
Xu (u, σ) = δu (x(u) ⊗ g (u, σ)) = x(u) ⊗ g u (u, σ) and
2
δ
Xuu (u, σ) = δu 2 (x(u) ⊗ g (u, σ)) = x(u) ⊗ g uu (u, σ), and similarly
1. Apply the Canny edge detector to extract edges from input image.
While the CSS detector is robust with respect to image noise, He and Yung
(2004) pointed out the CSS fails to detect true corners when σhi g h is large and
prone to false-positives if σhi g h is small. An improved algorithm based on the
CSS was proposed, introducing an adaptive local threshold in the process of
local-maxima identification. This could eliminate points that are detected as
local maximum while having a small curvature difference within the region
of support, such as rounded corners. Another improvement suggested is the
additional criterion on the angle of corner. With the fact that a well-defined
corner should have a relatively sharp angle, false corners could be further
eliminated by computing the corner angle over its region of support, which is
defined as the corner candidate and its two adjacent corner candidates. The
process is iterated such that all corners fell under the criterion are eliminated.
Figure 5.7 on the next page shows a comparison of various corner detectors
on the table test image.
95
5. Shape Analysis
Figure 5.7.: Comparison of various corner detectors. Top left: The Moravec
operator. Top right: The Plessey operator. Bottom left: The CSS
operator. Bottom left: The modified CSS (He and Yung, 2004)
Reproduced from McGill Centre for Intelligent Machines, and He and Yung
(2004).
96
Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
6
Contents
6.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2. Reference Positions and Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3.1. Physical Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.3.2. 2-D Imaging Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3.3. 3-D Imaging Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4. Proximal Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4.1. Femoral Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4.2. Femoral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.4.3. Canal Flare Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5. Femoral Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.6. Distal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1. Overview
97
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Axes or reference position definition plays a crucial role being the factor that
could significantly affect subsequent measurements. Traditional anthropo-
metric studies on femur (Kingsley and Olmsted, 1948; Dunlap et al., 1953;
Ryder and Crane, 1953), dating back to early 1900s (Parsons, 1914), used
osteometric table and similar devices as a physical platform for anthropometric
studies extensively. Their physical devices and specific reference positioning
of the femur were often defined to facilitate the measurement of a few specific
parameters. Kingsley and Olmsted, 1948 defined the reference position of the
bone as that of resting on a smooth horizontal surface, touching the posterior
aspect of the two condyles and the posterior aspect of the greater trochanter.
The version angle, or anteversion angle is one of the most studied parameters
in anthropometric studies of the femur in all time (Croce et al., 1999). From
a reference position definition point of view, the parameter provides a very
good ground for discussion with the fact that this single parameter involves
the definition of the three major axes in the femur, namely the longitudinal
or long axis, the neck axis and the distal transverse axis.
98
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
The concept was better documented and refined by Kingsley and Olmsted
(1948), with which the reference position, axes definitions and its derivatives
became one of the most widely used bases in anthropometric studies where
physical measurements were made (Lausten et al., 1989; Kim et al., 2000a;
Jain et al., 2003).
While Kingsley and Olmsted (1948) did not state the exact distal transverse
axis definition, its method of anteversion determination implied the use of
the posterior condyle axis as the distal transverse axis, which is defined as
the posterior tangential line touching the posterior aspect of the two condyles.
With the femur lying at its reference position, the long axis being employed
is parallel to the horizontal surface, and aligned with the direction of the
shaft in an AP view. Kingsley and Olmsted further defined the neck axis
based on two points, which is the two mid-points between two sets of points
extracted from the anterior and posterior surfaces along the neck axis, under
a superior transversal view (Figure 6.1 on the next page). The anteversion
angle was measured as the angle between the neck axis and the posterior
condyles axis, in the transversal plane along the long axis of the femur
(Figure 6.2 on the following page). However, the authors pointed out this
method may not be able to accurate measure retroverted femur samples, with
which the proximal supporting points with the flat horizontal surface shifted
from the greater trochanter region to the head region. To cater the problem,
small smooth blocks were placed beneath the supporting points to elevate the
entire platform, but it was noted that the natural supporting point could still
99
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Figure 6.1.: Kingsley’s neck axis definition. Left: posterior point. Middle:
anterior point. Right: mid-point.
Reproduced from Kingsley and Olmsted (1948).
100
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
With the reference coordinate system based on functional axes, Yoshioka et al.
further reported the discrepancy in anteversion definition (Figure 6.3) and
the measurements obtained. In another study (Yoshioka and Cooke, 1987),
the authors pointed out the transepicondylar axis (TEA) has in general less
geometric variations when compared to the posterior condylar axis, and thus
would serve as a better alternative definition of the transverse axis.
Ryder and Crane (1953) pointed out the abduction of the femur could sig-
nificantly magnify the measured anteversion. Ryder and Crane proposed
a method based on two X-ray projections in two orientations. The angle of
inclination was calculated based on an AP X-ray while the projected antever-
sion was measured on an X-ray with the hip and knee under 90◦ flexion and
the femur under 30◦ abduction. To obtain the true anteversion, Ryder and
101
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Crane pre-computed a set of graphs (Figure 6.5 on the next page) mapping
the projected anteversion angle to the real anteversion angle under different
angles of inclination.
102
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
103
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
of the intra-operative epicondylar pins, while only the entry point should be
considered theoretically.
104
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
Figure 6.7.: Neck axis determination from a single cross section. A: Head
centre; B: mid-point between the anterior and posterior surfaces
of the neck.
Reproduced from Murphy et al. (1987).
Murphy et al. (1987) compared various methods in axes definition and pointed
out the deficiency of the neck axis definition on a single cross-section (Weiner
et al., 1978; Hernandez et al., 1981). A two dimensional cross-section should
not be used in determination of the neck axis, which is a three dimensional
attribute. It is reported that the above method underestimated the anteversion
angle by about 10◦ when compared to their physical measurement method
(Billing, 1954). The author suggested an improvement of incorporating an
extra CT cross-section. The head centre was determined on one cross-section,
and the other endpoint was selected as the centroid of the femoral diaphysis
105
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Figure 6.8.: Centroid (O) point at the base of the femoral neck.
Reproduced from Murphy et al. (1987).
Kim and Kim (1997) documented a more well-defined and systematic approach
in extracting anthropometric data from CT data. The longitudinal axis was
defined as a 3-D least-square best-fit line on centroids computed from the
axial CT images over the entire shaft portion of the femur. The centre of the
neck was determined by selection of an arbitrary point N0 on the neck surface
and creation of a variable 3-D plane passing through N0 . Iterations were
performed to minimize the cross-sectional area of the 3-D plane under free
rotation under the constraint of passing through N0 . The femoral neck centre
was defined as the centroid point of the resulting 3-D plane and the the neck
axis was constructed as a vector passing though the head and neck centre
106
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
Figure 6.9.: Distal transverse axis definitions. Left: The tabletop method.
Right: The TEA.
Reproduced from Murphy et al. (1987).
Figure 6.10.: Distal transverse axis definitions. Left: Area centres of the
condyles defined visually. Right: Bisector of angle between the
anterior and posterior tangential lines.
Reproduced from Murphy et al. (1987).
107
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
coordinates. The posterior condyle axis was selected as the transverse axis.
An iterative procedure was designed to adjust the position of the medial and
lateral condylar contact points until a tangential line contacting the condyles
were achieved.
Similar studies to the above mentioned were performed (Kim et al., 2000a,b).
Extra comparisons were done between the proposed method and the 2-D CT
method used by previous studies (Hernandez et al., 1981; Murphy et al., 1987;
Weiner et al., 1978) in axes and anteversion angle determination. While the
simplified method based on some cross-sectional CT images was proven to
have acceptable accuracy, the proposed 3-D processing would give even closer
figures compared to the physical measurements.
Mahaisavariya et al. (2002) further enhanced the use of CT images and utilized
various reverse engineering software to reconstruct a point cloud model of
the femur for anthropometric analysis. Best-fit functions were applied in
determination of the femoral head centre, and the neck axis was defined
based on an iterative approach in minimizing cross-sectional area of the neck
isthmus. Various additional parameters were measured, including the femoral
head height, mid-shaft isthmus location. One significance of this study is the
measurement of the level of anterior bowing of the femoral shaft in terms
of a bow angle across the shaft isthmus. Various researches (Egol et al.,
2004; Harma et al., 2005) reported the mismatch between the anterior bow
curvature and that of the intramedullary nails, which could lead to iatrogenic
fractures (Gausepohl et al., 2002), or anterior distal femoral cortex penetration
(Ostrum and Levy, 2005).
108
6.3. Anteversion Angle and Reference Axes
Figure 6.11.: Determination of the trochlear line for rotational reference. Left:
The most anterior point of the lateral ridge was marked. Middle:
the most anterior point of the medial ridge was marked, and
the lateral point projected to the same slice. Right: the final
trochlear line (TL); surgical epicondylar axis (SEA); Whiteside’s
line (AP); posterior condylar axis (PCA).
Reproduced from Won et al. (2007).
Won et al. (2007) examined the possibility of utilizing the trochlear line as an
alternative reference axis for femoral rotation in total knee replacement (TKR).
While the use of the SEA in anthropometric studies was well-studied and
proved to be robust, the authors pointed out the need to establish other axes
because of the reported difficulty in precisely locating the sulcus of the medial
epicondylar during surgery (Griffin et al., 2000). The use of the trochlear line
(Figure 6.11) to reference the SEA was shown to have similar variability when
compared to that of the Whiteside’s line (Whiteside and Arima, 1995) or the
posterior condylar axis (Figure 6.11). It was suggested that the trochlear line
may be considered as an additional reference axis for evaluation of femoral
rotational alignment in TKR apart from the posterior condylar line.
109
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
While X-rays and CT images are still one of the most common imaging
techniques in 3-D anthropometric analysis, other imaging modalities such as
ultrasound were also being used. Moulton and Upadhyay (1982) reported the
use of ultrasound for anteversion determination and the authors concluded
that ultrasound was not able to deliver a very clear picture for accurate
anteversion computation. However, it was further suggested that the ionizing
radiation involved in CT scans may be too invasive for general anthropometric
analysis. Lausten et al. (1989) reported similar findings, further adding
that ultrasound did not correspond well with the physical measurements of
anteversion angle, but CT showed a good correlation with measurements on
cadavers.
This section aims to give a brief summary on the methodology and findings
of previous anthropometric studies. Note, however, that because of a wide
variation of the definitions of some anthropometric parameters, caution should
be taken in direct comparison on the measured results across different studies.
The femoral head is generally considered a sphere-like structure and its radius
is used comprehensively for parametrization. Its measurement method could
be categorized into two groups, physical measurements using calipers; and
digital measurement on X-rays or 3-D imaging modalities such as CT.
With the use of caliper, Dwight (1905) reported a mean head diameter of 43.84
mm female, 49.68 mm over 200 American Caucasian sample each, spotting
a gender difference of 5.84 mm. Parsons (1914) reported similar figures on
the English femurs, with a mean of 49 mm for male and 43.4 mm for female,
with the slightly lower values possibly due to absence of cartilage in the
measurements. The authors further reported the right side has an average
radius of 2 mm higher than that of the left in female. Noble et al. (1988)
reported an average head diameter of 46.1 mm on 200 American cadavers, in
which the figure agrees with the averages mentioned above.
110
6.4. Proximal Measurements
Noble et al. (1988) also reported an average femoral offset to the femoral axis
to be 43 mm ranging between 23.6 mm to 61.0 mm with a standard deviation
of 6.8 mm, indicating possibly a wide variation of proximal femoral geometry
even within the Caucasian population.
The femoral neck has always been a popular area of interest in anthropometric
studies, mainly associated with a large number of femoral neck fracture.
Boufous et al. (2004) reported a total of more than 5000 neck fracture incident
in New South Wales (Australia) in 2000, based on the Inpatient Statistics
Collection covering all inpatient separations from acute-care hospitals aged
50 and above. Comparison of the data with previous years further revealed
41.2% and 31.2% incident increase in male and female population (Figure 6.12
on the following page), though the age-adjusted data remained practically
unchanged.
The femoral neck shaft angle of a healthy individual has a range from around
100◦ to 150◦ . Noble et al. (1988) reported an average angle of 124.7◦ and most
other studies (Yoshioka et al., 1987; Rubin et al., 1992; Leung et al., 1996;
Mahaisavariya et al., 2002; Gnudi et al., 2002; Zebaze et al., 2005) have
reported a similar average ranged between 122◦ − 130◦ .
111
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Figure 6.12.: Number of hospital admission for hip fracture in New South
Wales, Australia, 1990–2000.
Reproduced from Boufous et al. (2004).
While DXA is still the gold-standard in evaluation of BMD, together with hip
strength analysis (HSA, Martin and Burr, 1984) procedures delivering addi-
tional geometric parameters, the evaluation of 3-D geometric measurements
from a 2-D DXA are prone to unavoidable rotational, magnification errors
Beck (2003); Gregory et al. (2004). BMD measurements are also reported
(Goh et al., 1995) to vary significantly in rotational misalignment.
112
6.4. Proximal Measurements
Similar analysis has also been studied using other imaging modalities. Manske
et al. (2006) evaluated the use of MRI in correlating cortical bone in the femoral
neck region with failure load on simulated sideways fall, reporting association
between failure load and cortical cross-sectional area as well as second area
moment of inertia.
QCT is also an emerging technology due to its ability to deliver true volumetric
BMD instead of areal BMD as in DXA. The correlation between DXA and QCT
has been found to be highly significant (Masala et al., 2003; Link et al., 2004).
Significant correlation has also been reported (Link et al., 2004) between QCT
and conventional spiral CT, allowing the possibility of BMD evaluation with
routine spiral CT with the application of a conversion factor. The additional
3-D information from QCT has also allowed finite element analysis to be
performed Faulkner et al. (1991a). However, it has to be noted that the
effective radiation dosage of a QCT examination is significant higher when
compared to that of DXA Faulkner et al. (1991b).
Cheng et al. (1997a) reported QCT and DXA had a similar ability to predict
femoral strength in vitro, though several small-scaled studies (Cheng et al.,
1997a; Bousson et al., 2006) showed that the combination of the QCT and
DXA model did not deliver significantly improved prediction accuracy towards
hip fracture risk and densitometric parameters remained the most significant
individual parameter. Large-scale comparison on the effectiveness of QCT in
fracture prediction is still to be examined.
113
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
Figure 6.13.: The Canal Flare Index is a geometric ratio to describe the shape
of the proximal femoral canal.
Reproduced from Noble et al. (1988).
et al., 1991; Faulkner et al., 1994; Nicholson et al., 1997) also suggested only
low to moderate correlation exists between ultrasound measurements and
BMD.
Various studies (Tian et al., 2003; Gregory et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005) have
attempted to automate part of the parameter extraction process. Tian et al.
(2003) developed an automated method in neck shaft angle computation from
planar X-rays images for osteoporotic fracture screening. The authors reported
a 94% accuracy of fracture classification based on the neck shaft angle among
their testing dataset. (Gregory et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005) also reported
success in automatic proximal femoral contour extraction based on active
shape contour (the snake algorithm, Kass et al., 1988), while limitations of
the algorithms on pathological and odd cases exist.
