Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Barter is a trading concept that works between two The Yap Islanders in the Pacific used carved stones as
people in possession of something that the other is their mode of payment. These large carved stones
interested in. This concept of trading has existed long known as feisymbolized a family’s wealth and was often
before civilizations even formed. This should not come used as gifts, payments for houses and canoes,
as a surprise, as this human behavior is also observed in arranging marriages, and even in exchange of a permit
symbiotic relationships between other species, to fish in a village’s waters. The Yap Islanders quarry
rendering it innate and natural. Primitive societies were these stones and shape them into discs with center
able to barter items specific to what their communities holes, and was still in use by the mid-1960s.
produce, which depends highly on their home
In the Americas, early colonists found it difficult at first
environment. Popular goods that were traded using the
to establish a general form of payment until 1715. Back
barter system are cattle and grain.
then, the Indians in the Americas used strings of white
beads called wampumpeag, from the Indian word for
string of beads peag and the Indian word for white equipped the city of Florence for international trade
wampum. This was later shortened into just being more than any other country, and later on equipped
called the wampum. The wampum is produced out of them for banking.
clam shells and other similar shells found in the river
The Emergence of Paper Money and the Concept of
shores of America and Canada. Wampums, as their
Banking
names connote, are generally white, but there were
also rare black or blueblack wampums utilized as The earliest form of banking was recorded in Egypt and
higherpriced wampums. Wampums faded into history Mesopotamia in the 18th century BC, where gold was
around the nineteenth century. considered of high value and needed to be kept in
temples for safe-keeping. Mesopotamian civilizations
The Birth of Metal Coins
believed in the sacredness of temples, which was
Before coins came into existence in the trading system, enough to deter thieves from stealing the gold reserves.
the primitive man first discovered the value of metals. However, these gold were kept idle in temples for a
At the end of the Stone Age, imitations of cowries were long time when it could have been circulated in the
manufactured in China using bronze and copper and trading community. The concept of banking was first
were considered of high value when its use spread to observed during Hammurabi’s rule in Babylon, where
other nations. The use of metals as money also became records of loans, deposit forms and receipts, and
widespread, as in the case of West Africa where metal monetary contracts were found written on stone
anklets, bracelets, and necklaces called manilla were tablets, hundreds of thousands of which have been
used for payments, with its circulation stopping in 1949. discovered by modern archeologists. These simple
banking operations existed a century before the
A century after the use of metallic cowries, the very first
existence of coins.
coins were minted in Ephesus of Ionia, now western
Turkey, by the Greeks during the 650 BC. These coins By the 12th and 13th centuries, European countries
made of electrum (55% gold and 45% silver) spread in have discovered Christianity and have gone on Crusades
the entirety of Greece with the emblems of each city in other countries to spread their beliefs. This resulted
stamped on coins produced in their hometowns. not only in the conversion of people into their religion
Another century after, the king of Lydia, Croesus, but also in an increased trading system with other
becomes the first king to mint coins using pure gold and regions. These Crusades grew the influence and wealth
pure silver, with sides showing the bust of a lion and a of European countries such as Italy, where the cities of
bull. By the end of the 6th century, neighboring nations Venice, Genoa, and Florence were flourishing in trade.
and empires have already adopted the coins system. Mostly, they traded with Asian natives for silk and
spices, and these numerous trades meant merchants
In Athens, coins were inscribed with an owl on one side
would sometimes need to borrow enough money to
and were also called “owls of Minerva”, Minerva being
keep producing their items until they earn it back. With
the Roman name for Athena, the mythic guardian of
the widespread use of the metal coins and the ever-
Athens. Roman coins, on the other hand, were minted
developing system of trade within nations, the need for
in the temple of Juno Moneta, whose name is the origin
a money-changing and coin regulation became urgent.
of the term “money”.
This urgency was answered when two families from the
Late into the 3rd century BC, the use of metals to mint
city of Florence, the Bardis and the Peruzzis, offered
coins was introduced by Emperor Shi Huangdi in China.
financial and banking services by the early 14th century.
These coins were mould using bronze as they have done
They handled the collection and transfer of money in
with the cowrie dummies, but this time in the shape of
trades and also introduced the concept of cheques,
a round coin with a square hole in the middle. This coin
where they provided merchants with bills of exchange.
design would then become an icon in the eastern
monetary system. It was not long until Florence became the home of the
most famous bankers in history. Cosimo de Medici, a
Another famous coin minted in 1252 is the fiorino d’oro,
banker from the 15th century, had built multiple
or the golden florin from Florence. This coin became
branches of his multinational bank across Europe and
Europe’s most widely accepted coin, which then
later on became the ruler of Florence. His family’s The First Central Bank
business commissioned works of art made during the
National or central banks are those that are established
Renaissance by famous artists like Botticelli and
and built in partnership with the state. When the state
Michelangelo, which then opened the doors for
started issuing bank notes through the national banks,
Florence to be the classically beautiful city it is today.
confidence in the paper money came back. The first
In spite of these banking and trade developments, known central bank is the Bank of Sweden. It was
Europe was still behind when it comes to establishing a founded in 1668 and is the world’s oldest bank still in
more convenient monetary system. When Marco Polo business.
travelled to China in the 1290s, he discovered that the
It was followed shortly after in 1694 when King Louis
Chinese had been utilizing paper money for years in the
XIV of France clashed with King William III of England,
form of authenticated, government-issued paper notes
prompting a war between the two nations. King William
known as Chao. Kublai Khan, then ruler of China,
III needed more than enough funds in order to fight
introduced this to the nation and commanded them to
France, but the taxes being imposed were not enough.
recognize this paper as money, and anyone who
He was then given aid by a Scotsman named William
attempts to counterfeit these paper noted will be
Paterson along with some rich businessmen from
sentence to death. This meant that Kublai Khan held the
London. Together, they built the Bank of England to
sole power over China’s growing economy as the only
lend the government some money. Although it was a
one who can produce the paper money.
privately owned bank, it had transactions with the
Marco Polo then reported this in his book The Travels of national government that were to be paid through the
Marco Polo as he returned to Venice. This then shifted people’s taxes. The Bank of England developed through
Europe’s monetary system into also using paper money the years, and it officially became a national bank in
in the form of bills of exchange. This made trade more 1946.
convenient for the whole of Europe, as merchants and
In the other side of the world, a financial crisis was
buyers would only need to present a piece of paper,
brewing and the Panic of 1907 was happening in New
which could then be given to banks in exchange for its
York, United States. Banks failed to operate fully and
equivalent in coins. As time passed by, these bank notes
had to declare bankruptcy. This crisis was solved when a
were used by the Europeans to trade, and later on
rich banker, J.P. Morgan, pledged his own money to
became recognized as actual money.
help the nation’s banking system up to its feet. This
As bank notes became more prominent in Europe, crisis urged the US government to create the National
Johan Pamstruch built the Stockholm Banco, a private Monetary Commission to provide a more established
bank linked with the state. Palmstruch started issuing currency and credit plan to avoid bigger financial crisis
credit notes that can then be exchanged for the in the future. The commission then created the Federal
equivalent number of coins. These notes were printed Reserve System which consequently created the Federal
on paper and had eight signatures on them. Later on, Reserve Banks for each Federal Reserve District.
people trusted these credit notes enough to exchange it
Modern Trade and Money
with one another. However, the Stockholm Banco fell
into decimation when the bank issued more credit During the early days of the 20th century, computer
notes than the bank’s coin reserve. technology has been on the rise. Banks in the United
States has begun relying on electronic forms for
Another attempt at the circulation of paper money in
transactions between the central bank and commercial
Europe was made by John Law decades after
banks. It was in 1946 when the first credit card, Charg-
Palmstruch’s downfall. Law founded the Banque
It, was introduced. John Biggins, owner of the Flatbush
Generale in Paris and issued bank notes in 1719. This
National Bank of Brooklyn, invented the Charg-It, which
did not last long due to a government decree released
allows cardholders to purchase items or services by
in May 1970 cutting the value of paper money in half.
borrowing credit from the bank and paying it in the
form of a debt. However, Charg-It was only accepted in
several establishments in the United States.
In 1950, another card of the same context was made: Primitive Filipinos were also able to produce their own
the Diner Club Card. This card was exclusively used in coins called the barrillas, where the modern concept of
restaurants, and was invented by Frank McNamara and barya or loose change is taken from. Unfortunately, the
Ralph Schneider. The Diners Club was the first use of barrillas was banned by the Spanish government.
successful credit card, and garnered over 500,000
When the Spaniards came, they brought with them the
members in just five years. Years later, other companies
cobs or macuquinas, silver coins minted from Mexico
started releasing their own credit card programs, such
and Spain. These coins contained an inscription of a
as American Express and Visa.
cross on one side and the royal coat-ofarms of Spain on
When the 21st century started, banks across the world the other. Later on, the Spaniards also brought the
have shifted into the digital world, putting their Spanish dos munos coins to the Philippines, which had
databases and records online. The rise of the internet an inscribed crowned globe in both sides. These globes
and mobile phones also gave way to electronic symbolizes the power Spain has seized in both the old
transactions. and new world, thus the name dos mundos. When the
revolution against the Spanish colonization sparked in
Payment of commodities were made easier by mobile
the Central and South America, silver coins tampered
phone applications such as Apple Pay.
with revolutionary slogans were mixed with coins being
In 2008, a new currency type was invented: the Bitcoin. brought to the country. To prevent the Filipinos from
This currency invented by someone under the knowing about the rebellion in the Americas, the
pseudonym on Satoshi Nakamoto existed in the digital Spaniards counter-stamped the rebellious inscriptions
world as electronic money. There were no central banks on the coins.
that would regulate the use of this cryptocurrency, but
It was also during the Spanish regime when the first
these Bitcoins can be exchanged for products and
paper money was circulated in the Philippines. Through
services and even for real, actual money. Bitcoins
the first bank established in the country, the El Banco
reached its peak in 2017 when one bitcoin was priced at
Espanol Filipino de Isabel II, the paper money called
more than $13,000, with an all-time high of $19,783.06.
pesos Fuertes was introduced.
