Salient Features of the Indian Constitution-I

Single Citizenship:
The Indian constitution provides Single Citizenship, meaning that a person cannot hold the
citizenship of another country if he is holding the citizenship of India. This idea was borrowed from
the British Constitution. It is provided in Article 9 of the Indian Constitution. In India, a person can
have only central citizenship, and not of a state, unlike countries like the USA and Canada, where
dual-citizenship is followed, meaning a person can be a citizen of multiple countries at the same
time, and there is different citizenship for the state and the country.
In India, there is an alternative to the dual-citizenship policy. According to the Citizenship
(Amendment) Act 2003, people of Indian heritage can become Overseas Citizen of India (OCI).
OCIs have all privileges as a citizen of India, but they cannot vote or purchase agricultural land in
India. Only people who were born in India after 1950 or their children and grandchildren are
eligible to become OCI. OCIs can live indefinitely in India, but they need to own a passport from
another country.
 Universal Adult Franchise:
The Indian Constitution provides the Universal Adult Franchise or Universal Suffrage, which states
that every person of and above 18 years of age is eligible to vote in all Indian elections, irrespective
of their caste, religion, gender, colour, etc. It is provided in Article 326 of the Indian constitution. It
was borrowed from the German constitution of 1919.
The 1919 and 1935 Election Acts had provided a communal electorate, where only a specific
community of people were allowed to vote. It was replaced by a joint electorate in 1950.
The Citizens of India elect their representatives for the Lok Sabha (Lower Central Parliament) and
Vidhana Sabha (Lower State Parliament), who in turn elect the ruling party and the Prime Minister
and Chief Minister respectively. Thus, the Indian Constitution provides a system of indirect
election, governed by the Election Commission of India, the body which is responsible to conduct
all the elections in India.
Also, certain seats are reserved for candidates from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
resulting in communal harmony.
 Fundamental Rights:
It is one of the main features of the Indian Constitution. The idea was borrowed from the
constitution of the USA. These are basic human rights, which provide the conditions essential for
the all-round development of a human being, regardless of the caste, religion, gender or colour of a
person. These are provided in the Part-III (Articles 12-35) of the Indian Constitution.
1. Right to Equality:-
It is provided in Articles 14-18 of the Indian Constitution. It states that all citizens of the Republic
of India are equal. The following are the provisions in this right:
(a.) Equality before law:
Article 14: It grants Equality by Law and Equality of Protection by Law irrespective of:
 Economic Status
 Caste
 Colour
 Creed
 Religion
 Sex
Any discrimination on the above grounds is a punishable offence.
Article 15: This article ensures social and economic equality by prohibiting discrimination on the
grounds mentioned in Article 14.
(b.) Equality of Opportunity: Article 16 prohibits discrimination on the grounds mentioned
in Article 14 concerning employment opportunities in Central and State governments. It
also allows reservations of seats in favour of Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes
(ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC). At present, there is a 27% reservation for OBC,
15% for SC and 7.5% for ST
(c.) Abolition of Untouchability: Article 17 abolishes untouchability. It was a practice in
medieval India where people of low castes were not touched by the upper castes, and they
were not allowed to enter places of worship, use public well, use public transport, etc. It is
now prohibited and is punishable by law.
(d.) Abolition of Titles: Article 18 abolishes all titles like Rai Sahib, Khan Bahadur,
Maharaja, etc. No title will be offered by the state unless it is a military or academic
distinction. Indian Citizens cannot accept titles from foreign nations. Military or academic
titles like Bharat Ratna are exempted from it.
Certain restrictions have been put on the Right to Equality in the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
Directive Principles of State Policy were given supremacy in this act, and if a Right to Equality is
violated to implement the Directive Principles, he/she cannot move to the court for the same cause.
2. Right to Freedom:
Many different rights to freedoms are provided by Articles 19-22.
a) Basic Freedoms: Article 19 of the Indian Constitution guarantees six basic freedoms:
i) Freedom of speech and expression
ii) Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms
iii) Freedom to form associations and unions
iv) Freedom to move freely throughout India
v) Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India
 vi) Freedom to practise any profession, trade, or business.
On October 12, 2005, the Right to Information was included in Article 19(1) of the constitution. It
is an implied right, i.e., it is included in the Freedom of speech and expression, which is a
fundamental right. According to this right, a person can freely seek information from public
authorities.
Governments are restricted to endorse laws which could limit basic freedoms. But they can endorse
laws for public good/protection of interests of trade and profession.