The Canal Flare Index (CFI), defined by Noble et al. (1988) as a single
geometric index in categorizing the proximal femoral canal shape. The CFI is
defined as the ratio of the intra-cortical width of the femur, at the section 20
mm proximal to the lesser trochanter and at the section of the canal isthmus
as shown in figure 6.13. Three categories were defined, with CFI less than
3.0 defined as stovepipe canals, CFI between 3.0 and 4.7 as normal canals,
114
6.4. Proximal Measurements
Figure 6.14.: Distribution of the Canal Flare Index over the 3 categories, CFI
< 3.0: Stovepipe; 3.0<CFI<4.7: Normal; CFI > 4.7: Champagne-
fluted.
Reproduced from Noble et al. (1988).
and CFI of 4.7 or above as champagne-fluted canals. Figure 6.14 shows the
CFI distribution reported by Noble et al. (1988).
Several derivatives of the CFI exist. Laine et al. (2000) suggested the meta-
physeal canal flare index, defined as the ratio between the medio-lateral
width of the femoral canal at the level 20 mm proximal and 20 mm distal
to the lesser trochanter. It was proposed that the metaphyseal CFI would
deliver a more specific description on the metaphyseal dimension, and thus
enable a closer fit to especially newer generations of cementless femoral stem
for better osseo-integration and stress transfer at the metaphyseal region.
Similar indices were proposed by Husmann et al. (1997) to measure the flare
at the metaphyseal region and a similar distribution was observed between
the two studies.
Another derivative of the CFI suggested by Laine et al. (2000) is the neck-
oriented CFI, which is defined as the ratio between the longest oblique dimen-
sion at the level 20 mm proximal to the lesser trochanter and the isthmus
width.
The cortical index was proposed by Dorr et al. (1990) based on the femoral
score in an osteoporosis study (Barnett and Nordin, 1960). It is defined as
the ratio between the sum of medial and lateral cortical thickness and the
femoral endosteal diameter, at 100 mm below the lesser trochanter. A high
115
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
cortical index implies thick cortices. Gruen (1997) measured the cortical index
on pre-operative radiographs of 110 THR patients and reported a moderate
correlation between the index and body mass index, age, weight, in which
significant higher indices were observed in the degenerative group than the
fracture group, leading to a conclusion that the cortical index provides an
indication of bone quality.
Fessy et al. (1997) reported the anatomical basis for the choice of femoral
implant in THR and reported both the CFI and cortical index serves an impor-
tant role in the determination if a custom implant is preferable (Figure 6.15).
The authors further pointed out the benefits of the utilizing ratio instead of
absolute measurements as a effective solution to the inherent deficiency of
undesirable magnification in radiographic films.
116
6.5. Femoral Shaft
Figure 6.16.: Datum points along the anterior and posterior wall of the
medullary canal for anterior bow curvature evaluation.
Reproduced from Harper and Carson (1987).
One of the most distinguish features on the femoral shaft is its anterior
bowing. With the use of intramedullary nails being the current gold standard
(Harper and Carson, 1987; Harma et al., 2005) in diaphyseal femoral fracture,
many studies have been surrounding the goodness of fit between nails design
and actual femoral shaft morphology.
Harper and Carson (1987) evaluated the anterior curvature of 14 adult cadaver
femora on lateral radiograph by fitting a curve to 20 datum points defined
along the anterior and posterior wall of the medullary canal. The authors
reported an average radius of curvature of 111.4 cm with a range from 68.9
cm to 188.5 cm. Comparison were made with 4 brands of intramedullary
rods and it was noted that the radius of curvature of 3 out of 4 rods (2 with
Kuntscher design and one with Grosse-Kempf design) fell above the observed
curvature in the femora. Similar findings were reported by other researchers
(Egol et al., 2004; Harma et al., 2005; Ostrum and Levy, 2005).
117
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
placement. Impingement of the nail into medial and anterior cortices has
also been reported in the Chinese population Leung et al. (1996).
It was also suggested that the most appropriate site for proximal access of
the intramedullary rod is the junction of the femoral neck and the greater
trochanter slightly anterior to or in the pyriformis recess, which is easily
identifiable clinically. This could prevent additional stress on superior femoral
neck. Similar entry point suggestion was also made by Gausepohl et al. (2002).
Numerous studies (Egol et al., 2004; Ostrum and Levy, 2005) confirmed the
curvature mismatch between medullary canal and current intramedullary
rods. Complications such as anterior distal femoral cortex penetration (Ostrum
and Levy, 2005) were also reported.
Mahaisavariya et al. (2002) quantified the bowing by fitting circle over the
femoral canal cross-sections, with the shaft isthmus defined as the section
with the smallest circle diameter. Two straight lines were fitted to the derived
circle centres proximal and distal to the shaft isthmus respectively and the
the acute angle between the two constructed lines was defined as the bow
angle. The average bow angle reported by the method over 108 Thai cadaveric
femora is 5.75◦ .
Egol et al. (2004) studied 892 femurs from two museums in New York and
118
6.6. Distal
Figure 6.18.: Instant centre of rotation of the knee on the sagittal plane.
Two points A 1 and B 1 are displaced to A 1 and B 1 respectively.
The intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the two lines
connecting A 1 A 1 and B 1 B 1 is defined as the centre of rotation.
Reproduced from Frankel et al. (1971).
Ohio (USA) by means of plain digital photography. Three lines were drawn,
with the first immediately below the lesser trochanter, the second immediately
above the flare of the of the distal condyles and the third one defined as the
mid-point between the former two (Figure 6.17 on the facing page). Circle
fitting was performed based on the 3 extracted coordinates to evaluate the
anterior curvature. An average radius of curvature of 120 cm was reported,
with a range from 56 cm to 326 cm. While no relationship between anterior
curvature and age was found, it was found that blacks had a larger radius
of curvature than whites, which confirms with other literature (Ballard and
Trudell, 1999). Contrary to Egol et al. findings, Harma et al. (2005) reported
high correlation (r = −0.234, p < 0.017) between age and anterior medullary
curvature in female Anatolia population only, which was not reported by other
similar studies.
6.6. Distal
The major structure of the distal femur is the medial and lateral condyles
that articulate with the tibia, and analysis of the distal femur is often linked
to kinematics study of the knee joint.
Traditional analysis of knee kinematics on the sagittal plane uses the method
of instantaneous centres of rotation (Frankel et al., 1971; Walker et al., 1972;
Blankevoort et al., 1990), in which the centres are reported to move within
the knee flexion cycle. This implies that there is no single axis of rotation of
119
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
the knee. However, the above model does not take into account any out of
plane motion during the knee flexion cycle and is reported to introduce error
in out of plane movements Panjabi et al. (1982).
More recent studies (Jonsson and Kärrholm, 1994; Sheehan, 2007) employed
the helical axis method, an extension to the instantaneous centre of rotation
to three dimensions. It was reported that the knee undergoes translations
during flexion cycle, and was concluded that the knee does not rotate about
any fixed axis. However, Elias et al. (1990) pointed out the fact that the
posterior aspect of the femoral condyles are circular in shape in the sagittal
view. It was also reported that from 10◦ to 150◦ knee flexion, the tibia rotates
around the circular posterior condyles with a radius of curvature of 21mm.
The centre line of rotation was observed to pass through the attachment
region of the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, suggesting the existence
of a fixed centre of rotation.
Hollister et al. (1993) further suggested the kinematics of the knee can be
modeled as rotations across two fixed axes, where the flexion-extension axis
passes through the medial and lateral collateral ligaments and superior to
the crossing points between the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments.
The longitudinal axis is roughly parallel to the long axis of the tibia. It was
concluded that motion due to each of the two axes contributes to varus-valgus,
internal and external rotation as neither they are mutually orthogonal, nor
they align to the coronal or sagittal plane.
120
6.6. Distal
Figure 6.20.: The knee joint centre (filled circle) defined by projecting the mid-
point (circle) of the transepicondylar axis (dots) to the optimal
flexion axis (A).
Reproduced from Hagemeister et al. (2005).
the optimal flexion axis of the knee. 15 cadaveric knees were studied in a
simulated load-bearing environment and the optimal flexion and longitudinal
rotational axes were identified successfully in all specimens. Additional
analysis revealed the optimal flexion axes of all specimens coincide with the
centre of best-fit circles (Figure 6.19 on the preceding page) of the posterior
condyles when viewed along the evaluated optimal flexion axis. The mean
distance on the medial and lateral side is 2.8 mm (±1.2 mm) and 3.1 mm
(±1.8 mm). It was also reported the location and orientation of the anatomical
transepicondylar axis closely matches the optimal flexion axis. In the medial
plane, the epicondylar point was in average 0.2 mm (std dev = 2.4 mm) and
0.14 mm (std dev = 2.7 mm) posterior and distal to the optimal flexion axis
respectively. The lateral epicondyle point to flexion axis is similar but slightly
more distal. An average of 2.9◦ of angular difference between the TEA and
the optimal flexion axis was observed.
Various definitions of the knee joint centre has also been proposed (Holden
and Stanhope, 1998; Hagemeister et al., 2005). The mid-point of the femoral
epicondyles were one of the simplest and common way of knee joint centre
definition (Li et al., 2004; Holmberg and Lanshammar, 2006; Stefanyshyn
et al., 2006).
Hagemeister et al. (2005) defined the knee joint centre based on the optimal
flexion axis method (Churchill et al., 1998). The mid point of the transepi-
121
6. Anthropometric Analysis of the Femur
condylar axis was evaluated and projected on the computed optimal flexion
axis as shown in figure 6.20 on the preceding page. The authors further
pointed out that the definition of the knee joint centre on the optimal flex-
ion axis is more repeatable when compared to taking the mid-point of the
transepicondylar axis.
The use of functional methods (Croce et al., 1999; Stagni et al., 2000; Besier
et al., 2003; Hagemeister et al., 2005) instead of pure anatomical landmarks
in determination of joint centres have been praised. Initially employed by
Cappozzo (1984) in the use of femoral head centre as a functional landmark,
various researchers (Croce et al., 1999; Besier et al., 2003) have suggested
the use of functional methods as an effective way to reduce variability and
dependency on the accurate location of anatomical landmarks. Croce et al.
(1999) further addressed the difficulties associated with accurate location
of anatomical landmarks with the fact most anatomical landmarks are not
discrete points but relatively large and curved areas and thus their determi-
nation by means of palpation or other means is more susceptible to intra and
inter-rater variability.
122
Methods
7
Contents
7.1. Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2. Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.3.1. Model Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.2. Trochanters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.3. Femoral Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.4. Distal Posterior Condyles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.5. Neck Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3.6. Anteversion Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3.7. Trochlear Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3.8. Bow Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3.9. Misc Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.10. Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.4. Verification & Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.1. Inter-rater Variation in Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.2. Intra-rater Variation in Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.3. Variation on CT Voxel Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.4. Reference Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.4.5. Effect on Posterior Condyles Range Variation . . . . . . 156
7.4.6. Variation on Anteversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.4.7. Verification using 3-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.5. Anthropometric Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.5.1. Human Femoral CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.5.2. Sheep Femoral CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
123
7. Methods
Figure 7.1.: Amira (Visage Imaging, Inc., Carlsbad, USA) is used for seg-
mentation of the CT stacks.
7.1. Acquisition
7.2. Segmentation
Amira (Visage Imaging, Inc., Carlsbad, USA, figure 7.1) was used as the
primary software for the image segmentation process. CT images in DICOM
format were imported into Amira. Two label fields were created for the
segmentation of all bone, and cancellous bone region respectively. Primary and
secondary thresholds were chosen depending on several criteria: histogram
analysis of several cross-sections around the lesser trochanter region and bone
type. Several samples of each bone type with similar scanning parameters
were imported to Mimics (Materialize, Inc., Leuven, Belgium, figure 7.2 on
the next page) and profile lines (Figure 7.3 on page 126) were drawn across the
cross-sectional slices around the lesser trochanter and femoral neck regions
for evaluation of a suitable base threshold that includes the cortical region but
not under-segmenting its neighborhood. The determined base thresholds were
124
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
used as a reference for the particular bone and scan type. Minor adjustments
to the base threshold values were applied to several samples due to a lower
average of HU values.
While the base threshold values usually suffice in segmenting a large portion
of the femur, the femoral head, neck and the regions distal to the epicondylar
axis are prone to over-segmentation due to the relatively lower HU values
compared to the rest of the femur. Extra region growing procedure was applied
locally in Amira to ensure the inclusion of the entire femur. The fovia capitis,
which is the attachment point of the ligament teres, is mostly cartilaginous
and thus has a relatively lower contrast with surrounding tissues under
CT. Thus, the fovia capitis was included as part of the bone region with as
estimated convex hull applied on the local region. Volume smoothing with
a 3 × 3 × 3 cubic window was applied to the label fields. The two segmented
label fields were then exported, resulting in two stacks of binary image mask
stored in DICOM format. Note that both the in-plane spatial resolution and
the slice thickness were preserved.
This section aims to provide the detailed procedure of the methodology of the
parameter extraction stage. One of the main design goals of the methodology
is to eliminate as much subjective user interactions as possible, delivering
consistent and accurate anthropometric parameters. For verification, testing
125
7. Methods
Figure 7.3.: Profile lines across the lesser trochanter region for base threshold
value evaluation. In cases where an optimal threshold cannot be
chosen, the reference is chosen to avoid over-segmentation when
possible.
The two exported DICOM binary image stacks from the preceding step were
loaded into the program. Bone orientation was detected and confirmed by
users and the image stacks were cropped to the minimum bounding box
containing the entire femur, and were flipped to a proximal starting position
along the z-axis and anterior-posterior along the y-axis.
126
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
The distal posterior condylar axis was first estimated to provide a rough
rotational reference of the femur with the method as described in figure 7.16
on page 140. The angular orientation of the posterio-medial direction was
defined based on the estimated condylar axis by externally rotating the axis
by 45◦ . A mask M having a gradient towards the posterio-medial direction
was generated (Figure 7.5a on the following page) and applied to each cross-
section. The posterioral-medial coordinates (PMC ) of each cross-section BW
were extracted starting from the mid-shaft slice transversing proximally. The
red cross on figure 7.5b on the next page shows the the position of PMC on a
single cross-section. The procedure on a single slice could be denoted by
127
7. Methods
PMC
Figure 7.5.: Extraction of PMC for initial lesser trochanter LT1 estimation.
Note from figure 7.6 on the facing page that the initial estimation LT1 may
not be sufficiently accurate due to the position variations during the image
acquisition stage. With variations in patient positioning and anthropometric
variations, the true lesser trochanter position is likely to be deviated from the
local maximum of the posterioral-medial coordinates. Refinement of LT1 was
achieved by calculating the distance from the femoral axis to the perimeter of
the slices. A temporary femoral axis (F A LT ) was constructed by computing a
least-square best fit line to the centroids extracted from 10mm distal of LT1 to
30mm distal of LT1 . Slice range ±5mm of the LT1 was selected and perimeter
points ({PMC2}) furthest away from the F A LT for each slice was computed as
shown in figure 7.7 on the next page. An extra criterion is set up such that
PMC 2 is limited to the posterioral-medial quadrant of each slice to further
128
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
Figure 7.6.: The initial estimation of the lesser trochanter LT1 (blue) from the
candidate list {PMC } (red).