However, this did not last long as the cryptocurrency
market crashed in 2018. With all the bitcoin hype came Once the revolution started in the Philippines, a new
the hacking and online theft, which led to the bitcoin constitution was put into place: the Malolos
depreciating in just a span of one year. In January of Constitution. This gave the first president of the
2019, the bitcoin was priced at $3,747, a significant Philippines, General Emilio Aguinaldo, the power to
decrease from its peak. produce currencies. Coppers were mould into centavo
coins, and revolutionary banknotes were printed and
The History of Money in the Philippines
produced in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 pesos. These
Even before the Spanish colonization, ancient Filipino banknotes were signed by Pedro Patern, Mariano
locals have established bartering relations with Limjap, and Telesforo Chuidian. However, when
neighboring communities from China, Java, Borneo, Aguinaldo surrendered to the American regime, these
Thailand, and other Southeast Asian lands. Like other banknotes were stopped in circulation and was
civilizations, the Philippine history of money started considered to be illegal by the Americans.
with the barter system.
The new colonizers brought with them modern banking,
As a region that is naturally rich in gold, the Philippines modern currency, and the credit card system. As these
had its own version of cowries: the Piloncitos. These are were established in the Philippine setting, the country’s
ancient barter rings made of pure gold, and were used reputation and wealth rose and was considered as one
as personal adornment and as jewelry. Piloncitos rings of the most prosperous nations. The American
had a flat base with an inscription of the letter “M” or monetary system adopted into the Philippines was still
“MA” in Javanese script. The early Filipinos used the based on gold, putting the Philippine Peso almost at par
piloncitos rings from the 11th to the 14th century in with the American dollar at 2:1.
trading with China and other neighboring countries.
In 1903, the US Congress mandated the Coinage Act for in the form of deposits, kept in bank reserves and can
the country, which paved the way for Filipinos to have be converted into currency form anytime.
their own denominations in the Philippine Peso
Aside from its usual and general definitions, money is
currency. From 0.50 cents to 1 peso, the coins were
also often defined according to its function or the
minted and given its Filipino identity by bearing the
service it provides.
designs of Filipino artist Melecio Figueroa. In 1912, the
El Banco Espanol Filipino de Isabel II was officially Money as a Medium of Exchange
renamed to the Bank of the Philippine Islands. This
switch also marked the change from Spanish to English The first and most essential function of money is as a
in all coins and notes inscriptions. In 1918, silver medium of exchange. As per its general definition, it is
certificates were officially replaced with treasury used to facilitate transactions and pay for goods and
certificates, and a one-peso note was ordered to be services. Before the use of money came into existence,
printed. the first people used barter in order to acquire the
commodities they needed. There came a time when the
However, changes in the monetary system did not stop barter system turned inconvenient, as barter required
with the American colonization. When the Japanese everyone to have a commodity they can offer in
occupation started in 1942, American banknotes were exchange of what they need from the other party.
easily replaced with war notes from the Japanese, and Barter required people to have a double coincidence of
often came in big denominations. With the revolution wants, or else no exchange will happen. While it was
still ongoing, guerrilla notes or resistance currencies effective and efficient at first, the double coincidence of
were also produced by the Filipinos. wants later became difficult to achieve.
When the World War II ended and the Philippines was This problem is precisely what money provided a
officially a country on its own, old American treasury solution for. With money, parties do not have to offer
certificates stamped with the word “Victory” were used an equivalent good or service in order to acquire the
as currency as the country got back to its feet. When commodity they need. Money serves as a medium of
the Central Bank was built in 1949, money that was put exchange that is accepted by all parties in exchange for
into circulation still came from foreign countries – paper any good or service, as long as the other party has
notes were printed by Thomas de la Rue & Co., Ltd. in enough money to buy such.
England, while coins were imported from the United
States Bureau of Mint. Money as a medium of exchange also promotes
economic efficiency by minimizing transaction cost.
The Filipino coins and paper money we know of did not Transaction cost is the cost of producing the goods and
come into existence until the sixties. A decade later, a services that would have been needed in trading for the
new series of money was produced called the Ang commodities one needs, and with money, this problem
Bagong Lipunan series. In 1983, a new coin design is effectively minimized.
based on the country’s flora and fauna was released.
Years later, another new set of money was issued, this Money as a Store of Value
time with the logo of the BSP. Before money can become a means of transacting and a
Chapter 2: Money in the Nation’s Economy medium of exchange, it must be able to hold its value
for a period of time. The second function of money is as
When it comes to defining what money is, humans a store of value, which is the use of money to preserve
often associate it with income, wealth, and even quality its purchasing power from the time it is earned until it is
of life. In general, money is defined as anything that is used for its first function.
commonly accepted in payment for goods or services or
as repayment for debts. The function of money as a store of value is not unique
to money in cash. It is also observed in other assets
Money can either be in the form of a) currency, or the such as in stocks, bonds, real estate, and even art.
paper money and coins authorized by the government However, when it comes to this function, money in cash
to be in circulation; or b) deposits, or money that is kept is not the best option as its value depreciates over time
in the bank. A larger portion of money in the world are depending on inflation, while all the other assets that
has store of value function appreciate in value the be put in a wallet or coin purse, or sometimes even just
longer it is preserved. in the pocket.
In a managed currency system, the purchasing power of 3. Fixed currency exchange system
the nation’s currency is controlled and adjusted
Fixed currency means that the central bank has put a
according to the forces of supply and demand. Currency
peg on how money would be priced. Pegs are picked in
management is often done to keep stability in the
relation to the commodity being priced, with the most
markets. Central banks use monetary policies in
popular one being gold. Sometimes, fixed currency can
managing a nation’s currency, policies that fall into the
also depend on another currency in order to maintain
following categories:
its value.
1. Issuing currency and setting interest rates on loans
Chapter 3: Monetary Standards
and bonds to control growth, employment, consumer
spending, and inflation; Monetary standards used to refer to a particular weight
of either gold or silver that is used as the supreme form
2. Regulating member banks through setting a required
of money that cannot be made equivalent to lesser
capital or reserve value and providing loans and services
forms of money. As the concept of money progressed
for national banks and the government;
and developed into what it is today, the definition of
3. Behaving as an emergency lender to distressed monetary standards became that of institutions and
commercial banks and at times even for the practices governing the supply of money in an economy
government by taking responsibility over government with a set of rules and policies. A monetary standard is a
debt; system of currency that acts a stable medium of
exchange for domestic transactions and a means of
4. Operating in the open market to buy and sell
international payment for foreign obligations.
securities such as other currencies. Currency
management also fall into different types. A country’s monetary standard is its principal method of
regulating the quantity and the exchange value of
Currencies can either be managed in a floating currency
standard money. When a country establishes its own
exchange system, a clean float exchange system, or a
monetary standard, a set of rules governing the
fixed currency exchange system.
creation of money and its circulation, and monitors
1. Floating currency exchange system whether these rules are being strictly followed. With a
monetary standard comes an established standard
In this system, the central bank bases its adjustments to money or monetary unit recognized by the government
the price of the currency relative to other currencies as the ultimate basic standard of value upon which all
depending on the external foreign exchange market other kinds of money are convertible. In the Philippines,
forces. The floating system involved the forex, or the the standard monetary unit is the Peso.
global foreign exchange market. Based on the forex,
currency can either be exchanged for its spot price or Monetary standards have two types: commodity or
current marketplace cost, or it can be for a future metallic standard and non-commodity or fiat standard.
delivery. The best example of this is exchanging money Under these types are the following subtypes.
when traveling to another country. The amount of
money one can exchange for the foreign currency
depends at the spot price, which then depends on the
fluctuations in the global market.
• It is universally accepted
Commodity Standard
• It is free and has unrestricted import-export
Commodity standard is a monetary system wherein the rules
purchasing power or value of the standard monetary • It ensures stable forex
unit is equivalent to that of a designated quantity of a • It needs no government intervention
particular commodity. Commodity standards are almost
always based on metals such as silver and gold and is Cons of the gold coin standard
sometimes dubbed as full-bodied money because of • It is fair-weather standard, meaning it only
this. works smoothly when the country is at peace,
Monometallic Standard but it could easily crash and depreciate during
times of crisis.
Monometallic standard, also called single standard, is a
monetary standard wherein only one metal is used for a b. The Gold Bullion Standard – In a gold bullion
country’s standard money. This metal is then used as monetary standard, the monetary unit of a country is in
payment for all transactions, and its market value is the form of gold bars. In this standard, gold bars cannot
constant. The monometallic standard is then divided perform the function as a medium of exchange, but it
into gold and silver standards. still maintains a measure of value. Minting of coins is
not allowed, but the government accepts tokens or
1. Silver Standard paper money in exchange of gold bullions. Like the first
gold standard, there is no restriction on importing and
In a silver monetary standard, the monetary unit is in
exporting gold bullions. Gold bars have a set and fixed
the form of silver coins. These coins are made with a
price, and a minimum of one gold bar (400 ounces) can
fixed weight. Silver has a tendency to fluctuate in value
be exchanged. Nonetheless, all other currencies can be
more often than gold; hence, silver is less recognized
converted into these bars as long as the holder can
than gold when it comes to being a standard unit of
afford the equivalent price.
money.