Limitations:
i) They can be suspended during an emergency.
ii) They are not absolute, i.e., restrictions could be imposed on it for national security and
interest.
iii) The laws of Parliament could impose restrictions on it.

b) Protection in respect of Conviction for Offences: Article 20 provides protections related to

convictions for crimes and offences:
i) Protection against greater penalty than what is prescribed under law
ii) Protection against punishment for the same offence twice
iii) A person cannot be compelled to be the witness in a case where he himself is accused
of the offence
c) Protection of Life and Personal Liberty: According to Article 21, a person cannot be
denied his life and liberty, except due to legal matters.
The Right to Privacy and Right to be Forgotten were included in this article on August 24,
2017, which allow the citizens to make free choices on certain matters without the
interference of the state, and allow their information to be deleted from public and internet
directories. They are not absolute rights, i.e., reasonable restrictions can be imposed on them.
d) Protection against Arrest and Detention: Article-22 provides the following rights under
two different circumstances:
i) Ordinary Circumstances:
a. To be informed of his/her offence
b. To be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours from the time of the arrest
c. To consult a lawyer and prepare for the defence at the trial
ii) Preventive Detention:
a. It does not mean that the person is convicted; it is instead a preventive measure
b. A person can be kept in custody without trial only for three months, after which it
can be extended only by the Advisory Board
c. Grounds of detention must be mentioned, and the detainee must be informed of the
grounds, and he/she can protest the order.
However, it has some restrictions. The authority can refuse to disclose the grounds of
detention on account of public interest. Also, the Parliament has the power to specify
the maximum period of detention.
3. Rights against Exploitation:
Articles 23 and 24 prohibit the exploitation of individuals in the following aspects:
i) Article 23 provides freedom from slavery, beggary, or other forms of forced labour. It
also prohibits human trafficking, i.e., buying and selling of human beings.
 ii) Article 24 prohibits the employment of children under the age of 14 years in hazardous
occupations and bonded labour.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion:
Articles 25 to 28 provide the following fundamental rights related to the practice of religion:
i) All citizens of India are provided with the freedom of conscience and the right to freely
profess, practise, and propagate their religion.
ii) Every religious denomination or any section shall have the right to:
a. Establish and maintain institutions
b. Manage its affairs in religious matters
c. Own and acquire movable and immovable property
d. Administer such property under the law
iii) The people shall not be forced to pay taxes for the campaign of a specific religion.
iv) No religious instruction shall be provided in any institution entirely maintained by
government assets.
v) Religious instruction may be imparted in schools recognised by or receiving funds from
the State, no person shall be compelled to receive it without his/her consent (or guardian’s
consent if he/she is a minor).
5. Cultural and Educational Rights:
Articles 29 and 39 of the Indian Constitution provide basic rights for religious, ethnic and minority
groups.
i) Article 29 provides the religious and ethnic groups with the right to preserve their distinct
language, script and culture. Government educational institutions cannot deny admission
based on religion, caste, creed, colour or sex.
ii) Article 30 provides all minorities with the right to establish and manage educational
institutions. It also prohibits discrimination from the side of the State in terms of grants
for these institutions.
6. Right to Property:
Earlier, Article 31 of the Indian constitution provided the citizens with the right to freely acquire,
sell and dispose of movable or immovable property, as a fundamental right. Later, in the 44 th
Amendment Act, 1978, it was converted from a fundamental to a legal right, to keep the socialistic
views of the constitution, and was changed to Article 300(A).
7. Right to Constitutional remedies:
The Fundamental Rights are justiciable, i.e., legal proceedings can be filed in the High Court or the
Supreme Court if they are violated.
Article 32 of the Indian Constitution provides the Right to Constitutional Remedies. It provides that
the citizens can move to the Supreme Court if their Fundamental Rights have been violated. It is a
right and not a remedy. It also provides that the Supreme Court and High Courts (in their
jurisdiction) can issue writs. This makes the right to Constitutional Remedies the most important
right.
8. Right to Education:
This right has been included in Article 21(A) Indian Constitution by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.
According to this act, the state is bound to provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the age of 6 and 14 years.