FALT
PMC2
Figure 7.7.: Second estimation of the lesser trochanter based on LT1 . The
furthest coordinates of the image perimeter from the femoral axis
(F A LT ) of each cross-section was taken as the PMC2 in the second
estimation of the lesser trochanter position.
129
7. Methods
where perim(M ) is the perimeter of the image. The datum point with the
maximum distance; LT0 = max({PMC2}) to the femoral axis was picked as the
final lesser trochanter point.
A = U SV T (7.4)
130
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
{Lτ =3(BWEA )}
{LN =6(BWEA)}
EL
Figure 7.8.: Shape outlines on the flattened image. Two sets of line segments
were constructed to estimate the shape outline. {L τ=3 (BWper i m )}
(red), {L N =6 (BWper i m )} (blue), and the final epicondylar point
(green).
the facing page. Coordinates of the image perimeter BWper i m were extracted,
connected straight line segments were fitted to provide an estimation of the
shape outline with the procedure as follows:
• A new line segment is created from the endpoint of the preceding line
segment and the process repeats until the entire list of perimeter coordi-
nates are transversed.
Two sets of line segments were created (Figure 7.8 on page 131), {L τ=3 (BWper i m )}
with tolerance of 3 pixels, and {L N =6 (BWper i m )} with number of line segments
equal to 6. L N =6 (BWper i m ) was generated with tolerance parameter τ increased
until the shape could be estimated by 6 segments.
131
7. Methods
{LT }
foreground object in BWE A . The Hungarian method (Section 4.6.1 on page 77)
was then applied to map coordinates points between {L T } and {L N =6 (BWper i m )}
(blue line segments in figure 7.8 on the preceding page) minimizing the
allocation resources, defined as the Euclidean distance between the allocation
pairs. The template prevents mis-identification of the epicondylar points in
cases of severe rotation of the femur during image acquisition.
1. A binary edge map is obtained using the Canny edge detector and the
edge contours are extracted with gaps filled. In our case where the
binary image BWE A comprises of a single region with no holes (Euler
number equals to one) is used, this is equivalent to taking the perimeter
of the image.
2. The curvature of the contour is computed at a low scale such that all
true corners are retained.
132
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
Figure 7.10.: Fallback TEA evaluation routine by corner (blue) detection. The
figure shows the result of the corner detection with high sensitiv-
ity. The sensitivity of the corner sub-routine could be lowered to
eliminate false corners and to reduce the number of candidates.
3. All local maxima of the curvature are taken as initial corner candidates,
and rounded corners and false corners resulting from boundary noise
are excluded from the candidate list.
• The proximal femoral axis FA 0 defined in section 7.3.1.2 on page 130 is
aligned such that it is parallel to the new z-axis, which is the long axis
of the new model
0 defined
• The model is rotated axially such that the epicondylar axis TEA
in section 7.3.1.3 on page 130 is parallel to the x-axis
Figure 7.11 on the next page shows an illustration of the 3 reference axes in
the standardized coordinates system. The direction of the 3 reference axes
Vx , Vy , Vz of the coordinates system could be denoted by
133
7. Methods
Figure 7.11.: The reference coordinate system. The proximal femoral axis (FA )
is taken as the longitudinal reference axis and the epicondylar
) is taken as the transverse axis for rotational reference.
axis (TEA
⎧
⎪
⎪Vx : 0 − n ∗ FA 0
⎪
⎪ TEA
⎨
Vy : −(Vx × Vz ) (7.5)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩Vz : FA 0
where n is the scaling factor such that Vx is orthogonal to FA 0 and passes
0 , denoted by
through TEA
0 FA 0
TEA
n= (7.6)
|FA 0 |2
Vy is defined as the vector cross product of Vx and Vz and negatively signed to
conform to the right-handed Cartesian coordinates system, as illustrated in
figure 7.12 on the facing page.
⎡ ⎤
pixel width 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ pixel height 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
Ts = ⎢ ⎥ (7.7)
⎢ 0 0 slice thickness 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
0 0 0 1
134
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
⎡ ⎤
[ Vx ] 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ V 0 ⎥
⎢ y ]⎥
T = inv(T s ) ∗ ⎢ ⎥ ∗ Ts (7.8)
⎢ [ Vz ] 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
0 0 0 1
Upon aligning the model to the standardized coordinates system, the same
transformation was applied to the lesser trochanter, proximal femoral axis,
and the epicondylar axis.
LT = T ∗ LT0 (7.9)
= T ∗ TEA
TEA 0 (7.11)
135
7. Methods
Figure 7.13.: The trochanters (LT and GT ) re-evaluated after model alignment.
7.3.2. Trochanters
Coordinates of the most proximal point of the greater trochanter region were
automatically extracted by analyzing the proximal regions of the femur. The
greater trochanter region was identified by region growing techniques from
BW (0) to BW (k) where k is chosen as the most distal slice in BW just before
the greater trochanter and the head region merge. The head region was
identified as the medial region and the proximal tip of the greater trochanter
region was extracted and denoted by GT as shown in figure 7.13.
To automate the process, the femoral head centre (HC ) was evaluated in two
stages. The first stage involves a coarse estimation of the head centre based
136
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
(a) Datum points used for initial estimation (b) Initial estimation of the fitted sphere.
(blue).
Figure 7.14.: Initial estimation of the femoral head centre. First best-fit sphere
(right) estimation of the femoral head based on the proximal
head region (blue).
on the partial contours of the proximal femoral head region. With the greater
trochanter region eliminated based on 3-D region growing from the datum
point GT , edge points of the proximal head region were extracted as shown
in figure 7.14 where h is the height of the head measured from the trough
point between the head and greater trochanter region. The base level of the
trough point was measured by searching for the first slice where the greater
trochanter and the head region merged. A sphere was fitted to the partial
contours in a least-square sense resulting in the first estimation of the femoral
head centre HC 0 and head radius HR 0 .
137
7. Methods
(a) Inclusion of additional datum points for(b) The second estimation of the fitted sphere.
the second estimation of the femoral head
centre.
Figure 7.15.: Final estimation of the best-fit sphere based on additional datum
points.
138
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
Manual selections were made by the user specifying the starting and ending
slices. The slice range was selected such that the femoral condyles below or
posterior to the intercondylar fossa were included.
For each slice k , the posterior tangential line touching the medial and lateral
condyles were computed and the two touching coordinates were extracted
as the datum points which represents the most prominent points of the two
condyles.
To extract the two datum points (CO med (k) & CO l at (k)) for slice k , a convex hull
C onvex(BW (k)) and the difference BW (k) − C onvex(BW (k)) was computed as
shown in figure 7.16 on the next page. Centroid of the posterior notch region
C not ch (k) (Figure 7.16b on the following page) around the intercondylar fossa
was calculated and used as a reference datum point. CO med (k) and CO l at (k)
were defined as the closest convex hull polygon coordinates to C not ch (k) medially
and laterally respectively (Figure 7.16c on the next page).
1
1 2Γ
L(x) = (7.12)
π (x − x 0 )2 + ( 12 Γ)2
where x 0 is the centre and Γ specifies the width at its half maximum. The
Lorentzian minimization function can be simplified as:
139
7. Methods
Cnotch(k)
(a) Convex hull C onvex(BW (k)) of BW (k). (b) BW (k) − C onvex(BW (k)). C not ch (k) is
taken as the centroid point of the pos-
terior notch region.
C Olat(k)
C Omed(k)
1
1
1
0.8 y= Γ
π (x−x0 )2 +( Γ 2
2)
0.6
y
0.4
Γ=2,x0=0
0.2
0
−5 0 5
x
140
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
y=log(1+x2)
4
y
1
0
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
x
The method employed is similar to that shown in figure 7.16 on the preceding
page. Slices in the distal femur region were flattened producing an inferior
view and a convex hull was fitted. The posterior condylar axis is the closest
posterior medial and lateral convex hull coordinates to the inter-condylar notch
(Figure 7.16 on the facing page). This is equivalent to the anatomical posterior
condylar axis. Note that the term posterior is not necessarily equivalent to the
most posterior coordinates of the two condyles under the current coordinates
system where TEA is taken as the transverse axis. The TEA is usually not
and thus the most posterior points of the medial and lateral
parallel to the CA
condyles may not necessarily coincide with the condylar axis. Instead, the
posterior condylar axis should more clearly be expressed as the tangential
line touching the two condyles posteriorly in an inferior view of the femur.
141
7. Methods
Figure 7.19.: Cylinder (PCCYL ) fitted to the posterior condyles using the
Lorentzian minimization function.
A plane orthogonal to PCCYL vec was created with equal mean distance to the
lateral (CO l at ) and medial (CO med ) datum points on the condyles. The knee
centre KC is defined as the point of the distal intersection between the plane
and the distal articular surface as shown in figure 7.20 on the next page.
Analysis in the neck region was done in two stages, reslice of the image stack
and extraction of parameters.
7.3.5.1. Reslice
The neck region was resliced such that the cross-sections intersect the long
axis of the neck orthogonally, or equivalently aligning the true neck axis with
the z-axis. Neck axis evaluation can be divided into two steps, an initial
estimation of the neck axis based on existing landmarks, and optimization of
the first estimation based on the neck surface point cloud extracted from the
first step.
142
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
Figure 7.20.: The knee centre (KC ) is defined as the intersection between the
cylinder PCCYL and the distal femoral articular surface
Figure 7.21.: Initial estimation of the neck axis based on femoral head centre
HC and NB .
143
7. Methods
NBS K
Two coordinates were chosen as the initial neck axis vector (Figure 7.21 on
the preceding page), the femoral head centre ( HC ) and virtual datum point
NB (NB x , N B y , N B z ) at the base of the femoral neck, as defined below.
144
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
(NBx , NBy )
skeletal path proximally from the mid-shaft section, or equivalently the first
intersection tracing the skeletal path proximally after the lesser trochanter
region. The extracted point NB SK is shown in red in figure 7.22 on the
preceding page and (N B x , N B z ) was taken as the x-y coordinates of NB SK .
The vector N B − HC was selected as the initial estimation of the neck axis
0 ). NECK 0 (Figure 7.24 on the following page) was resliced and cropped
(NA
from BW as follows:
NECK 0 = T N 1 ∗ BW (7.14)
where T N 1 is the affine transformation matrix based on the initial neck axis
145
7. Methods
(a) The neck region NECK 0 after first esti- (b) The final neck axis NA is defined as the
mation. Evaluation of the final neck long axis of the fitted cylinder.
) with cylindrical fitting. NA
axis (NA 0
is the initial neck axis estimation.
Figure 7.24.: First and final neck axis estimation with cylinder fit.
0.
estimation NA
Two methods were designed in the second estimation of the neck axis. The
first method involved a cylinder fitting routine to represent the resliced neck
region with a cylinder under optimal orientation and dimensions. Figure 7.24
shows the rotated and cropped neck region with a cylinder fitted to the neck
region in a least-square sense, and the axis of the fitted cylinder is shown in
blue. An alternative second method involved computing the geometric centre
points (centroid) of all cross-sections in NECK 0 and fitting a 3-D line to all the
centroids in a least square sense by the use of singular value decomposition
as described in section 7.3.1.2 on page 130. The axis evaluated was defined as
the final neck axis (NA ). An affine transformation matrix T N 2 was constructed
for the conversion from NA 0 to NA
.
Upon defining the final neck axis, BW was rotated and cropped by applying
the transformation matrix T N 2 ∗ T N 1 ,
NECK = T N 2 ∗ T N 1 ∗ BW (7.15)
resulting in the final resliced neck region as shown in figure 7.25. With the
146
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
40
30
20
10
0 140
100 120
80
60 100
fact that the final neck axis may not necessary coincide with the head centre
( HC ), an extra datum point NA st ar t was constructed as the point on the NA
which is closest to HC .
,
Measurements in the neck region were based on the defined neck axis NA
and are summarized as follows (Figure 7.26 on the following page):
to HC (NAHC )
• Distance from NA
The resliced stack (NECK ) now provides a true cross-sectional geometry of the
neck region. A list of parameters were extracted for each of the cross-sectional
slice, namely
• Cross-sectional Area
• Eccentricity ε = ac
147
7. Methods
Figure 7.27.: Elevation of the neck axis (NAF A ) is defined as the anterior
displacement of the femoral neck axis with reference to the
femoral axis.
148
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
• Area moment of inertia I x y = x yd A
• Polar moment of inertia J x = r 2 d A
Details of the definition and representation of the above properties are dis-
cussed in section 5.2 on page 79.
With the model already aligned with the epicondylar axis and the proximal
femoral axis, the anteversion angle, defined as the internal axial rotation
of the femoral neck relative to distal transverse axis was computed. Under
various definitions of anteversion across different axes combinations, the
angles measured could be summarized as follows:
149
7. Methods
TEA)
• ∠(NA,
CA)
• ∠(NA,
A, TEA)
• ∠(HCF
A, CA)
• ∠(HCF
CA)
2 extra angles between the distal transverse axes (∠(TEA, ) and proximal
A, NA)
axes (∠(HCF ) were also measured for later comparison.
Manual selections were made by the user on the slice range in which the
trochlear groove region located.
Each image within the selected region was analyzed and the groove and ridges
coordinates extracted. A convex hull C (BW ) was fitted and the coordinates
of the convex hull were identified as shown in figure 7.29a on the next page
in blue. The original image was then subtracted from the convex image,
denoted by BW − C (BW ), as shown in figure . Upon removal of small islands,
the centroid coordinates C not ch (k) of the top-most region were identified. A
vertical offset was added to shift C not ch (k) to C not ch (k) for more reliable ridge
points evaluation. The two coordinates of the ridges (RI med & RI l at ) were
defined as the closest convex hull points on the medial and lateral side of
C not ch (k) (Figure 7.29a on the facing page). This is equivalent to the contact
points of the tangential line over the trochlear groove.
150
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
Cnotch(k)
RIlat(k) RIlat(k)
RImed(k) RImed(k)
Cnotch(k)
TR(k)
C onvex(BW (k))
(a) Extraction of the tangential line touch-(b) Groove point on the cross-section
ing the medial (RI l at (k)) and lateral BW (k).
(RI med (k)) trochlear ridges from the
convex hull (C onvex(BW (k))).
point TR(k) was defined as the coordinates on the trough perimeter furthest
from the tangential line (Figure 7.29b).
Three datum points were extracted from each image within the user-selected
range, resulting in three sets of datum points, {RI med }, {RI l at }, {TR}.
A plane P TR was then constructed fitting on the set {TR} as shown in figure 7.30
on the following page. The angle between the plane and the femoral axis (FA )
on the coronal plane was measured as the trochlear groove angle (∠TR ).