Pros of the gold bullion standard:
2. Gold Standard
Gold is the most used metal in monetary standards. In a • As minting of gold coins is not allowed, no
gold monetary standard, the currency of the country is precious metal will be wasted and minting costs
formed solely in gold. This standard was widely is eliminated.
accepted around the world during the 19th century and • An equilibrium in the demand and supply of
gradually stopped circulation in 1936. The gold money will be established.
monetary standard can be further subdivided into gold • Only legitimate demands for gold are met, thus,
coin, gold bullion, and gold exchange standards. These gold reserves are kept stable.
subtypes are also applicable to the silver standard.
Cons of gold bullion standard: • The gold reserves kept in foreign countries
cannot be controlled by the country adopting
• A minimum of one gold bar is what can be
this standard.
redeemed, and anything less than that would
• The same reserve is used by the depositing
not be permitted.
country and the depository country, rendering
• Bullions as monetary units fail to work during
the reserves a failure in the case of an economic
times of economic crises.
crisis
• The government needs to have a hand in
regulating the bullion standard for it to function Bimetallic Standard
properly.
Countries who uses both silver and gold as a basis for
c. Gold Exchange Standard – In a gold exchange their monetary unit is using the bimetallic commodity
monetary standard, the monetary unit of the country is monetary standard. In this standard, the issuer can buy
established in terms of gold – not in gold coins or gold and sell either silver or gold at stated prices. Coins of
bars, but in terms of gold weight and fineness. This different metals – silver or gold – are used as the
means that the local currency can be converted into monetary unit set at a fixed legal ratio of weights and
foreign gold drafts at fixed rates, which is then fineness. These two metallic coins operate as monetary
convertible into foreign currency that can be redeemed units simultaneously and are considered unlimited legal
in gold coins or bars. In this standard, citizens use tenders and can be converted into each other.
tokens and paper money and redeem bills of exchange
In the bimetallic standard, the legal ratio is observed.
payable in gold in a foreign country.
The legal ratio is also called the coinage or mint ratio,
Gold exchange standard is subdivided further into and refers to the ratio between the weight of the coins
automatic and managed gold exchange standards. An in the mint that is set at a fixed point by the
automatic gold exchange standard is established by a government. The standard also observes the market
country when it does not have a gold reserve and would ratio, which is the ratio of the value of gold and silver as
need to depend on the reserves of other countries. On they are bought and sold in the market.
the other hand, a managed gold exchange standard is
The bimetallic standard provides a full-bodied currency
adopted by a country that has a minimal amount of gold
to the country that adopts it, providing gold for large
reserve that can be built up further by partnering with
transactions and silver for smaller ones. Prices are also
other countries.
kept stable, as one metal can always make up for
Pros of the gold exchange standard: shortage of the other. Constant exchange rates can also
be observed as long as both metals are stable in terms
• The needs of the trading industry can be easily of each other. This would ensure a stable money supply
met as the domestic currency is not made in that would then meet the trade requirements of the
gold. economy. The abundance in supply of both metals
• No wastage of metals happens. makes money supply more elastic in this system.
• Any monetary unit can be used as the
circulating medium of exchange. Bank cash reserves in gold and silver coins are also
• Gold reserves kept in foreign countries earn easier to maintain as these are considered unlimited
interest. legal tender. Interest rates also decline as the supply of
• This standard will be particularly helpful to less the two metals is often generally higher than the
developed countries who has little to no gold demand. This makes it possible for banks to extend
reserves. loans at cheap rates and encourage people to invest,
• The government can buy and sell foreign gold hence building a stronger economy.
drafts, and ultimately earn a profit. Although the bimetallic standard has a lot of pros, it
Cons of the gold exchange standard: also has its cons, first of which is that it functions under
Gresham’s law. Gresham’s law states that when there is
• No checks and balances. good and bad money in circulation, bad money tends to
drive the good one out of it. The concept of this law is
triggered whenever the market ratio of silver to gold The government gives this paper money legal tender
grows farther from the legal or mint ratio. When the power, which is the power given to money to settle all
supply for silver becomes overabundant, making it obligations whether public or private. The managed
overvalued and cheaper, thus driving gold out of currency standard is the monetary system in use in the
circulation. Philippines since 1949.
The bimetallic standard can only be effective when the In this monetary standard, the paper money is
market rate and legal rate is equal and stable. However, inconvertible. No gold or silver reserves are maintained
this is far from what happens when this standard is put to back up the money supply. Lastly, the Central Bank is
into practice. It also is a costly monetary standard as it authorized to exercise control over the credit system,
has to answer for costs in minting two types of metals such as controlling the quantity of money in circulation.
into coins, doubling expenses from monometallic
Chapter 4: The History of the Philippine Monetary
standards.
System
Non-Commodity
Before the Philippine money became what it is today, it
Standard Non-commodity standard is a monetary went through many forms and changes throughout the
standard wherein the face value of the money is much country’s history. In fact, the Philippine currency, Peso,
higher than the value of the material used to make it. reflects its colourful history through its name. Peso is
This monetary standard is also called the fiat standard. derived from the Spanish peso or pieces of eight.
The managed currency monetary standard espouses of When Magellan’s expedition landed in the Philippine
an inconvertible and irredeemable paper money that is shores in 1521, he brought with him the Spanish silver
issued against no gold or silver reserves and is managed peso. These silver cobs, also called macuquinas or hilis-
by a Central Bank. The Central Bank keeps the prices on kalamay bore a cross on one side and the Spanish royal
a fair level by using trade and industrial conditions as coat-of-arms on the other, along with the seals of
basis in increasing or decreasing the amount. Spanish rulers Charless II, Philip IV, and Philip V. A few
decades later after the reign of King Philip II, the
Mexican coins called cabo de bara de plata were widely currencies under the Malolos Constitution. This led to
circulated. two types of two-centavo copper coins to be minted in
the Malolos arsenal. Coins were also minted in Panay
During the reign of King Philip V, the first coin minted in
and Tarlac. The second treasury certificates to be issued
the Philippines was put into circulation. This was called
in the Philippines were also printed in denominations of
the barilla, from which the term barya came from. The
1, 5, and 10 pesos. These revolutionary banknotes were
production of these copper coins was authorized by the
signed by Pedro Paterno, Mariano Limjap, and Telesforo
Royalty of Spain when there was a shortage of
Chuidian.
fractional coins. The barillas were produced by the
Ayuntamiento or the municipality of Manila. These coins and banknotes, however, were short-lived
and were withdrawn from circulation upon the capture
At the height of the galleon trade in 1732, the coin
of Gen. Aguinaldo in March 23, 1901. The revolutionary
Spanish dos mundos circulated not only in the
peso ceased to be minted and was then considered
Philippines, but throughout the whole world. This coin
illegal.
featured twin crowned globes representing the Spanish
rule over the Old and the New World. It is also called American Regime
the Mexican Pillar Dollar or the Columnarias due to the
In 1898, the Philippines was put under official
two columns flanking the globes. The Columnarias were
colonization of the United States through the Treaty of
machine-minted coins containing fine silver.
Paris. Several currencies were allowed to circulate then,
During the Spanish-English War of 1762, a shortage of including the Mexican silver dollar of the Peso
coins prompted a second coin to be allowed to be containing eight Reals. The American Dollar was what
locally minted in the Philippines. This was called the the Americans wanted to circulate, but the new
colderillas. To make it easier to produce, it was still currency was rejected by the Filipinos who have grown
made out of copper but made half the size of the to be much accustomed with the Mexican silver. Hence,
barillas. However, these were not in circulation for long the US Dollar was put into circulation for a short while
as it was quickly replaced by another version of the until the Third Treasury certificates were issued.
barilla, this time bearing the bust of Carlos III. It also
In 1901, an American banking expert named Charles
bore the inscription “Ciudad de Manila 1776”.
Connant recommended the gold exchange standard
Upon the death of King Ferdinand VII, his daughter when he visited the country. Based on his
Queen Isabel II became the new ruler of Spain. Coins recommendation the Philippine Coinage Act was passed
called Isabelinas were circulated during her reign. In by the American Congress in 1903. This established a
1852, the first Filipino bank note was printed. It was unit of currency based on gold and pegged the
called pesos Fuertes and was issued by the El Banco Philippine peso to the US Dollar at the ratio 2:1. In order
Espanol-Filipino de Isabel II, the country’s first bank. to maintain parity of the existing silver peso with the
Five years later, Queen Isabel II ordered the theoretical gold peso, the Gold Standard Fund was
establishment of the Manila Mint, which was then established. This meant that the Philippines was ready
allowed to mint silver coins with a lower production to sell drafts from the fund to settle international
cost via a royal decree. obligations, drafts that were then redeemable into
American dollars which are then convertible into gold
It was in 1887 when the first Treasury certificates
coins.
bearing the official seal of the Philippine government
were issued. These bore the signature of Clem de It was also during the American regime when the
Santiago, the Insular Treasurer. Philippine National Bank was created. The bank was
established in response to the increase in the volume of
The 1896 Cry of Balintawak headed by Andres Bonifacio
trade with the increased demand for Philippine
signalled the start of the Philippine Revolutionary
products. The Philippine National Bank was allowed to
period. Two years later, the Philippines was freed from
issue Philippine banknotes to augment the insufficient
the Spanish reign, and the Philippine Republic was born
money supply. However, these notes were not legal
under the presidency of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo.
tender, although they were payable to the bearer and
Aguinaldo then had the vested authority to produce
the bearer was then promised the corresponding When the Japanese occupation ended and the
equivalent in treasury certificates Philippines was finally left on its own, all the fiat money
they issued were no longer recognized, and the only
Another change in Philippine banking was the renaming
legal tended left in circulation was the Philippine peso.
of El Banco Espanol-Filipino de Isabel II to the Bank of
the Philippine Islands in 1912. This change paved the Philippine Managed Currency System
way for the use of English instead of Spanish in all notes
Now a free country, the Philippines took on a managed
and coins issued. In 1920, the Manila Mint was
currency system and established the Central Bank of the
reopened as the American government decided that it
Philippines to administer the banking and monetary
would be more economical and convenient to mint
system of the country, under the Republic Act No. 265
silver coins in the Philippines.
creating the central bank, all powers related to the
In 1933, the US government under US President printing and mintage of the Philippine currency
Franklin D. Roosevelt abandoned the gold standard and belonged to the central bank and the central bank only,
proclaimed the gold embargo in US territories and taking away the rights of banks in issuing currency, such
colonies. The Philippines, now a US Commonwealth, as the Bank of the Philippine Islands and the Philippine
then had to follow through and abandon the gold National Bank.
standard, even if it meant that the gold drafts in
Following the events of the Second World War, the
circulation are no longer redeemable to gold coins.