The Fundamental Rights in short:

Right Articles Chief Components / Features

14 Equality before the law and equal protection by law
15 Prohibition of discrimination
1. Right to Equality 16 Equality of opportunity in respect of employment
17 Abolition of untouchability
18 Abolition of titles
19 Freedom of speech, expression, assembly, movement, settlement and
profession, Right to Information
20 Protection against conviction for offences
2. Right to Freedom 21 Protection of life and liberty, Right to Privacy and Right to be Forgotten
21(A) Right to education
22 Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
23 Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour
3. Right Against
24 Prohibition of employment of children below the age of 15 in factories,
Exploitation mines, etc.
25 Freedom of conscience, profession, preaching and propagation
26 Freedom to manage religious affairs
4. Right to Freedom
27 Freedom from payment of taxes from promoting a particular religion
of Religion 28 Freedom from attendance at religious instructions in certain educational
institutions
5. Cultural and 29 Protection of language, script, and culture of minorities
Educational 30 Right to establish and administer minority educational, social and
Rights cultural institutions.
6. Right to Property 31 Right to freely purchase, hold and dispose movable and immovable
(Former) property
7. Right to 32 Right to file suit in Supreme Court and High courts on violation of
Constitutional Fundamental Rights, and Issue of writs by the Supreme court and the
High courts
Remedies
 Writs:
A writ is a formal written order issued by the Supreme Court or the High Courts to provide legal
remedies to individuals who do not obtain adequate protection under ordinary laws. But there are
exceptions provided by Article 32 during which this right can be suspended by the order of the
parliament.
The following are the most important writs in the Indian Constitution:
Habeas Corpus:
It means ‘have the body’. By this writ, the courts can get the body of any person released if he/she
has been unlawfully detained by people or the State. It is a safeguard for the personal freedom of
the people.
Mandamus:
It means ‘we order’. Only the Supreme Court can issue it. It is an order to a lower court or an
administrative authority to perform a certain duty.
Writ of Prohibition:
It is an order issued by the Supreme Court or a Lower Court to halt dealings in a case that is beyond
the jurisdiction of the lower court.
Writ of Certiorari:
It means ‘to be informed’. It is issued by a superior court to a lower authority, ordering to inform
the order passed by the court in a case.
Quo Warranto:
It means ‘by what order’. It is issued when a person has assumed any high public office. This
prevents officers of high authority from wrongly holding a high public office.
 Check on Arbitrary Actions of the State:
The fundamental rights of an individual are like restrictions on the illogical actions of the
government. Fundamental rights are imposed to prevent the government from imposing irrational
tortures on the citizens of the nation. Thus Article 13(2) declares all legislative and executive orders
unlawful if they are found violating the fundamental rights mentioned in Part III (Articles 12-35) of
the constitution. Therefore, it provides the Supreme Court and the High Courts with the right of
judicial review, i.e., they can check for arbitrary actions in all legislations. This idea was borrowed
from the American Constitution.
However, the State is permitted to make valid exceptions to the rights in concerns such as security
of the State, public order, public morality, etc.

Restrictions imposed:
The fundamental rights are not definite, i.e., rational limitations can be enforced on them because
of the general welfare of the public.
i) Fundamental rights can be suspended during an emergency declared by the President in
case of war, external aggression or armed rebellion. It is a temporary suspension; the
rights are restored as soon as the emergency is over.
ii) For national security, sensible restrictions may be imposed on them. The parliament can
alter the application of fundamental rights to the members of the armed forces, police
force, or intelligence organisations to ensure the accurate flow of their responsibilities.
iii) There are some laws which curtail the use of these rights:
a. Maintenance of internal security act: It was passed by the Indira Gandhi government
in 1971 to prevent civil or political disorder in India. It allowed the administration and
law enforcement agencies broad powers, for example, preventive detention for an
indefinite period, search and seizure of property without a warrant, and wiretapping. It
was repealed in 1977 as a result of controversy after the Congress government was
dissolved after the Emergency.
b. Defence of India rules: It was passed by the Nehru government during the Indo-Sino
war, in view of the increasing external disturbances around the northern border. It
curtailed various rights of travel, finance, trade, etc. The most important result of this
act was the harsh preventive detention, where a person can be detained for an
indefinite time without informing the reason for the detention and right of
representation against it, and curtailed the provisions of the Habeus Corpus writ.
c. Preventive Detention Act: This law was passed soon after the constitution came into
effect, in 1950. It provided that the period of preventive detention can be extended
from 3 months up to 12 months by the advisory board. It was repealed in 1969.
d. National Security Act 1980: This law was passed in 1980. It allowed the government
to detain a person who is acting prejudicially in matters of security of the nation, its
foreign relations, maintenance of public order, and import and export in the country. It
also allowed the government to detain or expel a foreigner. The 3-year period between
1977 (MISA was repealed) and 1980 (NSA was introduced) was the only time when
India had no laws related to preventive detention.
e. Essential Service Maintenance Act: This act was introduced in 1968. It was proposed
to ensure the delivery of essential services, which if obstructed could affect the normal
life of the people. According to this act, if a person commences a strike on essential
services like health services, public transport, etc., he/she would be vulnerable to
 imprisonment for 6 months, a fine of up to ₹200, or both, if the state government
enforces this act in their respective state due to shortage of these essential services.