The anterior bow is defined as the anterior curvature of the medullary canal
along the femoral shaft (Section 6.5 on page 117). Centroid coordinates of the
each femoral canal cross-sections were computed from the lesser trochanter
to 100mm proximal to the distal femur. The centroid points could roughly be
estimated as an arc in the sagittal view. A circle was fitted to the centroid
coordinates (Figure 7.31 on the following page) in a least-square manner and
the centre coordinates and the radius of curvature were used as an estimation
on the anterior bow curvature in later analysis.
151
7. Methods
152
7.3. Anthropometric Parameter Extraction
The greater trochanter height (GTH ) is defined as the vertical distance between
the most proximal point (GT ) of the greater trochanter and the trough between
the greater trochanter and the neck base region as shown in figure 7.14a on
page 137 denoted by the label h .
The femoral head offset is defined as the antero-medial shift of the femoral
head centre (HC ) from the proximal femoral axis on the transverse plane.
7.3.9.3. Length
A number of length measurements were recorded. The FLGT −KC is the distance
in millimeter between the proximal tip of the greater trochanter (GT ) to the
knee centre (KC ). FL HC −KC is the distance in millimeter between the femoral
head centre ( HC ) to the knee centre (KC ).
The classic canal flare index (CFI ml ) is defined as the ratio between the medio-
lateral width of the femoral canal at the level 20mm proximal to the lesser
trochanter to that of the femoral isthmus. Likewise, the anterio-posterior
canal flare index (CFI ap ) is defined as the anterio-posterior width of the femoral
canal at the above femoral sites.
153
7. Methods
Figure 7.32.: The use of nearest site Voronoi diagram in the computation of
the greatest inscribed circle.
Two derivatives of the original canal flare index were computed (Laine et al.,
2000). The metaphyseal canal flare index (CFI met aph y seal ) which is defined as
the ratio between the medio-lateral width of the femoral canal at the level 20
mm proximal and 20 mm distal to the lesser trochanter. The neck-oriented
canal flare index (CFI obl i que ) is defined as the ratio between the longest oblique
dimension at the level 20 mm proximal to the lesser trochanter and the width
at the isthmus level.
A list of properties was extracted for each cross-section for both the entire
bone section and the cancellous bone region. A more detailed description of
individual parameters are stated in section 5.2 on page 79.
• Area.
• Radius of the greatest inscribed circle in the cancellous bone region only
with the use of Voronoi diagram.
154
7.4. Verification & Testing
155
7. Methods
Accuracy of FA evaluation (Figure 7.3.1.2 on page 130) depends upon the
detection accuracy of the lesser trochanter datum point (LT ). 5 stacks of
human femoral CT were selected randomly and comparison was done on the
effects on FA resulting from shifting the automatically detected LT datum
point by ±3mm along the z-axis.
While one of the main targets of the design is to automate the anthropometric
parameter extraction stage, manual user interaction was still required to
select the starting and ending slice of the posterior condyles. Comparison
on the extracted parameters (PCCYL vec , PCCYL r , KC ) were done on 5 human
femur CT stacks to study the consistency of the method and the variations
due to user subjectivity.
156
7.4. Verification & Testing
represents the largest range in which the user could select according to the
protocol. The slice range was processed and the extracted parameters were
taken as the reference values.
Slice range of [r e f st ar t +3, r e f end −3] was taken as the normal range of subjective
error due to intra-rater variation and analysis was applied and compared
with the reference values.
Dunlap et al. (1953) pointed out ignoring the anterior bowing effect would
lead to an under-estimation of the anteversion by as much as 12◦ due to the
extra flexion of the hip joint, while most other previous studies (Ryder and
Crane, 1953; Kim and Kim, 1997) take the approach of utilizing the entire
femoral shaft when defining the femoral long axis. Our proposed methodology
by default utilizes the proximal femoral shaft for evaluation of the FA , and
allows user to alter the slice range if desired.
157
7. Methods
3-D models were generated and a list of parameters were measured as shown
in table 7.1. Note that majority of the anthropometric parameters involve
the use of virtual axes and datum points defined throughout the proposed
procedure and thus direct verification by means of 3-D model generated
from the same stack of segmented CT would only be able to give a minor
subset of the entire parameter set with unavoidable subjective estimation.
The procedure aims to provide an external assurance independent on the
automated subroutines, to ensure the implemented procedure coincide with
the proposed methodology.
The proposed methodology was concurrently being applied and refined during
its development stage in several studies. While the studies are still ongoing
at the time of this writing, its inclusion mainly aims at demonstrating the
158
7.5. Anthropometric Studies
(a) Femoral head radius (HR ) was evaluated by(b) An estimation of the parameter NLGT , the
taking the average of four diameter measure- femoral neck length defined from the head
ments to minimize the effect of centre to the lateral aspect of the trochanter
along the direction of the neck axis. The
actual measurement shown in orange is
NLGT + HR .
Figure 7.33.: Verification of the head neck region on 3-D models created with
Mimics .
159
7. Methods
CT data was collected and processed from an ongoing study with the Fukuoka
University Hospital (Japan) aiming to study the anthropometric properties of
patients with hip joint osteoarthritis (OA) that require total hip arthroplasty.
Two categories of data were being acquired, CT data from healthy Japanese
patients, and patients with OA. The CT acquired from OA patients are pre-
operative CT for surgical planning purpose; while the CT dataset of healthy
Japanese patient was acquired from the hospital radiology database. All
scans were done with 1mm spatial resolution and slice thickness and stored
in DICOM format.
160
7.5. Anthropometric Studies
The sheep femur has, in general, a similar structure when compared to that
of human and the proposed methodology could be applied directly to sheep
femoral CT data without any need of modification, further allowing a more
direct comparison between the morphology of human and sheep femur.
20 sets of sheep femoral CT data were collected at the time of this writing
and processed with the proposed methodology aiming to construct a database
of sheep femoral anthropometric data. The data aims to provide valuable and
precise anthropometric information for prosthesis design and testing done on
sheep, which is a commonly used animal model.
161
7. Methods
162
Results
8
Contents
8.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.2. Consistency Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2.1. Intra-rater Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2.2. Inter-rater Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.3. Repeated Scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.3. Parameter Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.1. Proximal Femoral Axis Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.2. Variation with Full Femoral Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.3.3. Posterior Condyles Slice Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.4. Verification with 3-D Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.5. Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.1. Condyles Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.2. Optimal Flexion Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5.3. Australian & Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.6. Sheep Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.1. Overview
163
8. Results
Figure 8.1.: The Matlab routine showing the process of sectional properties
computation.
with 2000 lines of code incorporated from external sources as listed in the
appendix A, table A.2 on page 235. A brief summary of the dependencies
of the core functions is listed in figure 8.2 on page 166. A more detailed
descriptions of individual sub-routines are listed in appendix A on page 225.
164
8.1. Overview
165
8. Results
find_lesser_tro_epicondylar_dist
find_greater_trochanter_height
bone_orientation_detection
find_head_epicondylar_dist
trochlear_groove_analysis
find_shaft_section_props
find_greater_trochanter
find_post_condylar_axis
find_anteversion_angle
find_canal_flare_index
find_lesser_trochanter
find_skel_intersection
est_lesser_trochanter
find_condylar_cyl_fit
find_epicondylar_axis
fix_bone_orientation
find_section_props
find_anterior_bow
find_femoral_axis
find_femur_length
femur_anthro_gui
align_model_axis
find_head_centre
find_head_offset
recrop_bone_mask
find_neck_props
crop_bone_mask
export_to_file
load_bone_mask
sim_xray_dexa
reslice_neck
uigetfiles
get_files
gui_disp
lineseg
waitbar
femur_anthro_gui + 0
align_model_axis + 1
E: calls f/eval..]
bone_orientation_detection + 1
corner > 1
crop_bone_mask + 1
cvoronoi E > 1
cylinder_fit > 1
deleteoutliers > 1
drawedgelist > 1
est_lesser_trochanter + 1
euclidean_distance > 1
export_to_file + 1
export_to_mat E > 1
export_workspace E > 1
extrema > 2
find_anterior_bow + 1
find_anteversion_angle + 1
find_best_fit_circle > 2
find_best_fit_plane > 1
61 module(s)
find_greater_trochanter + 1
find_greater_trochanter_height + 2
find_head_centre + 1
find_head_epicondylar_dist + 1
find_head_offset + 1
find_lesser_tro_epicondylar_dist + 1
find_lesser_trochanter + 1
find_neck_props + 1
find_post_condylar_axis + 1
find_section_props + 1
find_shaft_section_props + 1
find_skel_intersection + 1
findn > 1
fix_bone_orientation + 2
gen_circle > 1
get_files + 1
gui_disp E + 27
gui_msg > 2
hungarian > 1
import_workspace E > 1
lineseg + 1
load_bone_mask + 1
maxlinedev > 1
1
[+: a caller
recrop_bone_mask +
reslice_neck + 1
sim_xray_dexa + 1
sortclasses > 1
split > 1
tomm > 16
topixel > 11
trochlear_groove_analysis E + 1
uiGetFiles > 0
uigetfiles + 0
waitbar + 9
write > 1
333 2 1 5 2 5 1 2 8 6 4 1 3 3 5 1 1 1 2 4 3 5 3 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 7 1 3 0 1
36 caller(s)
[+: link ο: recursive ♦: caller=module]
166
8.2. Consistency Test
With one of the main goals of this study is to present a consistent and reliable
methodology as a platform for future larger-scaled anthropometric studies, it
is necessary to ensure the proposed techniques do not suffer from unacceptable
variations under normal usage.
σ2B
ICC = (8.1)
σ2B + σW
2
N N c̄
α= (8.2)
N − 1 v̄ + (N − 1) c̄
where N is the total number of items, c̄ is the mean of all inter-item covariance,
and v̄ is the average variance.
With a range from negative infinity to 1, Cronbach’s α increase when the av-
erage inter-item correlation increases. A general rule of thumb of a minimum
alpha of 0.7 is required to reach good consistency.
All ICC and Cronbach’s α test in this section was undertaken using SPSS
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) version 15.
The aim for the intra-rater consistency test is to evaluate the effect of variations
in repeated segmentation by the same user towards the anthropometric
167
8. Results
168
8.2. Consistency Test
Two consistency tests were conducted, namely the ICC and the Cronbach’s α.
ICC was evaluated using the ICC(2,1) model, a two-way random effects model
of single measure with a 95% confidence interval (C.I.). The Cronbach’s α
was computed in additional to the ICC. While each of the listed parameters
below were tested as independent variables, it was grouped and presented in
6 tables for clarity purpose.
With the femoral head radius evaluated based on a two staged sphere-fit
estimation and the proximal femoral axis being a function axis not depending
solely on an individual anatomical landmark, the effect of variations in seg-
mentation was found to be minimal having an excellent ICC and Cronbach’s
α (Table 8.2).
Parameters in the neck region (Table 8.3) showed a varying ICC. ICC of
169
8. Results
the neck shaft angle, while still satisfactory, is relatively lower. This could
possibly be attributed to the low inter-subject variance within our sample set,
in which the errors were magnified. A low ICC on the distance between neck
axis to head centre was under expectation due to the low average magnitude
(~ 1 mm), which is around the sensitivity limit of the scan resolution.
Similarly, the angle between the transepicondylar axis and the posterior
condyles axis (Table 8.4) has an expected lower ICC and confidence interval
due to the sensitivity limit being reached. Quantization error in CT and
very minor segmentation variations would induce a significant within-subject
variance, leading to a lower correlation value.
170
8.2. Consistency Test
171
8. Results
The inter-rater ICC values and Cronbach’s α has a very similar range when
compared to the intra-rater consistency with the inter-rater consistency
marginally lower in some cases. This could possibly be a result from a
greater variation in user subjectivity in the segmentation stage.
A one-way random effect model of the ICC was employed in this case because
172
8.2. Consistency Test
173
8. Results
of the fact that the 5 pairs of CT were acquired from different scanners.
The proximal femoral axis was used as the reference longitudinal axis through-
out the study. While the axis was defined in a functional manner which
minimized the direct reliance on a precise location of a single anatomical
landmark, the slice range employed in the evaluation of the femoral axis is
174
8.3. Parameter Variation
175
8. Results
176
8.3. Parameter Variation
Our use of only the proximal femoral axis as the longitudinal axis is relatively
prone to this error when comparing to most other similar studies that adopted
the full femoral shaft axis. A simple test was performed to compare the
angular variations of the proximal femoral axis by a shifting of the lesser
trochanter position superoinferiorly by ±3 mm. 5 subjects were chosen at
random and the reference proximal femoral axis (FA ) was computed based
on the default automatic procedures. The position of the lesser trochanter
was then shifted superoinferiorly by ±3 mm and the proximal femoral axis
re-calculated (FA ). Table 8.20 on the following page shows the angular
difference between the reference proximal femoral axis and that with altered
lesser trochanter positions. A mean difference of 0.60◦ was observed which is
negligible.
To study the effect of using the proximal femoral shaft as longitudinal axis to
the anteversion angles, 10 (5 healthy Australian and 5 healthy Japanese) CT
datasets were randomly selected and processed using the proximal femoral
axis and full femoral shaft axis as the longitudinal. It was noted that there is
a very significant difference in all anteversion angles, and neck axis elevation
relative to the longitudinal femoral axis.
As shown in figure 8.3 on page 179, a huge reduction of the anteversion angles
is shown when the full femoral shaft is used as the reference longitudinal axis.
Note that the large standard deviation as presented in the error bars are the
result of the population variance, not the variance of the difference. To further
illustrate the huge changes in anteversion angles, a box-and-whisker plot
was constructed as shown in figure 8.4 on page 180. The red line indicates
the median difference, blue box denotes the interquartile range. The range
bounded by black is the upper and lower whisker, which is equal to the range
in this case, because no outlier was present.
The anterior elevation of the neck axis relative to the longitudinal femoral axis
has shown a significant change of 11 mm with the switch of the longitudinal
177
8. Results
ID FA [
xy
z] Lesser FA [
xy
z] Angular
trochanter difference
z-shift (mm) (degree)
[-0.052 -0.194
10R [-0.042 -0.201 +3 0.980] 0.67
0.979]
[-0.033 -0.207
−3 0.978] 0.63
[0.089 -0.177
29L [0.083 -0.178 +3 0.980] 0.33
0.980]
[0.079 -0.179
−3 0.981] 0.26
[-0.063 -0.176
71L [-0.079 -0.180 +3 0.982] 0.90
0.981]
[-0.085 -0.181
−3 0.980] 0.40
[0.008 -0.156
67L [-0.009 -0.167 +3 0.988] 1.17
0.986]
[0.000 -0.162
−3 0.987] 0.58
[-0.059 -0.153
03R [-0.051 -0.158 +3 0.987] 0.53
0.986]
[-0.043 -0.162
−3 0.986] 0.50
Mean 0.60
Table 8.20.: Variations of the proximal femoral axis due to inconsistent lesser
trochanter evaluation. A mean difference of 0.6◦ was observed
which is negligible.
178
8.3. Parameter Variation
! $
! "# ! "# !