Filipinos used old treasury certificates overprinted with
These were, however, exchangeable into US Dollars. In
the word “Victory”. The first official currencies issued by
1935, new types of coins were circulated, this time
the Central Bank were the English series notes printed
bearing the coat of arms of the Philippine
by the Thomas de la Ruse & Co., Ltd. In England and the
Commonwealth, replacing the arms of the US territories
coins minted at the US Bureau of Mint. It was not until
on the reverse of coins.
the late 60’s when the Central Bank ordered the
Japanese Occupation changes of the coins and paper money in use, giving
birth to the Pilipino coin and paper money series. Coins
When World War II sparked in 1942 and the Japanese
were given Filipino names instead of English
occupied the Philippines, the Philippine monetary
terminologies in 1967, followed by the paper money in
system was put into a crisis. The Japanese forces
1969.
brought with them a great amount of paper bills called
Japanese War Notes, fiat money that had no reserves When Ferdinand Marcos declared the Martial Law in
nor was it backed up by any government asset. People effect in 1972, the Central Bank of the Philippines had
were forced to accept these bills, later on dubbed as the to adopt a Floating Rate or a managed float system. This
“mickey mouse money”, as there was no control in its system had no fixed parity commitments versus the
issuance. This later on posed a negative effect to the dollar and allowed the peso to seek its own level in
Philippine currency as it experienced hyperinflation. relation to foreign currencies depending on the demand
and supply of each foreign currency. This triggered
Aside from the mickey mouse bills circulated by the
inflation and exchange rates to be unstable, with the
Japanese, Filipino guerrillas in provinces and
Central Bank’s lack of independence from the
municipalities chose to produce their own guerrilla
government and the government’s fiscal shortcomings.
notes or resistance currencies. Using only crude inks
In 1975, another currency series called the Ang Bagong
and materials, local banks and governments issued
Lipunan was put into circulation and were printed in the
these emergency circulating notes that were to be
Security Printing Plant starting 1978. Just a few years, a
redeemable in silver pesos after the war. However, Jose
new coinage series was released: the Flora and Fauna
P. Laurel’s puppet presidency declared the production
series.
and possession of the guerrilla currency illegal, with
consequences of arrest and worse, execution. In spite of In 1983, the Marcos administration suffered a
this, the Philippine Commonwealth forces together with confidence crisis leading to investors backing out,
the US military forces continued to produce Philippine resulting to the dollar exchange rate shooting up from
pesos.
₱11/$ to ₱20/$. The inflation it caused also doubled the authentication, making it more complicated to be
prices of goods and services. counterfeited.
The end of the Marcos administration and the end of Level 1: Security features which can be easily
Martial Law signalled a new beginning for the recognized by the public without use of special
Philippines. Economic developments were flourishing in instruments. These are the “look, feel, tilt” elements in
the 90’s, paving the way to establishing a new central the notes such as watermarks, security thread, security
bank. The Republic Act No 7653, the New Central Bank fibers, and others.
Act, replaces the old Central Bank of the Philippines
Level 2: Security features recognizable by professional
with a new Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. The act
cash handlers/bank tellers with the use of magnifying
narrowed down and streamlined the specific objectives
lens or ultraviolet light. Examples are fluoro-
of the Bangko Sentral, such as maintaining price
phosphorescent features, security fibers, and
stability and enjoying fiscal and administrative
microprinting.
autonomy to keep it from government interference.
Various foreign exchange regulations were also put into Level 3: The hidden or covert security features reserved
place. for the use of the Bangko Sentral.
The New Generation Currency Level 4: Forensic security features for the use of law
enforcers in testifying whether a banknote is genuine or
In December of 2010, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas
counterfeit. These are detectable at specialized
released the new banknotes produced by the central
laboratories.
bank into circulation. The change was made according
to practice to help guard against counterfeits. Central Recent Monetary Issues Since the 90’s, the Philippine
banks usually change currency designs every 10 years monetary system has been generally stable, but not
on average to protect the integrity of the country’s without a few issues here and there. Most of these
currency. issues deal with misprints, fraud, and inflation.
All six banknotes – 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1000 – • About 78 million 100-peso notes were printed in 2005
were given a redesign, but their sizes were retained. with the misspelled name of former president Gloria
The BSP made the redesigns as user-friendly as possible, Macapagal Arroyo. The notes were printed with
retaining the overall colors of the old banknotes. In this “Arrovo” instead of “Arroyo” and was only found out
case, the 20 peso bill remained orange, the 50 peso bill when about 2 million of these notes have been out for
remained red, the 100 peso bill remained violet, 200 circulation.
peso in green, 500 peso in yellow, and 1000 peso in
blue. They also added big digits of the denominational • In August of 2006, the fact that the 1-peso coin has
value on both sides of the new bill. the same size as a UAE dirham coin and a US quarter
became popular.
All these redesigning concepts were studied and
proposed by the BSP’s Numismatic Committee, along • In 2010, the New Generation Currency Series printed
with the upgrades in the security features of the scientific names in an incorrect manner, and were only
country’s currency. The Monetary Board then approved addressed in the 2017 revisions.
the concepts and submitted it to the President for a • A 100-peso banknote without the face of former
final approval. For the New Generation banknotes, the president Manuel Roxas went viral in 2017. The BSP said
Numismatic Committee consulted with Filipino design that it was nothing but a rare misprint.
groups on what concepts to integrate on the new
designs, acquiring inspiration from national historical Chapter 5: Philippine Monetary Policy
events and culture.
When the Philippines established the Central Bank, it
The New Generation banknotes feature Filipinos such as also established its own monetary policy. The monetary
the heroes along with world heritage sites and iconic policy refers to the measures or actions taken by the
natural wonders found in the Philippines. These central bank to influence the general price level and the
banknotes are also equipped with four levels of security level of liquidity in the economy. It encompasses all
actions made by the central bank in managing the growth; however, this also could result in a relatively
country’s money supply in the form of credit, cash, higher inflation path for the economy.
checks, and money market mutual funds.
In the Philippines, the primary objective is promoting a
It is how the government controls the supply and low and stable inflation conducive to a balanced and
availability of money, the cost of money, and the rate of sustainable economic growth.
interest. Monetary policy is one of the two ways a
Philippine Monetary Policy
country’s government can influence the economy, with
the other one being Fiscal Policy. As assigned by the Republic Act No. 265, the authority
to provide policy directions in the monetary, banking,
Monetary policy manages economic growth and
and credit systems of the Philippines is given to the
inflation by balancing liquidity. To further economic
Bangko Sentral ng Plipinas. It exists to supervise
growth, it increases liquidity. On the other hand, to
operations of banks and to regulate the non-bank
prevent inflation, it reduces liquidity. Monetary policies
financial institutions, as well as to keep aggregate
work mostly around credit, including loans, mortgages,
demand from growing rapidly or growing too slowly.
and bond. Central banks use interest rates, reserve
Over the years, the primary objective of the monetary
requirements, and bond amounts that banks must hold
policy set by the BSP is price and inflation stability,
in influencing how much a bank can lend, and therefore
leading the country to a balanced economic growth.
influencing the money supply in other forms.
The first Philippine monetary framework from the
Objectives of Monetary Policies
1980s followed a monetary aggregate targeting
Generally, central banks have three monetary policy approach in its monetary policy. This approach believed
objectives, with specific targets for each varying from that the relationship between money, output, and
one country to another. inflation is stable and predictable, particularly that
changes in money supply is related to price changes or
• Managing inflation
inflation. With the money aggregate targeting
• Reducing unemployment approach, the BSP is assumed to be able to determine
the level of liquidity necessary for the ideal inflation
• Promoting moderate long-term interest rates level that would be consistent with the growth
There are two settings or types of monetary policy that objective. Under this monetary framework, the BSP
are specific to meeting these objectives. The first one is directly controls or targets the money supply, resulting
the contractionary monetary policy. This is used by to it indirectly controlling inflation.
central banks to reduce inflation, wherein they reduce In June of 1995, the BSP adopted a modified monetary
the money supply by restricting the amount of money framework, wherein the previous sole money aggregate
banks can lend. This then leads to banks charging higher targeting is now complemented by inflation targeting
interest rates and increase loan fees. This type of with an emphasis on price stability. These changes
monetary policy slows down growth as fewer included allowing base money levels to go beyond
businesses and individuals borrow from banks. targets as long as inflation rates are met and
The other type is the expansionary monetary policy. The establishing an operation to bring down the base
aim of this setting is to lower unemployment rates and money level whenever an excess of one or more
to avoid recession. This setting does the opposite: it percentage points in the inflation rate is observed.
intends to increase the level of liquidity or money Under this new framework, the BSP ensures that price
supply by giving banks more money to lend out. With levels are stable even with occasional economic shocks.
the high supply of money, banks could lower their It was in January of 2002 when the Bangko Sentral ng
interest rates and make loans cheaper. This then Pilipinas formally adopted the inflation targeting
attracts more businesses to borrow money for business framework as its sole monetary policy. This allows the
and operations expansion, along with individuals central bank to focus on keeping the inflation rate on an
looking to borrow money for personal development. optimal stable and low level that would then allow the
This setting increases demand and increases economic country to grow its economy. The ideal inflation rate is
measured through the Consumer Price Index, as the unless these are necessary to achieve the goals of price
ultimate end goal of the monetary policy under the stability.
inflation targeting framework is price stability.