Suspension of Fundamental Rights:

The Fundamental Rights are subject to be suspended during an emergency declared by the
President. As soon as it is declared, the Legislature is free to make any law and the Executive is
free to take any action that could curtail the fundamental rights, i.e., the rights to freedoms of
speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession or occupation.
These restrictions remain in force only during an emergency.
During an emergency, the president can also suspend the right to move a court, resulting in the
Supreme court and High Court becoming powerless to issue writs and make any other order to
enforce fundamental rights.
 Fundamental Duties:
Duties are important to enforce rights. Rights cannot work as intended if there are no duties.
Otherwise, a citizen may work only for his welfare, and that may harm another citizen. The
constitution did not contain these duties during the enforcement. It was added to Article 51(A) of
Part IV of the constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, on the recommendation of Sardar
Swaran Singh, the longest-serving cabinet minister of India, and an MP of the Lok Sabha for 20
years from 1957 to 1977.
It first contained 10 fundamental duties, but the 11th duty was added by the 86th Amendment Act,
2002. The following are the 11 Fundamental Duties:
i) Abide by the Indian Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and
the National Anthem
ii) Cherish and follow the noble ideals that inspired the national struggle for freedom
iii) Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India
iv) Defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so
v) Promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women
vi) Value and preserve the rich heritage of the country’s composite culture
vii) Protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and
have compassion for living creatures
viii) Develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform
ix) Safeguard public property and abjure violence
x) Strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement
xi) Provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen
years.
The Fundamental Duties are important in many ways. They are enlisted in the constitution to:
i) Make the citizens aware of their social and economic obligations.
ii) Warn them to do and not to do certain things in the interest of their country, fellow
citizens and themselves.
iii) Protect and awaken the people to their cultural heritage.
iv) Tame the unruly elements in the society.
v) Strengthen national harmony as they stir up patriotism.
 Salient Features of the Indian Constitution-II
Directive Principles of State Policy:
The Directive Principles are the guidelines to be followed by the government in the governance of
the country. Part IV (Articles 36-51) of the Indian Constitution contains the directive principles.
They are called so because the government must consider them while enacting laws. They contain
principles for overall human welfare. The constitutions of India and Ireland are the only ones to
contain these principles.
Sources of Directive Principles:
i) The Constitution of the Irish Republic
ii) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens of revolutionary France
iii) Ideals of Mahatma Gandhi (Gandhian Principles)
iv) Charter of Human Rights of the United Nations
v) Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations
Importance of Directive Principles:
i) The Directive Principles of State Policy are like a vow from the drafters of the
constitution to the citizens of India. They build a structure, political, social and economic
agenda for a modern republic.
ii) They provide guidelines to the governments to draft laws based on these fundamental
principles, which condense the aims of our Constitution. They provide a component of
stability in democracy.
iii) They provide a measure to determine a government’s success.
iv) They direct the government to step in the direction of the aim of a Welfare State. They
reflect the ideas of justice, equality, liberty and fraternity mentioned in the Preamble of
the constitution.
v) They inform the people about what to expect from the leaders they vote for.
vi) They provide instructions to courts about safeguarding the rights of the citizens.
vii) The directive principles are framed with public opinion, thus, the aim of establishing
social and economic order is laid out before the government.
viii) The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, provided precedence to the Directive Principles over the
Fundamental Rights, meaning that if they are found conflicting with the Fundamental
Rights, it shall prevail. This was done because the welfare of the people as a whole is
more important than the welfare of an individual. This was a great achievement in terms
of enforcement of directive principles.
However, the Directive Principles are not judicial, i.e., a person cannot move the court if the
directive principles are violated. But on moral grounds, both the government and judiciary are
required to consider these principles.