$
Figure 8.3.: Difference in anteversion angle with proximal and full femoral
shaft as the reference longitudinal axis. The error bars indicate
one standard deviation. This shows a substantial difference in the
measurements under the use of different reference longitudinal
axes.
reference axis as shown in figure 8.5 on the next page. The canal flare index
based on the longest oblique dimension, C F I obl i que , has shown to have a larger
variation between the two reference longitudinal axis while the other 3 CFI
are very consistent. Other parameters involving measurements with respect
to the femoral reference axis have shown to be highly consistent between the
two settings (Appendix E.1 on page 265).
The reference slice range was defined as the maximum possible slice range.
The proximal limit is chosen with which the condyles start visible to the
image cross-section and the distal limit is chosen in which the condyles are
no longer inter-connected via the anterior aspect of the femur.
179
8. Results
30
Difference (degree)
25
20
15
10
(HCFA,
(HCFA,
TEA) (NA,
CA) TEA)
CA)
(NA,
Figure 8.4.: Box-plot showing difference in anteversion with the proximal and
full femoral shaft as the longitudinal reference axis. Upper and
lower whisker (black), median (red) and the quartiles (blue) are
shown.
Figure 8.5.: Neck axis elevation (NAF A ) relative to the femoral axis with
proximal and full femoral shaft as the reference longitudinal axis.
The error bars represent one standard deviation.
180
8.4. Verification with 3-D Model
Figure 8.6.: Canal flare indices with proximal femoral shaft and full femoral
shaft as reference longitudinal axis. Only the oblique index shows
a significant difference under the change of reference longitudinal
axis.
of additional erroneous range with more extreme limits were tested and is
included in appendix E.2 on page 265 for reference.
Verification was done in Mimics on 5 sets of CT. 3-D model was created and
measurements were made on the surface mesh. The aim of the test is to
provide an assurance on the measurements using our proposed methodology
with the application of a more direct method using a third party tool. All
measurements on the 3-D surface meshes were done manually and visually.
Figure 8.7 on the next page shows the mean difference of the 5 parameters
measured with reference to the parameters measured using our proposed
methodology. The mean difference was small, while a larger deviation on the
percentage difference on femoral neck length, femoral head radius and the
neck shaft angle was observed.
181
8. Results
Table 8.21.: Typical maximum error of the posterior condyles radius due to
variation in slice range selection by user.
(a) Mean difference. (b) Percentage difference.
Figure 8.7.: Difference between direct measurements on the created 3-D model
and that using the proposed methodology. The error bars repre-
sent one standard deviation of the measurements. Neck length is
the length from the start of the femoral neck to the lateral aspect
of the trochanter along the computed neck axis (NLGT ).
182
8.5. Comparison
Table 8.22.: Difference on the radius of curvature between medial and lateral
condyles in the Australian dataset.
Table 8.23.: Difference on the radius of curvature between medial and lateral
condyles in the healthy Japanese dataset.
8.5. Comparison
The posterior condyles has a circular shape profile in the sagittal view. To
study the difference of the radius of curvature between the two condyles,
circle-fitting was applied to the extracted medial and lateral posterior condyles
datum points to evaluate the radius of curvature of the Australian dataset.
Recent studies (Hollister et al., 1993; Churchill et al., 1998) have suggested
knee kinematics could reliably be represented using 2 non-orthogonal axes;
a flexion axis and a longitudinal rotational axis on the tibia. The optimal
knee flexion axis, or sometimes known as the geometric centre axis, is usually
determined by fitting two separate circles to the medial and lateral condyles
183
8. Results
Figure 8.8.: Difference between the medial and lateral condyle radius. A
positive difference indicates the lateral radius is larger than that
of the medial and vice versa.
in the sagittal plane and connect the centres of the circles. It was discovered
the fitting of 2-D circles to the condyles may be error prone due to undesirable
rotational variations. Thus a cylinder fitting procedures were employed in the
evaluate of the optimal flexion axis.
To verify whether the optimal femoral axis coincide with the transepicondylar
axis, comparison was conducted on our Australian dataset to quantify the
difference between the optimal flexion axis and the transepicondylar axis.
The optimal knee flexion axis was evaluated using the fit cylinder method and
the anteroposterior and superoinferior distance between the axis and the two
epicondylar points were computed. The angle between the transepicondylar
axis and the optimal flexion axis was also calculated.
As shown in figure 8.9 on the facing page, the medial epicondyle is in general
anterior and superior to the optimal flexion axis. The mean anterior and
superior displacement is 13.1 mm and 8.2 mm respectively. The lateral
epicondyle is of a closer proximity to the optimal flexion axis relatively, with
an average of 4.4 mm anterior and 2.7 mm superior displacement (Figure 8.10
on the next page). The mean angle between the transepicondylar axis and the
optimal flexion axis is 7.3◦ with a standard deviation of 1.9◦ . It is concluded
that the epicondyles are in general not in close proximity to the optimal flexion
axis.
184
8.5. Comparison
!
!
185
8. Results
A significance level of 0.05 was selected in the test to reject the null hypothesis,
and the mean difference is the mean value of the Japanese dataset subtracted
from that of the Australian dataset. Variables that are statistically significant
is marked by an asterisk (∗ ).
186
8.6. Sheep Summary
!"#
Figure 8.11.: Femoral head and neck measurements of the AU and JP datasets.
187
8. Results
"
Table 8.28.: Statistical comparison between AU and JP distal femur and shaft
regions.
188
8.6. Sheep Summary
189
8. Results
Figure 8.14.: Cross-sectional area of the bone section and the medullary canal
of the proximal femur. The error bars represent 1 standard
deviation of the measurements.
Figure 8.15.: Moment of inertia across the medio-lateral axis (Ixx) and antero-
posterior axis (Iyy) of the proximal femur.
190
8.6. Sheep Summary
!
191
8. Results
!&&%
!
"
Figure 8.17.: Summary of femoral length, neck shaft angle and anterior bow
of sheep.
#
#$ "#$
#
"
192
Discussion
9
Contents
9.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.2. Software Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.3. Image Acquisition & Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3.1. Acquisition Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3.2. Automated Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.3.3. Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.4. Performance of the Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4.1. Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4.2. Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4.3. Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.5. Reference Axes Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.5.1. Longitudinal Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.5.2. Distal Transverse Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.6. General Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.6.1. Head Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.6.2. Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.6.3. Posterior Condyles & Knee Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.6.4. Canal Flare Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.7. Anteversion Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.8. Sheep Femur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
193
9. Discussion
9.1. Overview
During the initial stage of the study, it was noticed that while most of
the anthropometric parameters are well-defined in the anatomical aspect,
many definitions remain ambiguous in the image processing domain. It is
understandable that as most of the anthropometric measurements evolved
from the clinical domain, human anatomy plays a major role towards their
definitions. Nonetheless, with the increasing application of image processing
techniques in the medical field, the problem of ambiguity in anatomical
definitions surfaced.
Several studies (Croce et al., 1999; Besier et al., 2003; Hagemeister et al.,
2005) have pointed out the difficulty in precise and consistent location of
anatomical landmarks. Croce et al. (1999) have pointed out the intrinsic
reason for the positional inconsistency in the use of anatomical landmarks
due to the fact that anatomical landmarks are generally defined as relatively
large and curved region instead of discrete points. This could possibly incur
undesirable inter and intra-rater inconsistency in the process of locating
anatomical landmarks for anthropometric study. An effective way to overcome
the inherent limitation is to incorporate function methods in the evaluation
of anthropometric parameters (Croce et al., 1999; Stagni et al., 2000; Besier
et al., 2003; Hagemeister et al., 2005).
194
9.2. Software Selection
The robustness of the methodology was another major concern. It was noted
that while many methodologies documented in literature (Section 6 on page 97)
are robust in terms of processing healthy femur, the outcomes on pathological
samples are far from satisfactory. This could possibly due to the use of
geometric assumptions no longer being valid when the structure is deformed.
It was thus one of the criteria to try to develop a methodology that allows
pathological samples to be processed.
The sections below discusses various aspects of the proposed methodology, the
performance and robustness, the consistency observed, the reason for various
measurements, a brief summary and comparison on the datasets acquired,
the limitations and future directions.
Several software packages were used in this study. Amira (Visage Imaging,
Inc., Carlsbad, USA) was used due to its extensive image segmentation
capabilities. Morphological functions and other semi-automatic functions
such as edge tracing and local region growing provided a good tool-set for an
efficient and consistent segmentation process.
Matlab (Mathworks Inc., MA, USA) was used extensively in the imple-
mentation of the proposed methodology. While the proposed methodology is
language independent, the Matlab package provided a very comprehensive
set of functions for image and signal processing and thus served as a very
good platform for prototyping.
Nevertheless, it was noted that the use of Matlab in the prototype had
resulted in significant performance penalty in several occasions. The applica-
tion of affine transformation (Section 7.3.1.4 on page 133) to large CT dataset
in the model alignment stage has suffered from low performance and could
195
9. Discussion
Mimics (Materialize, Inc., Leuven, Belgium) was used as the reverse engi-
neering software package in the creation of 3-D model for verification purpose.
While it was noticed that Mimics may not be as fine-grained and robust as
other functional-specific software packages in model creation, the functionality
is sufficient for our verification purpose. The intuitive interface allows direct
measurements on the generated model, eliminating the need of additional
software packages for this purpose.
Nonetheless, it was noted within our datasets from various scanners that the
Hounsfield value of bone are relatively consistent, possibly due to a higher
attenuation coefficient leading to a higher signal to noise ratio, and thus
less prone to the varying effect of background attenuation. Our observation
confirms with Groell et al. (2000) study in quantifying CT number variations
under different image acquisition parameters and across two different scanners.
196
9.3. Image Acquisition & Segmentation
Still, extra caution has been taken in the process of base threshold value
selection in the study. Manual examinations were performed on several
image stacks from each of the scanners/parameter group, with analysis on
the histogram and profile line. It was discovered that a value of 200 HU
served as a good base reference for thresholding the periosteal boundary from
the surrounding soft tissue; and 500 HU being a good base reference for
thresholding cancellous bone from cortical bone in our datasets as a result of
the analysis on the profile lines as shown in figure 7.3 on page 126. The use
of 200 HU for reference in segmentation of the periosteal boundary in femur
for CT-based computer navigation system in THR was reported (Sugano et al.,
2001). In the analysis, Sugano et al. further reported that the accuracy of
surface registration of the periosteal boundary of the femur does not vary
significant within the range of 110–320 HU. Other studies have documented
the optimal Hounsfield value for segmentation of trabecular bone to be within
the range of 300–600 HU (Aamodt et al., 1999; Hua J, 1993). In our study,
the reference base threshold values were chosen in favor to the avoidance
of under-segmentation, and slight amount of manual work were required
especially in the proximal and distal extremes.
With image segmentation being one of the key steps in image processing,
attempts have been made in automating the segmentation process without
much success. One of the major difficulties encountered was achieving a
precise and consistent segmentation between the acetabulum and the femoral
head, especially in the osteoarthritis patient where the joint space are not
well defined.
Active contour models (Kass et al., 1988), also commonly known as snakes,
defined as an energy minimizing spline or deformable template matching,
are often employed in tackling the above-described problem. Gregory et al.
(2004) developed a technique based on active shape modeling in measuring
the morphometry of proximal femur in AP radiography and reported an
accuracy of 2.2 mm of median point-to-point error could be achieved. Chen
et al. (2005) employed a similar algorithm with additional shape constraints
to automatically extract femoral contours from X-rays images whilst pointing
out the deficiency in handling odd or pathological cases.
197
9. Discussion
9.3.3. Consistency
198
9.3. Image Acquisition & Segmentation
While the inter and intra-rater ICC segmentation tests were designed to
evaluate the reliability of a single variable (segmentation) per test, the results
represented an aggregated consistency measures, including possible variations
due to the methodology design. With consistency being one of the fundamental
properties in anthropometric study, it was noted that the ICC could serve
as an additional selection criterion to distinguish the robustness between
different extracted parameters.
It was observed, in general, that measurements that are derived from a func-
tional method such as various fitting procedures acquire a higher consistency
in both inter and intra-rater tests when compared to those that measures
directly upon anatomical landmarks. This confirms with various studies
(Croce et al., 1999; Besier et al., 2003; Hagemeister et al., 2005) and could be
explained by the fact that anatomical landmarks are usually small distinctive
regions instead of discrete points. More detailed discussion on the use of
functional methods in the study are discussed in the following sections.
199
9. Discussion
9.4.1. Automation
• Selection of the starting and ending slice range of the posterior condyles
for cylinder fitting.
Extra care and tests were taken in the automatic procedure to minimize the
effect of subjective user input in the above steps. A corner detection procedure
was added in the semi-automatic fall-back method (Figure 7.10 on page 133)
in the case when automatic discovery of the transepicondylar axis failed. The
effect of shifting the slice range in posterior condyles fitting was recorded
(Section 8.3.3 on page 179). The resulting procedure in Matlab could easily
be performed by users without specific knowledge in anthropometric studies.
9.4.2. Accuracy
200
9.4. Performance of the Methodology
9.4.3. Consistency
Several variations of ICC were described by Shrout and Fleiss (1979). Based
on a detailed explanation by McGraw and Wong (1996) on the specific ICC
class to use, ICC(2,1) (Table 8.1 on page 168) was selected in our intra and
inter-rater consistency test with which both the judge and subject of interest
are assumed to be a random selection, while ICC(1,1) was employed in our
repeated scans test with which each scanner (judge) did not scan all the tested
samples (subject of interest). Another commonly used reliability test using
Cronbach’s α (Cronbach, 1951) was performed in additional to the ICC. In
201
9. Discussion
both cases, excellent intra and inter-rater consistency were observed and it is
concluded that the proposed methodology achieve the goal of being internally
consistent.
There are several reference axes schemes generally being adopted in anthro-
pometric studies (Dunlap et al., 1953; Yoshioka and Cooke, 1987; Noble et al.,
1988; Whiteside and Arima, 1995) of the femur as discussed in section 6.2
on page 98. Several aspects were considered in the definition of reference
axes. With variation in patient positioning during the image acquisition
stage, anatomical landmarks employed in the computation of reference axes
should be independent on patient position or orientation, well-defined and
reproducible for high consistency and accuracy. The ease of initial estima-
tion without an accurate reference frame is highly preferred, especially in
automation of the entire process. The robustness of the reference axes, as its
applicability towards different type of femur including pathological type, was
also considered.
202
9.5. Reference Axes Definition
(a) The use of full femoral shaft axis as (b) The use of proximal femoral axis as the longitudi-
the longitudinal axis. Note that the nal axis. The axis bisects the greater trochanter
axis no longer bisect the proximal independent on the amount of anterior bowing.
femur, but passes through the proxi-
mal aspect of the greater trochanter.
203
9. Discussion
One possible drawback of our modified long axis definition is the higher vari-
ability due to less cross-sections used. The lesser trochanter was selected as
the anatomical landmark to locate the proximal and distal limits in longitu-
dinal axis evaluation. It was noted that the conical eminence of the lesser
trochanter is easily identifiable, but CT artifacts, due to partial volume aver-
aging could adversely affect the accuracy, especially in the case of anisotropic
voxels with large slice thickness. Nevertheless, our consistency tests showed
that the deviation is minimal (mean 0.60◦ , σ=0.27◦ ) in misjudgment of the
lesser trochanter by ±3 mm superoinferiorly from the automatic evaluated
location.