• Central bank independence The central bank must be
Under the inflation targeting framework, the central able to conduct monetary policy without political
bank establishes an explicit inflation target and commits interference. It must be able to use whatever monetary
to achieving it in a given time period. The central bank policy instrument is needed to achieve price stability.
then uses various instruments to achieve this target, The central bank should also have fiscal independence,
and in the event that they fail, it is obligated to provide i.e., it must not be constrained by the need to finance
a public explanation and come up with measures on the fiscal deficit.
how to meet the inflation target again.
• Good forecasting ability
The important features of the inflation targeting
approach are as follow, according to BSP: The central bank should have a good statistical model
for forecasting inflation.
• simple framework which can, therefore, be easily
understood by the public; • Transparency
If the variety in the M1 and M2 stock is low, this means Foreign Exchange Swaps
that there is an excess amount of money held by • This refers to the actual exchange of two currencies at
consumers themselves and not being put into
a specific date, at a rate agreed upon the deal date and
circulation that much.
the reverse exchange of the currencies at a farther ate
Monetary Policy Instruments in the future, also at an interest rate agreed on deal
date.
In order for the BSP to make use of the money supply
indicators and achieve the inflation target, it utilizes a • Acceptance of Fixed-Term Deposits
variety of instruments to implement its monetary
o This method was introduced by the BSP in 1998 to
stance.
expand its liquidity management. In the Special
• Open Market Operations Deposits Account, or SDA, consists fixed terms deposits
by banks and institutions affiliated with the BSP. With
o This is the sale or purchase of government securities the adoption of the IRC system in 2016, the SDA facility
by the Bangko Sentral to withdraw or inject liquidity was replaced by the term deposit auction facility (TDF).
into the system. Open Market Operations consist of the o The TDF is a key liquidity absorption facility used by
following: the BSP for liquidity management and used to withdraw
Repurchase and Reverse Repurchase a large part of the structural liquidity from the financial
system to bring market rates closer to the BSP policy
• This is carried out through the Repurchase Facility and rate.
Reverse Purchase Facility of the Bangko Sentral ng
Pilipinas. In Purchase transactions, the Bangko Sentral • Standing Liquidity Facilities
buys government securities with a dedication to sell it o The BSP offers standing liquidity (lending and deposit)
back at a specified future date, and at a predetermined windows that help counterparties adjust their liquidity
positions at the end of the day. These standing per Circular No. 964 dated 27 June 2017. The EDYRF
overnight facilities are available on demand to qualified interest rates are based on the 90-day London
counterparties during BSP business hours. The two InterBank Offered Rate for the last working day of the
standing facilities that form the upper and lower bound immediately preceding month plus 200 basis points plus
of the corridor are set at ± 50 basis points (bps) around the applicable term premia for loan maturities
the target policy rate (the overnight RRP rate under the exceeding 90 days pursuant to Circular No. 807 dated
new IRC structure). 15 August 2013.
o The BSP offers two tenors—seven days and 28 days— o Reserve requirements are imposed on the peso
in its term deposit. The possibility of offering longer liabilities of universal/commercial banks, thrift banks,
tenors can be considered in the future, depending on rural banks and cooperative banks, and non-bank
the liquidity needs and preferences of the market. Pre- financial institutions with quasi-banking functions.
termination is prohibited for the 7-day tenor but is Reservable liabilities include demand, savings, time
allowed for the 28-day tenor after a 7-day holding deposit and deposit substitutes (including long-term
period at the appropriate pre-termination rate. The TDF non-negotiable tax-exempt certificates of time
auction will be operated using a variable-rate, deposits).
multipleprice tender (English auction) in order to bring
Fiscal Policy
shortterm interest rates within a reasonably close range
to the policy rate. In order to achieve certain goals, the government
utilizes the existing monetary policy together with a
• Rediscounting
fiscal policy. Fiscal policy are measures employed by
o The BSP extends discounts, loans and advances to governments to stabilize the economy, specifically by
banking institutions in order to influence the volume of manipulating the levels and allocations of taxes and
credit in the financial system. The rediscounting facility government expenditures.
allows a financial institution to borrow money from the
The government funds itself by putting tax systems in
BSP using promissory notes and other loan papers of its
place, mainly from personal and income tax collections.
borrowers as collateral.
It also gets revenue through fees and licenses,
o The rediscounting facility has two categories namely, privatization proceeds, and income from other
Peso Rediscount Facility and Exporters Dollar and Yen government operations and state-owned enterprises,
Rediscount Facility. The Peso Rediscount Facility which are all non-tax revenues. To finance fiscal deficit
interest rates are based on the latest available BSP and debt, the Philippines relies on both domestic and
overnight lending rate plus the applicable term premia external sources.
Tax collections comprise the biggest percentage of 1. Agricultural and marine products in their original
revenue collected. Its biggest contributor is the Bureau state (e.g. vegetables, meat, fish, fruits, eggs and rice),
of Internal Revenue, followed by the Bureau of including those which have undergone preservation
Customs. Tax effort as a percentage of GDP has processes (e.g. freezing, drying, salting, broiling,
averaged at roughly 13% for the years 2001-2010. roasting, smoking or stripping);
On the other hand, income tax is a tax on a person's 2. Educational services rendered by both public and
income, wages, and profits arising from property, private educational institutions;
practice of profession, conduct of trade or business or
3. Books, newspapers and magazines;
any stipulated in the National Internal Revenue Code of
1997, less any deductions granted. Income tax in the 4. Lease of residential houses not exceeding ₱10,000
Philippines is a progressive tax, as people with higher monthly;
incomes pay more than people with lower incomes. In
2008, Republic Act No. 9504 (passed by then-President 5. Sale of low-cost house and lot not exceeding ₱2.5
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo) exempted minimum wage million
earners from paying income taxes. 6. Sales of persons and establishments earning not
In 2018, the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion more than ₱1.5 million annually.
Act or the TRAIN law was implemented. This law Aside from taxes and the E-VAT, the government also
reduced tax rates, simplified the tax system, expanded sources its revenues from collections made by the
the VAT base, and put excise tax on sugar, automobiles, Bureau of Customs. The BOC imposes tariffs and duties
and petroleum products. on all items imported into the Philippines. The
government also funds itself through non-tax revenue,
such as income from the Bureau of Treasury. The
Bureau of Treasury manages the finances of the
government, by attempting to maximize revenue
collected and minimize spending. The bulk of non-tax
revenues comes from the BTr’s income. Under
Executive Order No.449, the BTr collects revenue by
issuing, servicing and redeeming government securities,
and by controlling the Securities Stabilization Fund
through the purchase and sale of government bills and
bonds.
1. Program and Project Loans - the government offers Central banks are inherently non-market-based or even
project loans to external bodies and uses the proceeds anticompetitive institutions. Although some are
to fund domestic projects like infrastructure, nationalized, many central banks are not government
agriculture, and other government projects. agencies, and so are often touted as being politically
independent. However, even if a central bank is not
2. Credit Facility Loans
legally owned by the government, its privileges are
3. Zero-coupon Treasury Bills established and protected by law.
o All of whom shall serve full-time – provided, however, As they are appointed by the President, they can also be
that of the members first appointed under the removed from the board by the President. This could
provisions of this subsection, three shall have a term of happen in the event of any of the following:
six years, and the other two, three years.
• If the member is subsequently disqualified under the
Board Membership qualification requirements;
In accordance with the New Central Bank Act, any • If he is physically or mentally incapacitated that he
vacancy in the Monetary Board created by the death, cannot properly discharge his duties and responsibilities
resignation, or removal of any member shall be filled by and such incapacity has lasted for more than six
the appointment of a new member to complete the months;
unexpired period of the term of the member
• If the member is guilty of acts or operations which are
concerned.
of fraudulent or illegal character or which are manifestly
The following are the qualification requirements of opposed to the aims and interests of the Bangko
board members: Sentral; or
• Must be natural-born citizens of the Philippines • If the member no longer possesses the qualifications
required.
• At least 35 years of age, with the exception of the
Governor who should be at least 40 years old Powers of the Monetary Board
• Of good moral character The Monetary Board has the following powers in
exercising its authority:
1. Issue rules and regulations it considers necessary for The Governor and its Powers
the effective discharge of the responsibilities and
As mandated by the New Central Bank Act, the
exercise of the powers vested upon the Monetary
Governor shall be the chief executive officer of the
Board and the Bangko Sentral;
Bangko Sentral.