The directive principles of state policy can be classified into 3 types:
i) Socialist Principles:
a. Article 38: The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and
protecting a social order by ensuring social, economic and political justice and by
minimising inequalities in income, status, facilities and opportunities
b. Articles 39: The State shall, in particular, direct its policies towards securing:
 Right to an adequate means of livelihood for all the citizens.
  The ownership and control of material resources shall be organised in a manner to
serve the common good.
 The State shall avoid the concentration of wealth in a few hands.
 Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
 The protection of the strength and health of the workers.
 Childhood and youth shall not be exploited.
c. Article 41: To secure the right to work, education and public assistance in cases of
unemployment, old age, sickness and disability.
d. Article 42: The State shall make provisions for securing just and humane conditions of
work and for maternity relief.
e. Article 43: The State shall endeavour to secure to all workers a living wage and a
decent standard of life.
f. Article 43(A): The State shall take steps to secure the participation of workers in the
management of industries.
g. Article 47: To raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of people and to
improve public health.
ii) Gandhian Principles:
a. Article 40: The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats as units of Self
Government
b. Article 43: The State shall endeavour to promote cottage industries on an individual or
cooperative basis in rural areas.
c. Article 43B: To promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic
control and professional management of cooperative societies.
d. Article 46: The State shall promote the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, particularly that of the Scheduled Castes (SCs),
Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other weaker sections.
e. Article 47: The State shall take steps to improve public health and prohibit the
consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs that are injurious to health.
f. Article 48: To prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves and other milch and draught cattle
and to improve their breeds.
iii) Liberal-Intellectual Principles:
a. Article 44: The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizen a Uniform Civil Code
through the territory of India.
b. Article 45: To provide early childhood care and education for all children until they
complete the age of six years.
c. Article 48: To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific
lines.
d. Article 48A: To protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country.
e. Article 49: The State shall protect every monument or place of artistic or historic
interest.
f. Article 50: The State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the
public services of the State.
g. Article 51: It declares that to establish international peace and security the State shall
endeavour to:
 Maintain just and honourable relations with the nations.
 Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations.
 Encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
 Welfare State:
Welfare State is a state which seeks to ensure the maximum happiness of a maximum number of
people living within its territory. The constitution aims to establish India as a welfare state.
Although it is not mentioned, it is evident by the directive principles. These principles highlight
the goal of a welfare state, where the State is obliged to ensure the social and economic justice
of the citizens and the dignity of the individual.
Both the central and state governments have been working to ensure the welfare of their citizens
by implementing the directive principles.
Social Equality and Justice:
The following steps have been taken by the governments to implement directive principles:
i) The Right to Education Act has made the education of children between the age of 6-14
mandatory and free in government and government-aided schools. Also, all private
schools are required to reserve 25% of the seats for candidates from economically weaker
sections of the society as part of the public-private partnership plan.
ii) Special scholarships are provided to socially and economically weaker sections of the
society. A system of reservations has been imposed for candidates from scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes.
iii) Untouchability has been declared a punishable offence.
iv) 10% seats have been reserved for the Economically Weaker Sections from the upper caste
in government jobs and higher education. It was introduced in the 103 rd Amendment Act,
2019. This act aims to satisfy the obligations of the directive principles under Article 46
to promote the educational and economic interests of the EWS. These benefits are given
to people who:-
a. Have an annual income of less than ₹8 lakhs
b. Own less than five acres of farmland
c. Own a house less than 100 sq yards in a municipal area.
Economic Welfare:
i) The Zamindari System has been abolished and the land reform programme has been
introduced to eradicate the ancient feudal socio-economic structure of rural India.
ii) Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and
Settlement Bill was passed in 2013. It aims to:
a. Establish the law on land purchase and the rehabilitation and relocation of those
directly affected by land purchase in India.
b. Provide fair compensation to individuals whose land is taken away.
c. Transparency in the acquisition of land to set up factories, buildings, infrastructural
projects, etc.
d. Assure rehabilitation of those affected.
It replaced the 120-year-old Land Acquisition Act, 1894, introduced by the British.
iii) Banks, insurance companies and some key industries have been nationalised to ensure
ownership to result in the common good.
iv) To ensure equal pay for equal work, the wages have been governed by the government.