The use of mechanical axis as the reference longitudinal axis was also studied.
Yoshioka and Cooke (1987) reasoned that the axes of motion maybe a more
appropriate approach to evaluate angular geometry of the hip and knee, and
thus employed the mechanical axis as the principal reference longitudinal
axis. The mechanical axis (Walmsley, 1933) was defined as the femoral head
centre to the attachment point of the posterior cruciate ligaments (PCL).
While the author agreed with the arguments suggested, various practical
difficulties were observed. The attachment point of the PCL is well-defined
anatomically but could be hardly distinguishable in CT. Second, the PCL-
femoral interface is a region rather than a discrete point, the representation
of the PCL attachment region with a discrete point would be inconsistent.
The adoption of mechanical axis as reference would potentially be feasible in
other imaging modalities such as MRI, but not in the case of CT.
204
9.5. Reference Axes Definition
Unlike the longitudinal axis which is a functionally derived axis from a large
set of datum points, the TEA could be significantly affected by inaccurate
evaluation of any one of the epicondylar points. The intra and inter-rater
consistency test (Section 8.2.1 on page 167) showed the TEA has a slightly
lower correlation coefficient, implying the posterior condylar axis may have
an edge for consistent rotational reference purpose. Note however that the
posterior condylar axis was evaluated after the reference system was set up,
in which possible variations due to the use of superior or inferior extremes of
the condyles described by Murphy et al. (1987) were minimized or eliminated.
While it has to be admitted the transverse axis has a larger variation than
anticipated, the extra rotational variance were tested to have minimal and
negligible effect on other parameters being extracted. More discussion on the
variations of the TEA observed in our study is discussed on section 9.7 on
page 217.
The use of surgical epicondylar axis (SEA) suggested by Berger et al. (1993)
has also been studied. It is defined as the the line connecting the lateral
205
9. Discussion
Whiteside and Arima (1995) suggested the use of the anteroposterior axis (also
known as the Whiteside line) as a rotational reference instead of the TEA or
the posterior condylar axis. It was reported that the use of the anteroposterior
axis as a rotational reference of the femoral component reduced significantly
the number of patellar tracking problem that required realignment in valgus
knee. Nevertheless, other studies (Middleton and Palmer, 2007; Won et al.,
2007) have reported the anteroposterior axis alone has too large variation
to be employed as the rotational reference. It was noticed from our datasets
that the anteroposterior axis were hard to be well-defined because of the
variation observed down the patellar groove superoinferiorly which would
affect the anterior reference point of the axis. In cases of osteoarthritis in the
knee, it was not uncommon to observe large osteophytes in the intercondylar
notch or around the trochlear groove region, leading to extra difficulty in the
determination of the Whiteside line (Yau et al., 2008).
The femoral head offset, defined as the distance between the head centre and
the proximal femoral shaft, is one of the important factors being studied in
THR (Abraham and Dimon, 1992; Davey et al., 1993).
Optimal femoral head offset in THR could minimize the chance of hip dislo-
cation (Bourne and Mehin, 2004) and maximize range of motion (McGrory
et al., 1995). Austin et al. (2003) have pointed out that femoral offset is a
powerful tool for increasing THR stability without affecting the leg length.
This could reduce the chance of leg length inequality, which could contribute
to ipsilateral knee pain, low back pain, sciatic nerve palsy and even aseptic
206
9.6. General Parameter
loosening (Friberg, 1983; Edeen et al., 1995; Bose, 2000; Gurney et al., 2001).
A lateral offset is reported to have an effect of increase stability, decrease wear
and reduction of joint reactive force if used appropriately (Davey et al., 1993)
while the decrease of femoral offset could lead to an increase of polyethylene
wear in THR (Sakalkale et al., 2001).
Femoral head offset also serves a significant role in hip resurfacing (Beaulé
et al., 2007). Silva et al. (2004); Loughead et al. (2005) both reported the
decrease in femoral offset after hip resurfacing when compared to stemmed
implant. While the effect of femoral offset has been studied more extensively
in traditional THR, the actual effect of an decrease in femoral offset in hip
resurfacing is not well-defined (Girard et al., 2006).
A two phase evaluation was adopted in our sphere fitting procedures. The
initial phase provided estimation from a set of datum points obtained at
the proximal aspect of the femoral head. However, under-estimation of the
femoral head diameter was observed in numerous cases. In the several cases
of pathologically deformed femur, the measured diameter is erroneous because
the femoral head was far from perfectly spherical. Cases with small femoral
neck-shaft-angle would lead to insufficient datum point and result in erroneous
outcome.
207
9. Discussion
The use of other fitting methods by means of reverse engineering from 3-D
model was also investigated. Numerous studies have (Mahaisavariya et al.,
2002; Song et al., 2007) presented accurate and reproducible femoral head
fitting routines based on 3-D surface model created from CT. While accurate
and consistent, the 3-D modeling approach suffers from the need of immense
amount of manual work. Even so, improvements have been seen in newer
software packages such as Mimics in the lengthy model creation procedures
with more encapsulation of technical details.
9.6.2. Neck
Apart from the previously discussed (Section 9.6.1 on page 206) femoral head
offset, which is primarily caused by the orientation of the femoral neck, the
neck region is another main focus in anthropometric studies.
With 5000 neck fracture recorded in New South Wales (Australia) alone in
2000, and a still increasing trend as reported by Boufous et al. (2004), fracture
risk prediction has always been an area of focus.
Relationship with BMD and neck geometry during aging has been suggested
by Kaptoge et al. (2003). Based on the fact that the cross-sectional modulus,
a measurement of bending resistance, does not decrease at the same rate
as BMD during aging, it was suggested that part of the effect of aging in
BMD could be a result from the expansion of the bone envelope. While no
quantitative relationship between the two has been documented, this gives
an insight on the possible role neck geometry could bear.
208
9.6. General Parameter
Racial difference has also been investigated. Nakamura et al. (1994) reported
that Japanese women have a substantially lower incidence of hip fracture
than North American whites due to different geometric characteristics of the
femoral neck. Despite lower femoral neck bone mass, it was shown that the
lower risk of structural failure in the femoral neck of Japanese women is
attributed primarily to a shorter femoral neck and a smaller neck shaft angle.
Other studies (Bergot et al., 2002; Pulkkinen et al., 2004) have also confirmed
the use of femoral neck length and upper femoral geometry in improving the
assessment of hip fracture.
Accurate evaluation of the neck axis is essential for the calculation of the
anteversion angle, which is one of the most important geometric parameters
determining the relative rotational orientation between the proximal and
distal femur. Details of the anteversion angle will be discussed in later section
(Section 9.7 on page 217).
Accurate and robust evaluation of the neck axis has always been a challenging
task in anthropometric studies. Commonly described as a tapered cylinder
in shape, analysis of the femoral neck poses great challenges because of its
variability and the lack of distinguishable anatomical landmarks. Kingsley
209
9. Discussion
The use of 3-D imaging methods in general allows a more fine-grained evalua-
tion of the neck axis Hernandez et al. (1981). However, most scanning protocols
produce an oblique view of the neck region by default. This introduces extra
difficulty in the identification of the neck axis without further post-processing.
The use of a single oblique cross-section in the evaluation of the true neck
axis (Weiner et al., 1978; Hoaglund and Low, 1980; Hernandez et al., 1981)
has been criticized Murphy et al. (1987). More robust techniques involving
the use of optimization techniques to obtain a orthogonal cross-section with
minimized area has also been suggested (Kim et al., 2000b; Mahaisavariya
et al., 2002).
One inherit limitation of the methods reviewed above is the use of only a fixed
partial or localized region in the evaluation of the neck axis. Høiseth et al.
(1988) reported the radially asymmetric property of the femoral neck, and
further pointed out the impossibility to precisely evaluate the neck centre by
any combination of bi-planar projections. We have observed that the reliance
on such a localized region could be error prone especially in pathological
cases where the neck shape is deformed. To overcome this shortcoming, our
proposed technique tried to take into account a larger region of the neck in
the estimation of the true neck axis.
210
9.6. General Parameter
The second phase of neck axis evaluation was based on the initial estimation
obtained above. Two different algorithms were proposed and tested in our
final design. The cylinder fitting optimization procedures (Figure 7.24 on
page 146) were initially conceptualized with the thought of modeling the neck
as a cylindrical shape. This has an advantage of taking into account the shape
of the entire neck region rather than limiting the definition to a selective
localized neck region. With the optimization procedures proposed, the need for
using the head centre as one of the reference points is avoided. The cylinder
fitting procedures identified the neck axis in all our human CT dataset except
one case where severe deformation of the head neck region was observed with
a shortened neck. The insufficient cross-sections of the neck region resulted
in a bad cylinder fitting. Despite this extreme pathological case, the cylinder
fitting algorithm was found to be very robust in the evaluation of human
femoral neck axis.
The main drawback of modeling the neck region as a cylindrical shape is the
inaccuracy encountered when applying the algorithm to our sheep dataset.
It was noted that the morphology of sheep femoral neck has considerable
difference when compared to the human. The sheep neck is more cylindrical
at the femoral head end and gets more fanned out and more flattened in the
coronal plane at the neck base than that of the human. Further investigations
suggested that the use of areal centroids on the cross-sections delivered a
more reliable outcome and is able to handle all our human and sheep datasets.
One additional difficulty was encountered at the definition of the neck base.
The femoral neck extends from the femoral head till the intertrochanteric line.
However, it was noticed that the inclusion of the neck region approaching
the intertrochanteric line would over-estimate the neck shaft angle due to
the asymmetric fanning inferiorly to the lesser trochanter region. A more
conservative approach was adopted in which the extreme end of the neck base
211
9. Discussion
was excluded in our calculation but whether the approach is optimal is yet to
be concluded.
The proposed algorithm does not rely on the femoral head centre as a reference
point of the neck axis. Kingsley and Olmsted (1948) cited the term “capit-
o-collar” axis documented by Pearson and Bell (1919) who implied the head
may not be centred on the femoral neck. Thus the femoral head centre should
not be considered in the evaluation of the neck axis. Measurements on our
human dataset showed that a mean distance of 1.21mm (range: 0.22–2.88mm)
exists between the computed femoral head centre and neck axis. While this
maybe considered a confirmation with observation by Kingsley and Olmsted,
the difference could be originated from errors involved in the process.
A lower intra, inter-rater consistency of the distance from neck axis to head
centre was observed. A possible reason is the low value (mean 1.21mm) of
the attribute, in which the sensitivity limit of our CT datasets is reached.
With the slice thickness of our human CT dataset ranging from 1mm to 2mm,
a lower consistency on the measurement due to quantization error is not
surprising.
Consistency test of intra and inter rater resulted in high correlation for neck
shaft angle (ICC > 0.9) and neck length (ICC > 0.99). The largest neck shaft
angle variation of 2.5◦ was observed under repeated CT scan of the same
femur under different resolution. To our knowledge, no previous studies have
documented their neck axis evaluation consistency on intra, inter-rater and
on repeated scans.
It was observed that the neck axis, when extended laterally, lies anterior to
the proximal femoral axis by an average of 10.7mm in our Australian dataset.
The neck axis elevation was noted to have a slightly lower consistency in
our intra, inter-rater and repeated scan test. It was suspected the lower
consistency is attributed to the pivoting effect of the neck axis where the error
of measurement is being magnified.
212
9.6. General Parameter
knee kinematics. This implies the rotation of knee does not have a fixed
axis of rotation. Recent studies (Hollister et al., 1993; Churchill et al., 1998)
however have confirmed that knee kinematics could be modeled with two fixed
non-orthogonal axes. Churchill et al. (1998) concluded that the optimal knee
flexion axis agreed with the rotational centre of the posterior femoral condyles,
which has a circular shape profile. This has shown that knee kinematics
could be closely associated and modeled with the functional morphology of
bone. While the accurate determination of the rotational centre of the femoral
condyles may not be straight forward in clinical environment, the use of
imaging techniques based on 3-D data would allow the optimal flexion axis to
be evaluated consistently and accurately.
213
9. Discussion
of error calculated does not correspond directly to the sum of fitting error in
millimeter.
Additional tests were done to evaluate the effect of subjective user slice
range selection towards the cylinder radius (Section 8.3.3 on page 179 and
appendix E.2 on page 265). It was concluded that the effect of subjective user
range selection was minimal under normal conditions. Larger errors were
observed in samples with a larger slice thickness and it was found that a
minimum of around 15 slices are necessary to give an accurate and consistent
cylinder fitting. This pose a limitation on the maximum slice thickness that
could be used in the image acquisition stage.
Based on the optimized cylinder fit, the knee joint centre could easily be
obtained by taking the mid-point on the cylinder axis. While the mid point of
the epicondyles were often used (Stagni et al., 2000; Li et al., 2004; Coventry
et al., 2006; Stefanyshyn et al., 2006; Holmberg and Lanshammar, 2006),
Hagemeister et al. (2005) reported a higher repeatability in the the definition
of knee joint centre by the circle fitting procedure rather than adopting the
transepicondylar axis. This conforms to our findings in which the location of
the epicondyles exhibit a larger variation in our consistency tests compared
to the cylinder fitting procedure.
However, our definition of knee joint centre was slightly different to that
proposed by Churchill et al. (1998). The main reason for the modification
is the need for an undergoing study to identify a consistent and repeatable
reference datum point on the knee surface for a patella tracking experiment
Bertollo (2007) and the fact that the knee joint centre proposed by Churchill
et al. is not positioned on bone surface. Based on the joint centre defined by
Churchill et al., the joint centre was deliberately projected back to the most
inferior point on the knee joint surface as shown in figure 6.20 on page 121.
It was noted that the defined joint centre is of close proximity to the posterior
cruciate ligaments attachment point in the intercondylar notch, in which it
was sometimes being used as a anatomical landmark to define the mechanical
axis of the femur (Yoshioka et al., 1987; Croce et al., 1999).
214
9.6. General Parameter
One drawback of our cylinder fitting method is the inability to quantify the
radii of curvature of the medial and lateral condyles individually. Most studies
(Churchill et al., 1998; Iwaki et al., 2000; Besier et al., 2003) reported a slightly
larger (~2 mm) radius of curvature on the medial condyle relative to the lateral
condyle, while fewer studies (Lustig et al., 2008) reported no difference in the
radii of curvature of the condyles. Additional test were done to evaluate the
radius of curvature of the individual condyle. Contrary to previous studies,
we observed that the lateral condyles of our Australian dataset have a slight
1.2 mm larger radius of curvature than the medial condyle. The healthy
Japanese dataset, however, showed no significant difference between the two
condyles. Further investigation was performed by constructing 3-D models
using Mimics and confirmed the findings.
Churchill et al. (1998) pointed out that the medial and lateral epicondyles
coincide with the optimal flexion axis of the knee. Nonetheless, various
studies (Elias et al., 1990; Hollister et al., 1993; Lustig et al., 2008) reported
the condyles centre does not coincide with the mid-point of the epicondyles.