2. Direct the management, operations, and
The Governor’s powers and duties are as follows:
administration of the Bangko Sentral, reorganize its
personnel, and issue such rules and regulations as it • Prepare the agenda for the meetings of the Monetary
may deem necessary or convenient for this purpose. Board and to submit for the consideration of the Board
The legal units of the Bangko Sentral shall be under the the policies and measures that he believes to be
exclusive supervision and control of the Monetary necessary to carry out the purposes and provisions of
Board; said Act;
3. Establish a human resource management system • Execute and administer the policies and measures
which shall govern the selection, hiring, appointment, approved by the Monetary Board;
transfer, promotion, or dismissal of all personnel. Such
system shall aim to establish professionalism and • Direct and supervise the operations and internal
excellence at all levels of the Bangko Sentral in administration of the Bangko Sentral. The Governor
accordance with sound principles of management. A may delegate certain of his administrative
compensation structure, based on job evaluation responsibilities to other officers or may assign specific
studies and wage surveys subject to the Board's tasks or responsibilities to any fulltime member of the
approval, shall be instituted as an integral component Monetary Board without additional remuneration or
of the Bangko Sentral's human resource development allowance whenever he may deem fit or subject to such
program. On the recommendation of the Governor, rules and regulations as the Monetary Board may
appoint, fix the remunerations and other emoluments, prescribe;
and remove personnel of the Bangko Sentral, subject to • Appoint and fix the remunerations and other
pertinent civil service laws: Provided, That the emoluments of personnel below the rank of a
Monetary Board shall have exclusive and final authority department head in accordance with the position and
to promote, transfer, assign, or reassign personnel of compensation plans approved by the Monetary Board,
the Bangko Sentral and these personnel actions are as well as to impose disciplinary measures upon
deemed made in the interest of the service and not personnel of the Bangko Sentral, provided that the
disciplinary, provided, further, that the Monetary Board removal of personnel shall be with the approval of the
may delegate such authority to the Governor under Monetary Board;
such guidelines as it may determine;
• Render opinions, decisions, or rulings, which shall be
4. Adopt an annual budget for and authorize such
final and executory until reversed or modified by the
expenditures by the Bangko Sentral in the interest of
Monetary Board, on matters regarding application or
the effective administration and operations of the
enforcement of laws pertaining to institutions
Bangko Sentral in accordance with applicable laws and
supervised by the Bangko Sentral and laws pertaining to
regulations; and
quasi-banks, as well as regulations, policies or
5. Indemnify its members and other officials of the instructions issued by the Monetary Board, and the
Bangko Sentral, including personnel of the departments implementation thereof; and
performing supervision and examination functions
• Exercise such other powers as may be vested in him
against all costs and expenses reasonably incurred by
by the Monetary Board. As the principal representative
such persons in connection with any civil or criminal
of the Bangko Sentral and the Monetary Board, the
action, suit or proceedings to which he may be, or is,
Governor is also empowered to do the following duties:
made a party by reason of the performance of his
• Represent the Monetary Board and the Bangko
functions or duties, unless he is finally adjudged in such
Sentral in all dealings with other offices, agencies and
action or proceeding to be liable for negligence or
instrumentalities of the Government, and all other
misconduct.
persons or entities, public or private, whether domestic,
foreign or international;
The Monetary Board of the BSP under the presidency of Chapter 8: Functions and Operations of the Bangko
Rodrigo Duterte is comprised of the following members: Sentral
• Carlos G. Dominguez III Central banks are government established agencies
• Felipe M. Medalla responsible for regulating the nation’s monetary supply
and credit conditions along with monitoring commercial
• Juan De Zuniga, Jr. banks and other non-banking financial institutions.
Below are the characteristics of a central bank:
• Peter B. Favila
o The main feature of a central bank is the issue of o The Central bank acts as the clearing house for other
currency notes in the country. The Central bank controls banks. Under this function the Central bank facilitates
the volume of currency in the country in accordance the settlement of bills and cheques of other banks by
with requirements of business and the general public. setting off demands of one against other and thus helps
the functioning of the banking system so smoothly
• Banker to The Government
without actual cash transactions.
o The Central bank is the banker to the government and
• Controller of Foreign Exchange
also acts as its fiscal agent. The government keeps its
balances with it free of interest. It receives and o The Central bank is responsible for the management
disburses the payments on behalf of the government of foreign exchange & maintaining external value of
and also makes advances to the government. nation’s currency. Functions of the BSP as a Central
Bank As mandated by the New Central Bank Act, the
• Banker’s Bank
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas operates on the following
o The Central bank also acts as the banker to the functions as related to its functions as the central
scheduled and other banks. It is the custodian of the monetary authority:
cash reserves of the commercial banks. Every schedule
• Liquidity Management
bank is required to maintain not less than 5% of its total
demand and time liabilities with the Central bank. The BSP formulates and implements monetary policy
Against these obligations, the scheduled banks are aimed at influencing money supply consistent with its
entitled to loan and rediscount facilities from the bank. primary objective to maintain price stability.
This reserve with the central is considered as good as
• Currency issue
liquid cash. The provision of reserve enables the central
bank to have control over the credit creation of the The BSP has the exclusive power to issue the national
commercial banks. currency. All notes and coins issued by the BSP are fully
guaranteed by the Government and are considered
• Lender of Last Resort
legal tender for all private and public debts.
o The Central bank is the lender of last resort. It
• Lender of last resort
maintains a close relationship with the commercial
banks. It takes the responsibility of meeting directly or The BSP extends discounts, loans and advances to
indirectly, all reasonable demands for accommodation banking institutions for liquidity purposes.
from the commercial banks, and other credit
institutions under certain terms and conditions. • Financial Supervision
o The Bangko Sentral shall have the authority to require o Any director, officer or stockholder who, together
from any person or entity, including government offices with his related interest, contracts a loan or any form of
and instrumentalities, or government-owned or - financial accommodation from: (1) his bank; or (2) from
controlled corporations, any data, for statistical and a bank (a) which is a subsidiary of a bank holding
policy development purposes in relation to the proper company of which both his bank and the lending bank
discharge of its functions and responsibilities. This is are subsidiaries or (b) in which a controlling proportion
provided that disaggregated data gathered are subject of the shares is owned by the same interest that owns a
to prevailing confidentiality laws. The Bangko Sentral controlling proportion of the shares of his bank, in
through the Governor or in his absence, a duly excess of five percent (5%) of the capital and surplus of
authorized representative shall have the power to issue the bank, or in the maximum amount permitted by law,
a subpoena for the production of the books and records whichever is lower, shall be required by the lending
for the aforesaid purpose. Those who refuse the bank to waive the secrecy of his deposits of whatever
subpoena without justifiable cause, or who refuse to nature in all banks in the Philippines. Any information
supply the Bangko Sentral with data required, will be obtained from an examination of his deposits shall be
subject to punishment for contempt in accordance with held strictly confidential and may be used by the
the provisions of the Rules of Court. examiners only in connection with their supervisory and
examination responsibility or by the Bangko Sentral in
o The authority of the Bangko Sentral to require data an appropriate legal action it has initiated involving the
from banks shall continue to be exercised pursuant to deposit account.
its supervisory powers.
• Examination and Fees
o Another thing to note is that data on individuals and
firms, other than banks, gathered by the Bangko Sentral o The supervising and examining department head,
shall not be made available to any person or entity personally or by deputy, shall examine the operations of
every bank and quasi-bank. The institution concerned hundred eighty days from the date of their rediscount,
shall afford to the head of the appropriate supervising discount or acquisition by the Bangko Sentral and
and examining departments and to his authorized resulting from transactions related to:
deputies full opportunity to examine its books and
the importation, exportation, purchase or sale of
records, cash and assets and general condition and
readily saleable goods and products, or their
review its systems and procedures at any time during
transportation within the Philippines; or
business hours when requested to do so by the Bangko
Sentral. the storing of non-perishable goods and products
which are duly insured and deposited, under conditions
• Appointment of Conservator
assuring their preservation, in authorized bonded
o Whenever, on the basis of a report submitted by the warehouses or in other places approved by the
appropriate supervising or examining department, the Monetary Board.
Monetary Board finds that a bank or a quasi-bank is in a
state of continuing inability or unwillingness to maintain • Production credits
a condition of liquidity deemed adequate to protect the o The Bangko Sentral may rediscount, discount, buy and
interest of depositors and creditors, the Monetary sell bills, acceptances, promissory notes and other
Board may appoint a conservator with such powers as credit instruments having maturities of not more than
the Monetary Board shall deem necessary to take three hundred sixty days from the date of their
charge of the assets, liabilities, and the management rediscount, discount or acquisition by the Bangko
thereof, reorganize the management, collect all monies Sentral and resulting from transactions related to the
and debts due said institution, and exercise all powers production or processing of agricultural, animal,
necessary to restore its viability. mineral, or industrial products.
• Disposition of Banking Franchise o Documents or instruments acquired in accordance
with this subsection shall be secured by a pledge of the
o The Bangko Sentral may, if public interest so requires,
respective crops or products. This is provided, however,
award to an institution, upon such terms and conditions
that the crops or products need not be pledged to
as the Monetary Board may approve, the banking
secure the documents if the original loan granted by the
franchise of a bank under liquidation to operate in the
Bangko Sentral is secured by a lien or mortgage on real
area where said bank or its branches were previously
estate property seventy percent of the appraised value
operating. This is provided that whatever proceeds may
of which equals or exceeds the amount of the loan
be realized from such award shall be subject to the
granted.
appropriate exclusive disposition of the Monetary
Board. • Other credits
Credit Policy o These can be special credit instruments not otherwise
The rediscounts, discounts, loans and advances which rediscountable under the immediately preceding
the Bangko Sentral is authorized to extend to banking subsections and may be eligible for rediscounting in
institutions are used to influence the volume of credit accordance with rules and regulations which the Bangko
consistent with the objective of price stability and Sentral shall prescribe.
maintenance of financial stability. o Whenever necessary, the Bangko Sentral shall provide
The Bangko Sentral may normally and regularly carry on funds from non-inflationary sources. This is provided,
the following credit operations with banking institutions however, that the Monetary Board shall prescribe
operating in the Philippines: additional safeguards for disbursing these funds.