All payments have to be made according to the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, and its
amendments over time.
v) E-shram Scheme was launched by the Ministry of Labour and Employment on August 26
2021 for the organisation of the 43.7 crore unorganised sector workers in a singular
 database and to provide them with a benefit. According to this scheme, these workers will
be provided with the E-shram card, which would allow them to get ₹500 monthly. Any
unorganised worker between the age of 16-59 is eligible for this scheme.
vi) Ayushman Bharat Yojana is a central health scheme introduced in 2018 and is divided
into two major initiatives: the Health and Wellness Centres and the National Health
Protection scheme. 10 crore poor families will benefit from this scheme, i.e., they will be
provided with coverage of up to ₹5 Lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary
care hospitalisation. Cashless benefits of this scheme can be taken from any public or
private hospital across the nation.
vii) Pradhan Mantri Samaan Nidhi Yojana was introduced by Piyush Goyal in the 2019
Union Budget. All small and marginalised farmers will be given ₹6000 per year in three
quarters, which would be directly transferred to their bank accounts. It would help
increase crop health and ensure appropriate yields, increasing their income, and would
protect them from the clutches of moneylenders.
viii) Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was introduced in 2016. Under this scheme, 5 crore LPG
connections will be provided to BPL (below poverty line) households. This scheme aims
to ensure universal coverage of cooking gas in the country and empower women and
protect their health and reduce drudgery and the time spent on cooking.
ix) Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana was introduced in 2015. Under this scheme,
financial assistance will be provided to all houseless people and those living in shabby
houses to construct permanent houses. The cost is to be divided between the Central and
State Governments in the ratio of 60:40 in plains and 90:10 in North East and hilly areas.
Each beneficiary will get a support of ₹1.2 crores and ₹1.3 crores in plains and hilly
areas respectively. Each beneficiary will be provided with unskilled labour from
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act for 90 days. These houses
would be equipped with basic facilities such as a toilet, LPG connection, electricity
connection and drinking water.
x) Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana was introduced on January 13, 2016. It is a crop
insurance scheme, where the farmers need to pay a uniform premium of 2% for Kharif
Crops, 1.5% for Rabi Crops and 5% for commercial and horticultural crops, and the
remaining share will be paid equally by the centre and state governments. There is no
upper limit on government subsidy, it will be borne by the government. It will also
provide farm-level assessment for localized calamities.
xi) Jan Dhan Yojana was launched on August 15, 2014. Under this scheme, bank accounts
with a life insurance cover or ₹30000 and accidental insurance of ₹100000, and a RuPay-
enabled debit card. It aims to bring millions of poor Indians to the financial mainstream
and to protect them from the clutches of moneylenders, with the benefit of life insurance.
xii) Integrated Rural Development Programme was introduced in 1980 to provide
employment opportunities to the poor and teach them skilled labour to improve their
living condition.
xiii) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Program was introduced in 1983 to employ
landless poor citizens and to produce productive assets in rural India.
xiv) Mahatma Gandhi National Employment Guarantee Program was introduced in 2005 to
provide 100-days of guaranteed employment to rural unskilled labour.
 Political, Administrative and Legal Matters:
i) Panchayati Raj has been established in rural areas to promote the idea of local self-
government.
ii) Free legal aid is provided to those people who cannot afford a lawyer, to guarantee equal
justice to all.
iii) The judiciary is separated from the executive two check the misuse of power.

Foreign Policy:
i) To promote international peace and security India has helped many countries win
freedom. For example, India helped South Africa in its anti-apartheid movement and
Bangladesh in the 1971 freedom movement.
ii) India is law-abiding. It respects international laws. It is known for diplomatic
relationships, for example, during the Cold War and the Russia-Ukraine war.
iii) India goes with the policy of complete disarmament and was against the powerful
countries for partial disarmament.
Intro:
The Indian constitution is the lengthiest handwritten constitution. It establishes India as a federal
republic. Its is drawn from various sources, and is a blend of rigidity and flexibility.
The constitution was made by the Constituent Assembly, which was established in 1946. The
Drafting Committee was the organisation responsible for framing it, and its president was Dr BR
Ambedkar. It was completed on 26 November 1949, but came into effect on 26 January 1950.
The Indian Constitution had 395 Articles and 8 Schedules at the time of launch, but due to 100
amendments, it now has 448 Articles and 12 schedules.
The constitution’s preamble declares it as a sovereign, socialist, democratic and secular republic,
and displays the ideas of Justice, Equality, Liberty and Fraternity.
The Indian constitution has the following features:
 Parliamentary form of government
 Federal system with unitary features
 Division between executive, legislative and judiciary
 Fundamental Rights and Duties
 Directive Principles and the aim of a Welfare State
 Universal Adult Franchise
 Single-citizenship
 Judicial Review