Comparison within the Australian (Section 8.5.2 on page 183) dataset showed
a significant difference between the best-fit cylindrical condyle axis and the
epicondylar points. The medial epicondylar point has an average of 13.1 mm
anterior to and 8.2 mm superior to the cylinder axis. The lateral epicondylar
point is however of a closer proximity to the cylinder axis, with an average
215
9. Discussion
The canal flare index (CFI), initially defined by (Noble et al., 1988), is an
effective index to describe the flare shape of the proximal medullary canal.
The classical CFI is defined as the ratio of the intra-cortical width of the
femur, at the section 200 proximal to the lesser trochanter and that of the
canal isthmus. Three categories were defined, namely stovepipe, normal
and champagne-fluted canals. Other derivatives of the CFI exists, aiming
to provide additional information on the medullary flare (Section 6.4.3 on
page 114).
Fessy et al. (1997) reported that CFI is one of the important factors in the
implant choice in THR
Attempts have been made in the usage of Fourier descriptors in the represen-
tation of the proximal medullary shape (Section 5.3.2 on page 85). Based on
the methods suggested by Kuhl and Giardina (1982), a preliminary study was
done in which multiple measurements of the canal width were made and an
elliptical Fourier descriptors were applied to construct a shape representation
of the canal flare. Instead of using only a ratio of two measurements to
quantify the flare, the use of Fourier descriptor takes into consideration of
the entire flare shape. It was noted that the Fourier harmonics were able to
distinguish a more fine-grained difference such as the concavity of the canal
and would be a plausible tool to describe the full canal shape when extended
to three dimensional. Nonetheless, even the difference of shapes pair could
be quantified by computing the sum of difference between the two harmonics
sets, we were unable to conglomerate the harmonics outcome to sort into a
specific shape category.
216
9.7. Anteversion Angle
The anteversion angle involves the definition of two axes, namely the distal
transverse axis and the femoral neck axis. With both of the axes not being
very well-defined, numerous definitions and methodology exists in the deter-
mination of the anteversion angle. The distal posterior condylar axis (Parsons,
1914; Kingsley and Olmsted, 1948) obtained by the tabletop method is by far
the most commonly used distal transverse axis. The use of a height gauge
(Figure 6.1 on page 100) in the determination of the neck axis Kingsley and
Olmsted (1948) has also been extensively applied (Lausten et al., 1989; Kim
et al., 2000a; Jain et al., 2003) in anthropometric studies based on osteometric
table.
While both the use of the posterior condylar axis and transepicondylar axis in
anteversion calculation were statistically consistent in our intra, inter-rater
and repeated scan test (ICC > 0.9), it was noted that anteversion angles based
on the transepicondylar axis resulted in a slightly larger discrepancy.
The anteversion angle is not a direct angle between any two axes, but a
projected angle on the transverse plane, and thus highly dependent on the
viewing perspective. Dunlap et al. (1953) pointed out the influence of the
anteversion angle due to the anterior bowing of the femoral shaft. It was
suggested that the proximal one fourth of the femur should be used as the
longitudinal axis such that the axis bisects the greater trochanter. This forms
the basis as to why the proximal femoral shaft was chosen as the longitudinal
axis as discussed in section 9.5.1 on page 202.
217
9. Discussion
218
9.7. Anteversion Angle
A mean neck axis elevation of 10.7 mm (Range: 7.6–15.0 mm) was observed
in our Australian dataset while a mean of 8.6 mm (Range: 6.0–9.9 mm) was
recorded in our Japanese dataset and is statistically different (P=0.002).
From a geometric point of view, the elevation of the femoral neck may sig-
nificantly affect the anteroposterior offset of the femoral head. With an
average anteversion angle of 10◦ with reference to the transepicondylar axis
TEA)
(∠(NA, ) and an average neck length of 50 mm observed, the anterior
femoral head offset due to femoral neck anteversion alone is 8.7 mm (50×sin 10◦ ).
Compare with an average neck axis elevation of 10.7 mm, it is deduced that
the anterior femoral head offset with reference to the proximal femoral axis is
a resultant effect of both the femoral neck anteversion and the neck anterior
offset.
With the assumption of our longitudinal axis being closely aligned to the
long axis of the femoral component in THR, it may imply the need to apply
additional anteversion on the femoral component that has none or insufficient
anterior neck offset, to achieve the necessary anterior offset of the femoral head
to mimic the original hip morphology. A comparison between the commonly
used neck anteversion angle and the anteversion computed using the femoral
axis (∠(HCF A, TEA)
, ∠( HCF A, CA)
) revealed a mean difference of 15◦ and 10◦
in our Australian and Japanese datasets respectively. This implies if the
same anterior femoral head offset is to be obtained, an additional 10◦ –15◦ of
anteversion would need to be applied to the femoral component in THR. It
was noted that some hip arthroplasty systems (e.g. the Zimmer APR Hip
System) incorporate a 10◦ of anteversion into their femoral stem design. Several
clinical studies (Gill et al., 2002; Barsoum et al., 2007) have pointed out that
an increase in the anteversion by 10◦ –20◦ on the femoral component increases
stability and possibly reduce the chance of impingement or dislocation. From
a morphological point of view, It is felt that one of the reasons of the act may
be back-traced to the basic principle in the attempt to restore a closer original
morphological structure of the femur.
219
9. Discussion
Figure 9.4.: The use of full femoral shaft as the longitudinal reference axis
in determination of the anteversion angle. Under this reference
system, the long axis of the femur and the femoral neck axis are
in close proximity in the superior view and neck axis elevation is
virtually non-existent.
Reproduced from Moore (2007).
lesser trochanter. Husmann et al. (1997) pointed out 25% of his dataset has
an anteversion helitorsion difference of larger than 10◦ . While the definition
of helitorsion is different from our definition of the neck axis elevation, it
was observed that the angular difference could possibly be affected by the
elevation of the neck axis over the proximal femoral axis.
220
9.8. Sheep Femur
19 adult crossbred wethers femur were processed successfully without the need
of modification of the core methodology proposed. Several parameters were
scaled down due to a smaller-sized femur in sheep in the process of evaluating
the reference axes, and were all adjustable in the GUI. The main aim of the
inclusion of sheep femur is to demonstrate the robustness of the methodology
and also to initialize a database to systematically record anthropometric
parameters in sheep femur, which is a common animal model being used in
the field of Orthopaedics.
It was noted that while the sheep femur may have distinct difference when
compared to that of healthy human, structural similarity exist. The same
applies to human femur with pathological conditions. This explains the robust-
ness of relying on a structural method in the measurement of anthropometric
parameters. For instance, the use of morphological skeletonization in the
initial estimation of the neck axis offers a more adaptive approach to accom-
modate variations observed in sheep, and human with pathological conditions
without the need of manual tuning.
While the sheep and human femur share a similar coarse structure, several
distinguishable differences were observed. The femoral neck of sheep tends
to fan out asymmetrically to a larger extent and is relatively more flattened
in the coronal plane. This implies the reliance on a single cross-section in the
determination of the neck axis could be error prone. The use of a cylindrical
representation of the region were also discovered not optimal for the case, as
discussed previously (Section 9.6.2 on page 208).
The spherical surface of the femoral head in sheep is less than that of human.
This may explain the more restricted range of motion in hip joint of sheep
when comparing to that of human. The use of optimization procedures in the
sphere fitting procedure in the representation of sheep femoral head would
221
9. Discussion
be an advantage here due to the fact that direct measurements on the partial
sphere surface may not be feasible.
Another major difference apart from the general size is the canal flare index.
The mean value of CFI ml is between 3 to 4 in our human dataset, and coincides
with the literature (Noble et al., 1988; Laine et al., 2000) while the value
observed in our sheep dataset is of a much lower value of 1.84, which is
categorized as stovepipe. This may have an influence on the selection or
design in the use of sheep model for study involving femoral stem.
222
10
Conclusions
The method was tested to have a very high intra, inter and repeated scan
consistency. This could be attributed to several causes. The extensive use
of functional methods instead of direct reliance on anatomical landmarks
significantly reduce the effect of possible variations in anatomical landmarks
location. Parameters evaluated based on a functional method such as the
cylindrical fitting of the posterior condyles has shown to have, in general, a
higher ICC and Cronbach’s α when compared to other parameters such as
the CFI.
The use of functional methods together with the structural approach further
allowed the proposed methodology to process the osteoarthritis datasets, in
which deformation of the proximal femoral geometry is common. It was
observed that in processing femurs with pathological conditions, assumptions
on the absolute locations of anatomical features may no longer hold true, and
more adaptive techniques were necessary. For instance, the application of
morphological skeletonization in the first estimation of the neck axis have
proven to deliver an adaptive technique catering a diverse range of femoral
geometry.
223
10. Conclusions
While the consistency tests conducted resulted in very high consistency within
our intra-rater, inter-rater test settings in segmentation, the image segmenta-
tion stage was expected to be still the main source of inconsistency. Attempts
have been made to automate the image segmentation step without much suc-
cess. Further investigation on the improvements towards a more automated
segmentation algorithm would be desirable.
It was noted that the use of CT in the study may not be optimal. CT is
inherently poor in imaging articular cartilages, posing a limitation in which
the cartilage structure would be ignored in anthropometric studies. MRI has
been another emerging image modality with which articular cartilages could be
imaged. Quantitative CT has also proven to provide accurate BMD information
in additional to bone geometry. The combination of bone morphology and
accurate 3-D BMD figures may be a new ground in areas such as fracture
risk prediction. Further investigation on the incorporation of other imaging
modalities in the study would be desirable.
Likewise, the number of sheep samples may not be sufficient to quantify the
morphological properties and its variations in the present study. A larger
dataset would be necessary to further unleash the full potential of the proposed
methodology in anthropometric analysis.
224
A
Function Summary
225
226
Table A.1.: Function summary of the Matlab subroutines.
Name (m-file) Description Lines Calls Calls Calls in Sub-
to from file functions
227
find_anteversion_angle Calculate the anteversion angles 54 1 1 4 1
228
Table A.1.: Function summary of the Matlab subroutines.
Name (m-file) Description Lines Calls Calls Calls in Sub-
to from file functions
dinates
229
230
Table A.1.: Function summary of the Matlab subroutines.
Name (m-file) Description Lines Calls Calls Calls in Sub-
to from file functions
231
232
Table A.1.: Function summary of the Matlab subroutines.
Name (m-file) Description Lines Calls Calls Calls in Sub-
to from file functions
233
234
Table A.1.: Function summary of the Matlab subroutines.
Name (m-file) Description Lines Calls Calls Calls in Sub-
to from file functions
Java interface
Table A.2.: External Matlab subroutines used in the study. They are obtain-
able from the Mathworks File Exchange repository.
235
A. Function Summary
236
Sample Output File
B
Listed below is a sample output file generated by the subroutines. The file
contains results of the anthropometric parameters extracted, exact coordinates
of various landmarks and error of fitting functions. It is saved in a tab-
delimited plain text format and could be imported to various spreadsheet
or statistical analysis software packages for further processing. For clarity
purpose, the file output is splitted into various tables.
File /file_path/anonymous
xy 0.27
z 2
Orientation
ap anterior
lr right
start proximal
Greater trochanter
coords 70.21,36.60,14.00
height 12
237
B. Sample Output File
base_coords 63.00,21.21,26.00
Head
centre 21.82,22.72,21.34
radius 20.52
error 0.73
fa_offset 42.94
lt_offset 48.66
Posterior Condyles
cylinder
vector 0.99,-0.12,-0.02
pt 49.37,101.88,411.86
radius 19.45
err 1.2
knee_centre 46.02,89.64,426.00
axis
mpt 28.73,123.96
lpt 70.22,118.90
Anteversion angles
TEA_CA 6.94
238
HC_FA_TEA 25.77
HC_FA_CA 32.71
NA_TEA 14.93
NA_CA 21.87
Femoral length
GTKC 416.1
HCKC 410.87
isthmus_LT_dist 104
ml 3.55
ap 2.26
oblique 1.21
metaphyseal_ml 0.41
239
240
Neck section properties
slice_no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
mm_from_head 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Area 1435 1427 1425 1409 1385 1340 1296 1226 1171 1101
B. Sample Output File
Centroid 30.4 30.4 30.4 30.59 30.68 30.83 31.03 31.29 31.43 31.43
39.21 39.19 39.17 39.26 39.37 39.32 39.34 39.25 39.32 39.17
MajorAxisLength 43.8 43.63 43.35 43.14 42.75 42.36 42.01 41.53 40.75 39.96
MinorAxisLength 41.87 41.74 41.95 41.73 41.42 40.44 39.5 37.85 36.84 35.3
Eccentricity 0.29 0.29 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.3 0.34 0.41 0.43 0.47
Orientation 87.59 87.75 80.72 81.47 84.47 -87.72 -81.07 -81.07 -82.18 -81.27
moi
Ixx 157127 155262 156870 153480 148485 136900 126670 110205 99633 86212
Iyy 171904 169651 166965 163529 157997 150122 142442 131527 120995 109222
polar_moi 329032 324913 323835 317009 306482 287022 269112 241731 220628 195434
Ixy -623 -565 -1694 -1543 -930 527 2542 3436 2992 3618
princ_angle -0.04 -0.04 -0.16 -0.15 -0.1 0.04 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.15
Ip1 171931 169673 167242 163760 158087 150143 142842 132067 121406 109777
Ip2 157101 155240 156593 153248 148395 136879 126270 109665 99222 85657
241
242
Proximal shaft section properties
slice_no 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41
mm_proximal 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82
centroid 61.3 60.1 59.1 57.7 56.6 56.3 56.6 57.8 59.3
B. Sample Output File
can_centroid 62.3 61.2 60.3 59.1 57.5 56.6 57.2 58.6 60.5
area 1348 1202 1120 1098 1090 1058 985 881 769
can_area 927 833 762 708 685 644 539 438 333
moi
Ixx 242228 175159 137537 128804 128174 121060 104923 78164 55507
Iyy 97403 81887 75642 76340 79439 78988 70761 57660 42630
polar_moi 339631 257046 213179 205145 207613 200048 175685 135824 98137
Ixy 30747 19284 7210 -8574 -20899 -26554 -24671 -13048 -1485
princ_angle -0.2 -0.2 -0.11 0.16 0.35 0.45 0.48 0.45 0.11
Ip1 248486 178988 138366 130170 135909 133901 117849 84505 55676
Ip2 91146 78058 74813 74975 71704 66147 57836 51319 42460
can_moi
Ixx 243651 176747 139278 130947 129023 121112 105329 78686 56722
Iyy 97938 82754 76493 77031 80826 80835 71417 58323 42682
polar_moi 341590 259501 215771 207978 209849 201948 176747 137009 99404
Ixy 31620 20457 8427 -7358 -19814 -26244 -24155 -12459 -1234
princ_angle -0.2 -0.21 -0.13 0.13 0.34 0.46 0.48 0.44 0.09
Ip1 250217 181006 140389 131933 136123 134054 117885 84595 56830
Ip2 91373 78495 75382 76045 73726 67893 58861 52414 42574
gic
gic_can_centroid
shaft_curve
medial 35.9 38.6 41.8 43.6 47.1 48.4 49.2 51.6 51.9
lateral 77.1 76.6 75.3 74.2 73.4 72.1 71.8 71.6 71.0
243
244
Shaft section properties
slice_no 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
centroid 61.3 58.4 56.3 58.7 60.2 60.7 60.9 60.9 60.7 60.4
B. Sample Output File
36.0 38.9 41.6 41.1 40.1 39.9 39.9 40.1 40.3 40.5
moi
Ixx 242228 131272 121060 64982 38709 30522 27740 26824 26456 25408
Iyy 97403 75344 78988 49833 30121 24502 22915 22742 23825 24168
polar_moi 339631 206616 200048 114815 68830 55024 50655 49566 50280 49576
Ixy 30747 -589 -26554 -6067 1697 3048 3512 3720 3855 3838
princ_angle -0.2 0.01 0.45 0.34 -0.19 -0.4 -0.48 -0.53 -0.62 -0.71
Ip1 248486 131278 133901 67112 39033 31795 29588 29026 29214 28675
Ip2 91146 75338 66147 47703 29798 23229 21067 20540 21067 20900
cortical_thickness
medial 4.52 3.19 3.99 4.52 5.05 6.12 7.18 7.71 8.25 7.45
lateral 7.71 6.65 5.32 5.32 6.38 8.51 7.45 8.51 7.98 8.51
anterior 2.93 2.66 3.19 3.99 4.79 5.59 5.59 5.85 5.85 6.12
posterior 1.33 2.13 2.13 3.19 3.46 5.05 5.32 6.12 6.92 6.65
area 1348 1106 1058 823 652 583 559 553 557 553
can_area 927 733 644 386 227 171 149 135 120 118
can_eccentricity 0.74 0.63 0.85 0.75 0.37 0.39 0.57 0.61 0.58 0.58
can_orientation -12.6 9.5 31.6 36.2 23.9 -67.5 -56.4 -59.7 -63.3 -65.5
245
B. Sample Output File
246
C
CT Acquisition Settings
247
248
ID Scanner Exposure Pixel Slice KVP (Peak X-ray Tube
Time (ms) Spacing Thickness KV) Current
(mm) (mm) (mA)
Australian dataset
249
C. CT Acquisition Settings
250
D
Consistence Test Data
251
D.1. Intra-rater Consistency
252
Table D.1.: Intra-rater consistency data.