o The Bangko Sentral may rediscount, discount, buy and o The Bangko Sentral may grant advances against the
sell bills, acceptances, promissory notes and other following kinds of collaterals for fixed periods which
credit instruments with maturities of not more than one shall not exceed one hundred eighty (180) days:
gold coins or bullion Monetary Board has ascertained that the bank is not
insolvent and has the assets defined hereunder to
securities representing obligations of the Bangko secure the advances. Furthermore, it should have had a
Sentral or of other domestic institutions of recognized concurrent vote of at least five members of the
solvency Monetary Board obtained. The amount of any
commercial credits emergency loan or advance shall not exceed the sum of
fifty percent of total deposits and deposit substitutes of
production credits, for periods which shall not exceed the banking institution, and shall be disbursed in two or
three hundred sixty (360) days more tranches.
utilized portions of advances in current amount The Bangko Sentral then collects interest and other
covered by regular overdraft agreements related to appropriate charges on all loans and advances it
operations included under commercial and production extends, the closure, receivership or liquidations of the
credits, and certified as to amount and liquidity by the debtor-institution notwithstanding. The Monetary
institution soliciting the advance Board then fixes the interest and rediscount rates to be
charged by the Bangko Sentral on its credit operations
negotiable treasury bills, certificates of indebtedness,
in accordance with the character and term of the
notes and other negotiable obligations of the
operation, but after due consideration has been given
Government maturing within three years from the date
to the credit needs of the market, the composition of
of the advance
the Bangko Sentral’s portfolio, and the general
negotiable bonds issued by the Government of the requirements of the national monetary policy. Interest
Philippines, by Philippine provincial, city or municipal and rediscount rates shall be applied to all banks of the
governments, or by any Philippine Government same category uniformly and without discrimination.
instrumentality, and having maturities of not more than
Documents rediscounted, discounted or accepted as
ten years from the date of advance.
collateral by the Bangko Sentral must be withdrawn by
The Bangko Sentral may also extend loans and advances the borrowing institution on the dates of their
to banking institutions for a period of not more than maturities, or upon liquidation of the obligations which
seven days without any collateral for the purpose of they represent or to which they relate whenever said
providing liquidity to the banking system in times of obligations have been liquidated prior to their dates of
need. maturity. Banks have the right at any time to withdraw
any documents which they have presented to the
In periods of national and/or local emergency or of
Bangko Sentral as collateral, upon payment in full of the
imminent financial panic which directly threaten
corresponding debt to the Bangko Sentral, including
monetary and financial stability, the Monetary Board
interest charges.
may, by a vote of at least five of its members, authorize
the Bangko Sentral to grant extraordinary loans or The BSP and International Institutions
advances to banking institutions. While such loans or
One function of the BSP is to act as the “banker of the
advances are outstanding, the debtor institution shall
government”, representing the government in
not, except upon prior authorization by the Monetary
international monetary institutions. The Bangko Sentral
Board, expand the total volume of its loans or
represents the government in all dealings, negotiations
investments.
and transactions with the International Monetary Fund
The Monetary Board may, at its discretion, likewise and carries such accounts as may result from Philippine
authorize the Bangko Sentral to grant emergency loans membership in, or operations with, the IMF. It may also
or advances to banking institutions, even during normal be authorized by the government to represent it in
periods, for the purpose of assisting a bank in a dealings, negotiations or transactions with the
precarious financial condition or under serious financial International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
pressures brought by unforeseen events, or events and with other foreign or international financial
which, though foreseeable, could not be prevented by institutions or agencies. The President may, however,
the bank concerned. This is provided, however, that the designate any of his other financial advisors to jointly
represent the Government in such dealings, • Department of General Services
negotiations or transactions.
o Manages the procurement of supplies, equipment,
The Security Plant Complex and services for the SPC, client affairs and information
programs, development/implementation of SPC
The Security Plant Complex which is located in Quezon
construction/renovation projects, and general
City houses a banknote printing plant, a securities
maintenance and upkeep of its facilities
printing plant, a mint and a gold refinery. The banknote
printing plant and the mint take care of producing • Financial Services Group
currency notes and coins, respectively. The Security
Plant Complex also houses the Currency Management o Prepares financial statements and records financial
Sector, which is responsible for the production and receipts/disbursements, and processes bills for
issuance of the Philippine currency. payment
The core products of the SPC are banknotes and coins. Gold Reserve Management
It also produces refined gold and silver; judicial forms Gold producers, small-scale miners and other
and other security documents; commemorative medals; individuals may sell their gold at prevailing global
and presidential medals and state decorations. market rates at various gold buying stations such as the
The SPC is under the Currency Management sector in Mint and Refinery Operations Department (MROD) in
the BSP Organizational chart. Under the SPC are the Quezon City and the BSP offices in the cities of Baguio,
following: Naga, Davao and Zamboanga. Purchased gold in the
form of bars or discs are then refined at the MROD and
converted into London good delivery bars. Alternatively,
some of the gold may also be manufactured into semi-
finished material in the form of grains and sheets for re-
sale to local jewelers and industrial users. The BSP may
enter into a location swap transaction so that bars held
in the bullion vault may be mobilized and made readily
available for gold-related transactions in the
international market.
The IMF's primary purpose is to ensure the stability of The Board of Governors also elects Executive Directors
the international monetary system—the system of and is the ultimate arbiter on issues related to the
exchange rates and international payments that enables interpretation of the IMF’s Articles of Agreement.
countries (and their citizens) to transact with each Voting by the Board of Governors may take place either
other. The Fund's mandate was updated in 2012 to by holding a meeting or remotely (through the use of
include all macroeconomic and financial sector issues courier services, electronic mail, facsimile, or the IMF’s
that bear on global stability. secure online voting system). Decisions are made by a
majority of votes cast, unless otherwise specified in the
Organizational Structure of the IMF
Articles of Agreement.
The IMF has evolved along with the global economy
The Board of Governors is advised by two ministerial
throughout its 75- year history, allowing the
committees, the International Monetary and Financial
organization to retain a central role within the
Committee (IMFC) and the Development Committee.
international financial architecture. Unlike the General
Assembly of the United Nations, where each country • International Monetary and Financial Committee
has one vote, decision making at the IMF was designed
o The IMFC has 24 members, drawn from the pool of
to reflect the relative positions of its member countries
189 governors, and represents all member countries. Its
in the global economy. The IMF continues to undertake
structure mirrors that of the Executive Board and its 24
reforms to ensure that its governance structure
constituencies. The IMFC meets twice a year, during the
adequately reflects fundamental changes taking place in
IMF–World Bank Spring and Annual Meetings, to
discuss the management of the international monetary
and financial system, proposals by the Executive Board
to amend the Articles of Agreement, or any other
matters of common concern affecting the global
economy. The Committee issues a communiqué
summarizing its views following each meeting,
providing guidance for the IMF’s work program. The
IMFC operates by consensus and does not conduct
formal votes.
• Development Committee
Extended Credit Facility (ECF) Financing under the ECF carries a zero interest rate at
least through end-2018, with a grace period of 5½
The Extended Credit Facility (ECF) provides financial years, and a final maturity of 10 years. On October 3,
assistance to countries with protracted balance of 2016, the Executive Board approved a modification of
payments problems. The ECF was created under the the mechanism governing interest rate setting of PRGT
Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT) as part of a facilities and PRGT interest rates will remain at zero for
broader reform to make the Fund’s financial support as long as and whenever global market rates are very
more flexible and better tailored to the diverse needs of low. The Fund reviews the level of interest rates for
low-income countries (LICs), including in times of crisis. concessional facilities under the PRGT every two years.
The ECF is the Fund’s main tool for providing medium-
term support to LICs. Standby Credit Facility (SCF)
The ECF supports countries’ economic programs aimed The Standby Credit Facility (SCF) provides financial
at moving toward a stable and sustainable assistance to lowincome countries (LICs) with short-
macroeconomic position consistent with strong and term balance of payments needs. The SCF was created
durable poverty reduction and growth. The ECF may under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT)
also help catalyze additional foreign aid. as part of a broader reform to make the Fund’s financial
support more flexible and better tailored to the diverse
The ECF is available to all PRGT-eligible member needs of LICs, including in times of shocks or crisis.
countries that face a protracted balance of payments
problem, i.e. when the resolution of the underlying The SCF supports LICs that have reached broadly
macroeconomic imbalances would be expected to sustainable macroeconomic positions, but may
extend over the medium or longer term. experience episodic, short-term financing and
adjustment needs, including those caused by shocks.
Under the ECF, member countries agree to implement a The SCF supports countries’ economic programs aimed
set of policies that will help them make progress toward at restoring a stable and sustainable macroeconomic
a stable and sustainable macroeconomic position over position consistent with strong and durable growth and
the medium term. These commitments, including poverty reduction. It also provides policy support and
specific conditions, are described in the country’s letter may help catalyze foreign aid. The SCF replaced the
of intent. Exogenous Shocks Facility-High Access Component (ESF-
Assistance under an ECF arrangement is provided for an HAC) effective January 2010.
initial duration from three to up to four years, with an The SCF is available to PRGT-eligible member countries
overall maximum duration of five years. Following the facing an immediate or potential balance of payments
expiration, cancellation, or termination of an ECF need, where the country’s financing and adjustment
arrangement, additional ECF arrangements may be needs are normally expected to be resolved within two
approved. years, thus establishing a sustainable macroeconomic
position.