ID 53R 53R-2 28R 28R-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2 TTR TTR-2
Greater 9 9 9 9 13 12 12 12 14 16
trochanter
D. Consistence Test Data
height
Head
radius 19.8 19.8 20.4 20.3 26.3 26.3 26.4 26.0 22.3 22.6
fa_offset 38.8 38.8 36.2 36.2 50.4 50.2 49.8 51.2 40.1 39.9
lt_offset 39.6 39.6 56.5 54.7 55.0 55.0 52.2 53.2 50.0 49.7
Condyles 17.8 17.8 17.9 18.0 22.6 22.1 22.0 23.0 19.9 20.6
radius
Neck length to 40.3 40.3 42.5 42.2 58.6 58.6 52.2 53.9 48.4 46.3
FA
Neck length to 62.7 62.8 67.8 68.2 88.9 88.5 86.0 86.6 73.7 71.5
lateral GT
Table D.1.: Intra-rater consistency data.
ID 53R 53R-2 28R 28R-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2 TTR TTR-2
Neck shaft 120.9 120.9 127.8 127.2 124.7 123.2 121.9 122.6 127.5 123.2
angle
Neck axis 7.7 7.6 7.8 7.6 9.5 9.7 10.8 10.5 9.2 9.1
elevation
Neck axis to 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.9 1.7 1.5 2.2 0.9 1.6
head centre
distance
Anteversion
angles
TEA_CA 10.2 10.2 9.9 9.9 4.9 9.9 5.8 5.7 4.5 4.1
HC_FA_TEA 40.5 40.5 28.3 28.0 16.9 12.7 33.9 34.9 17.6 16.4
HC_FA_CA 50.6 50.6 38.1 37.9 21.7 22.6 39.8 40.7 22.1 20.5
NA_TEA 31.4 31.5 17.1 17.8 8.2 3.6 24.2 26.6 2.3 5.3
NA_CA 41.6 41.6 27.0 27.7 13.1 13.5 30.1 32.3 6.8 9.4
Trochlear -1.2 -7.1 1.1 1.0 12.2 12.9 -13.8 -12.7 -10.0 -9.6
groove angle
253
D.1. Intra-rater Consistency
254
Table D.1.: Intra-rater consistency data.
ID 53R 53R-2 28R 28R-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2 TTR TTR-2
Anterior bow 774 775 738 747 967 953 854 1235 968 978
radius
Femoral length
D. Consistence Test Data
GTKC 376.7 376.7 382.2 382.1 455.9 456.8 454.8 453.2 412.4 412.5
HCKC 371.9 371.9 381.2 381.3 448.0 448.1 445.5 445.1 402.5 401.9
Head centre 355.5 355.5 362.2 363.3 423.6 421.5 423.3 419.0 383.2 382.5
epicondylar
distance
Lesser 311.0 311.0 301.1 303.6 365.6 365.3 365.1 360.5 328.1 328.1
trochanter
epicondylar
distance
Canal flare
indices
isthmus_LT_dist 111 111 109 108 130 129 125 132 110 108
ml 5.10 5.10 3.00 3.27 2.97 2.89 3.19 3.18 3.02 2.96
Table D.1.: Intra-rater consistency data.
ID 53R 53R-2 28R 28R-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2 TTR TTR-2
ap 2.23 2.23 2.35 2.35 2.39 2.60 1.78 1.78 2.84 2.77
oblique 1.11 1.11 1.18 1.20 1.23 1.29 1.11 1.09 1.31 1.32
metaphyseal_ml 0.57 0.57 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.37 0.37
255
D.1. Intra-rater Consistency
D.2. Inter-rater Consistency
256
Table D.2.: Inter-rater consistency data.
ID 28R 28R-2 53R 53R-2 TTL TTL-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Greater 9 9 10 11 14 14 14 14 12 12
trochanter
D. Consistence Test Data
height
Head
radius 20.4 20.4 19.5 19.8 22.3 22.5 26.4 26.2 26.4 26.3
fa_offset 36.2 36.3 38.9 39.2 40.1 39.8 49.9 50.7 49.8 49.8
lt_offset 56.5 55.2 40.8 40.3 50.0 49.7 56.1 55.8 52.2 50.2
Posterior
Condyles
Cylinder radius 17.94 17.99 17.18 18.07 19.91 20.58 22.84 21.24 21.98 22.01
Neck length to 42.47 41.85 39.94 40.85 48.38 48.55 57.9 58.7 52.24 51.44
FA
Neck length to 67.78 67.66 63.05 63.22 73.66 73.88 88.55 89 85.98 85.35
lateral GT
Table D.2.: Inter-rater consistency data.
ID 28R 28R-2 53R 53R-2 TTL TTL-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Neck shaft 127.81 126.56 120.77 120.65 127.46 128.82 124.99 123.97 121.85 120.39
angle
Neck axis 7.82 7.55 7.86 7.37 9.15 8.68 11.01 9.35 10.79 10.88
elevation
Neck axis to 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.5 1.9 2.2 1.5 1.6
head centre
distance
Anteversion
angles
TEA_CA 9.9 9.9 8.8 10.4 4.5 4.1 8.4 7.6 5.8 3.3
HC_FA_TEA 28.3 28.1 42.0 39.8 17.6 16.4 15.9 15.2 33.9 35.9
HC_FA_CA 38.1 38.0 50.7 50.2 22.1 20.5 24.3 22.8 39.8 39.2
NA_TEA 17.1 17.8 32.9 31.1 2.3 5.9 5.0 7.1 24.2 26.4
NA_CA 27.0 27.6 41.7 41.5 6.8 10.0 13.4 14.7 30.1 29.8
Trochlear 1.1 0.3 -2.8 -3.5 -10.0 -9.0 12.6 13.6 -13.8 -8.0
groove angle
257
D.2. Inter-rater Consistency
258
Table D.2.: Inter-rater consistency data.
ID 28R 28R-2 53R 53R-2 TTL TTL-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Anterior bow 738 747 775 764 968 977 1843 1823 854 884
radius
Femoral length
D. Consistence Test Data
GTKC 382.2 382.2 377.5 378.4 412.4 410.5 455.0 455.1 454.8 454.6
HCKC 381.2 380.8 372.1 372.6 402.5 402.0 446.4 446.1 445.5 445.4
Head centre 362.2 362.9 356.8 356.4 383.2 382.5 421.7 421.9 423.3 423.4
epicondylar
distance
Lesser 301.1 302.9 310.9 311.0 328.1 328.1 362.6 363.2 365.1 367.1
trochanter
epicondylar
distance
Canal flare
indices
isthmus_LT_dist 109 110 111 106 110 108 128 130 125 127
ml 3.00 3.06 5.27 5.67 3.02 2.92 2.84 2.84 3.19 3.23
Table D.2.: Inter-rater consistency data.
ID 28R 28R-2 53R 53R-2 TTL TTL-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
ap 2.35 2.35 2.46 2.64 2.84 2.77 2.57 2.59 1.78 1.75
oblique 1.18 1.18 1.12 1.13 1.31 1.32 1.25 1.26 1.11 1.10
metaphyseal_ml 0.36 0.37 0.52 0.55 0.37 0.37 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.41
259
D.2. Inter-rater Consistency
D.3. Repeated Scans Consistency
260
Table D.3.: Repeated scans consistency data.
ID 10R 10R-2 14L 14L-2 22L 22L-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Pixel Spacing
(mm)
D. Consistence Test Data
xy 0.63 0.63 0.36 0.26 0.34 0.25 0.38 0.26 0.38 0.29
z 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
height 8 8 10 12 16 15 13 14 12 12
Head
radius 22.89 22.85 22.03 21.94 24.72 25.11 26.34 26.21 26.38 25.46
fa_offset 38.19 38.37 35.75 36.19 52.88 53.28 50.44 50.71 49.78 51.73
lt_offset 50.67 50.01 52.13 53.17 53.18 53.23 54.95 55.77 52.15 51.93
radius 18.95 19.09 18.15 17.78 23.59 22.68 22.6 21.24 21.98 22.71
Neck length to 48.58 48.42 44.34 44.94 60.76 61.25 58.62 58.7 52.24 56.01
FA
Table D.3.: Repeated scans consistency data.
ID 10R 10R-2 14L 14L-2 22L 22L-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Neck length to 71.68 71.56 73.13 71.9 91.55 91.53 88.87 89 85.98 88.17
lateral GT
Neck shaft 131.23 130.75 133.14 132.31 123.1 122.95 124.71 123.97 121.85 123.67
angle
Neck axis 9.16 9.59 11.02 10.8 9.24 8.67 9.53 9.35 10.79 10.04
elevation
Neck axis to 1.67 1.3 0.89 0.8 1.38 1.72 1.9 2.24 1.53 1.85
head centre
distance
Anteversion
angles
TEA_CA 6.95 5.91 7.23 12.12 6.06 6.97 4.89 7.61 5.83 8.66
HC_FA_TEA 13.29 14.77 27.12 22.49 14.64 13.16 16.85 15.2 33.94 32.04
HC_FA_CA 20.24 20.68 34.35 34.6 20.7 20.13 21.74 22.81 39.77 40.7
NA_TEA 1.44 2.08 6.28 1.92 4.59 3.64 8.22 7.07 24.24 23.59
NA_CA 8.39 7.98 13.51 14.03 10.65 10.61 13.11 14.68 30.07 32.25
261
D.3. Repeated Scans Consistency
262
Table D.3.: Repeated scans consistency data.
ID 10R 10R-2 14L 14L-2 22L 22L-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
Trochlear -7.7 -9.12 7.37 12.66 12.87 13.43 12.2 13.55 -13.75 -8.17
groove angle
Anterior bow 579.79 589.01 1036.56 916.38 1361.75 950.69 966.91 1822.87 853.68 1176.23
radius
D. Consistence Test Data
Femoral length
GTKC 392.76 392.33 443.84 446.18 483.95 485.18 455.85 455.11 454.77 453
HCKC 388.88 389 442.94 442.04 475.17 476.56 447.95 446.06 445.52 445.62
Head centre 369.55 367.82 424.68 418.01 450.87 451.89 423.62 421.85 423.33 420.02
epicondylar
distance
Lesser 316.23 315.33 369.22 363.07 392.37 394.12 365.64 363.15 365.12 362.1
trochanter
epicondylar
distance
Canal flare
indices
Table D.3.: Repeated scans consistency data.
ID 10R 10R-2 14L 14L-2 22L 22L-2 67L 67L-2 67R 67R-2
isthmus_LT_dist 117 118 121 116 130 128 130 130 125 126
ml 4.2 4.27 3.22 2.98 3.23 3.17 2.97 2.84 3.19 3.1
ap 2.4 2.3 1.51 1.57 2.36 2.36 2.39 2.59 1.78 1.8
oblique 1.2 1.2 1.09 1.11 1.24 1.24 1.23 1.26 1.11 1.12
metaphyseal_ml 0.39 0.39 0.41 0.42 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.41 0.4
263
D.3. Repeated Scans Consistency
D. Consistence Test Data
264
Results of Parameter Variation
E
E.1. Variation with Full Femoral Shaft
The first and second slice range of each sample is the reference slice range
and the typical maximum erroneous range respectively. The last row of each
sample are more extreme slice ranges. Entries marked with an asterisks (*)
are ranges that are insufficient to produce an accurate fitting, and are not
included in the table.
265
E. Results of Parameter Variation
Slice
Condyles
ID thickness Slice range Knee centre
radius
(mm)
2667L 1 430–469 22.5 (46.5, 93, 468)
1 433–466 22.1 (46.9, 93.8, 468)
1 435–469 22.1 (46.5, 96.75, 467)
C003R 1 422–453 21.0 (56.2, 96.4, 453)
1 425–450 22.0 (56.6, 94.1, 454)
1 427–453 22.7 (56.6, 94.1, 454)
C014L 1 433–461 17.8 (42.5, 98.2, 459)
1 436–458 17.9 (42.5, 97.8, 460)
1 438–461 17.9 (42.8, 97.8, 460)
71cm 2 218–236 22.2 (49.1, 114.6, 470)
2 221–233 24.9 (50.2, 104.0, 472)
2 223–231 na* na*
BOB 2 225–240 18.5 (47.0, 41.6, 476)
2 228–237 18.8 (47.2, 41.6, 476)
2 220–235 na* na*
266
E.2. Posterior Condyles Slice Range
!
!
(a) Proximal femur and posterior condyles ra- (b) Femoral length and anterior bow radius.
dius.
Figure E.1.: Variation between the use of proximal femoral shaft and full
femoral shaft as reference longitudinal axis.
267
E. Results of Parameter Variation
268
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