An SCF arrangement can range from 12–24 months. As payments position. The EFF provides assistance in
the SCF is intended to address episodic short-term support of comprehensive programs that include
needs, its use is limited to two and a half out of any five policies of the scope and character required to correct
years. Subject to these limits, an SCF arrangement may structural imbalances over an extended period.
be extended or cancelled, and consecutive
Given that structural reforms to correct deep-rooted
arrangements may be approved.
weaknesses often take time to implement and bear
Access to SCF financing is determined on a case-by-case fruit, the engagement under an EFF and its repayment
basis, taking into account the country’s balance of period are longer than most Fund arrangements.
payments need, the strength of its economic program
Extended arrangements would normally be approved
and capacity to repay the Fund, the amount of
for periods not exceeding three years, with a maximum
outstanding Fund credit and the member’s record of
extension of up to one year where appropriate.
past use of Fund credit, and is guided by access norms.
However, a maximum duration of up to four years at
Subject to the applicable access limits, the amount
approval is also allowed, predicated on, inter alia, the
approved at the start of the arrangement may be
existence of a balance of payments need beyond the
augmented during an arrangement if needed. Total
three-year period—the prolonged nature of the
access to concessional financing under the PRGT is
adjustment required to restore macroeconomic
limited to 75 percent of quota per year, and 225
stability—and the presence of adequate assurances
percent of quota in total. These limits can be exceeded
about the member’s ability and willingness to
in exceptional circumstances. For precautionary use,
implement deep and sustained structural reforms.
the annual limit at approval is 56.25 percent of quota
There is also a longer repayment period of between
and the average annual limit at approval (over the
4½–10 years, with repayments in twelve equal
arrangement) is 37.5 percent of quota.
semiannual installments. In contrast, the Stand-by
A member country with a potential but not immediate Arrangement (SBA) is of shorter duration, with a
balance of payments need can treat access under the repayment period of 3¼–5 years.
SCF as precautionary, in which case no disbursements
As with the SBA, the size of borrowing under the EFF is
will be made. However, countries retain and
guided by a country’s financing needs, capacity to
accumulate the rights to request disbursements under
repay, and track record with use of IMF resources.
the arrangement if a financing need were to arise at a
later stage. SCF arrangements treated as precautionary • Normal access. Borrowing under the EFF is subject to
do not count toward the two and a half out of any five the normal limit of up to 145 percent of a country’s IMF
years’ time limit on the use of the SCF referred to quota annually and a cumulative limit over the life of
above. the program of 435 percent of quota, net of scheduled
repayments.
Extended Fund Facility (EFF)
When a country faces serious medium-term balance of • Exceptional access. The Fund may lend amounts
payments problems because of structural weaknesses above these normal access limits on a case-by-case
that require time to address, the IMF can assist with the basis in exceptional circumstances provided that the
adjustment process under an Extended Fund Facility country satisfies a predetermined set of criteria.
(EFF). Compared to assistance provided under the In addition, EFFs generally are not formulated on a
Stand-by Arrangement, assistance under an extended precautionary basis in anticipation of a future balance
arrangement features longer program engagement—to of payments problem.
help countries implement medium-term structural
reforms—and a longer repayment period. Rapid Credit Facility (RCF)
The EFF was established to provide assistance to The Rapid Credit Facility (RCF) provides rapid
countries experiencing serious payments imbalances concessional financial assistance with limited
because of structural impediments or characterized by conditionality to low-income countries (LICs) facing an
slow growth and an inherently weak balance of urgent balance of payments need. The RCF was created
under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT)
as part of a broader reform to make the Fund’s financial Fund support under the RCF is provided without ex post
support more flexible and better tailored to the diverse program based conditionality or reviews. Economic
needs of LICs, including in times of crisis. The RCF places policies supported under the RCF should aim at
emphasis on the country’s poverty reduction and addressing the underlying balance of payments
growth objectives. difficulties in support of the country's poverty reduction
and growth objectives. Financing under the RCF carries
The RCF provides low-access, rapid, and concessional
a zero interest rate, has a grace period of 5½ years, and
financial assistance to LICs facing an urgent balance of
a final maturity of 10 years.
payments need, without ex post conditionality. It can
provide support in a wide variety of circumstances, Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF)
including shocks, natural disasters, and emergencies
In September of 1999, the IMF established the Poverty
resulting from fragility. The RCF also provides policy
Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) to make the
support and may help catalyze foreign aid.
objectives of poverty reduction and growth more
The RCF is available to PRGT-eligible members that face central to lending operations in its poorest member
an urgent balance of payments need, where a full- countries. Reviews of the PRGF by IMF staff in 2002 and
fledged economic program is either not necessary (for by the Independent Evaluation Office (IEO) of the IMF in
instance because of the transitory and limited nature of 2004 confirmed that the design of the programs
the shock) or not feasible (for instance because of supported by PRGF lending has become more
capacity constraints or domestic fragilities). accommodating to higher public expenditure, in
particular propoor spending.
Financial assistance under the RCF is provided as an
outright loan disbursement. While RCF financing takes Building on this progress and in response to a 2007 IEO
the form of a one-off disbursement, there is scope for report on the IMF and Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa, the
repeat use. A repeat use of the RCF is possible within IMF in 2007 adopted principles to promote the full use
any three-year period if the balance of payments need of external aid while maintaining macroeconomic and
is caused primarily by an exogenous shock or the debt sustainability. A review of PRGF program design by
country has established a track record of adequate the Executive Board in September 2005 found that
macroeconomic policies. However, no more than two while macroeconomic outcomes in low-income
disbursements may be made in any twelve-month countries had improved markedly in recent years, per
period. Repeat use of the RCF may facilitate eventual capita income remains low. The review noted in
transition to an ECF arrangement. particular, the importance of broad economic
institutions for sustained growth and stability, and the
Access to RCF financing is determined on a case-by-case
need to manage carefully increased aid flows.
basis, taking into account the country’s balance of
payments need, the strength of its macroeconomic The principles of broad public participation and country
policies, capacity to repay the Fund, the amount of ownership are central to the PRGF. Discussions on the
outstanding Fund credit, and the member’s record of policies underlying PRGFsupported programs are more
past use of Fund credit. Under the RCF, access is open than in the case of other Fund arrangements,
normally limited to 18.75 percent of quota per year and since they are based on the nationally-owned PRSP.
75 percent of quota on a cumulative basis, although With increased national ownership, PRGF conditionality
augmented access limits apply under the RCF’s shocks has become more parsimonious, focused on the Fund’s
window (37.5 percent of quota per year and 75 percent core areas of expertise, and limited to measures that
on a cumulative basis). The RCF also has a higher annual have a direct and critical impact on the program’s
access limit of 60 percent of quota which is available macroeconomic objectives.
where a member faces urgent balance of payments
PRGF-supported programs reflect closely each country’s
needs arising from a large natural disaster (that is, a
poverty reduction and growth priorities and, as long as
natural disaster that causes damage of at least 20
macroeconomic stability is maintained, seek to respond
percent of the member’s GDP).
flexibly to changes in country circumstances and pro-
poor priorities. Key policy measures and structural
reforms aimed at poverty reduction and growth are Access was determined on a case-by-case basis. The
identified and prioritized during the PRSP process, and if ESF-HAC provided access up to 75 percent of quota for
feasible, their budgetary costs are assessed. each arrangement in normal circumstances. Resources
were provided in phased disbursements based on
PRGF-supported programs focus on strengthening
reviews, and programs were one-to-two years in length.
governance, in order to assist countries’ efforts to
design targeted and well-prioritized spending. Of The country’s economic program under the ESF focused
particular importance are measures to improve public on adjustment to the underlying shock, with less
resource management, transparency, and emphasis on the broad structural adjustment that often
accountability. PRGF supported programs also give characterizes other IMF-supported programs.
particular attention to the poverty and social impacts of
The ESF could be used concurrently with the Policy
key macroeconomic policy measures.
Support Instrument (PSI).
When appropriate, the IMF draws on World Bank
ESF loans carry a zero annual interest rate until end-
expertise in designing PRGF-supported programs, and
2018, with repayments made semiannually, beginning
the staffs of the Fund and Bank cooperate closely on
5½ years and ending 10 years after the disbursement.
conditionality. The Bank staff takes the lead in advising
On October 3, 2016, the Executive Board decided to
the authorities in the design of poverty reduction
waive interest rate charges on outstanding balances
strategies in areas such as poverty assessments,
under the Exogenous Shocks Facility until the next
monitoring, structural and sectoral issues, social issues,
review of the interest rate mechanism. The Fund
and costing priority poverty-reducing spending.
reviews the level of interest rates for concessional
Concessional lending under the PRGF is administered by facilities every two years with the next review expected
the IMF through the PRGF-ESF and PRGF-HIPC Trusts. to take place by end-2018.
The PRGF-ESF Trust borrows resources from central
IMF Conditionality
banks, governments, and official institutions generally
at market-related interest rates, and lends them on a When a country borrows from the IMF, its government
passthrough basis to PRGF-eligible countries. The agrees to adjust its economic policies to overcome the
difference between the market-related interest rate problems that led it to seek financial aid. These policy
paid to PRGF-ESF Trust lenders and the rate of interest adjustments are conditions for IMF loans and serve to
of 0.5 percent per year paid by the borrowing members ensure that the country will be able to repay the IMF.
is financed by contributions from bilateral donors and This system of conditionality is designed to promote
the IMF’s own resources. national ownership of strong and effective policies.
Exogenous Shocks Facility – High Access Component Conditionality covers the design of IMF-supported
(ESF-HAC) programs—that is, macroeconomic and structural
policies—and the specific tools used to monitor
The Exogenous Shocks Facility-High Access Component
progress toward goals outlined by the country in
(ESF-HAC), which was established in 2008, has provided
cooperation with the IMF. Conditionality helps
concessional financing to Poverty Reduction and
countries solve balance-ofpayments problems without
Growth Trust (PRGT)-eligible countries facing balance of
resorting to measures that are harmful to national or
payments needs caused by sudden and exogenous
international prosperity. At the same time, the
shocks. As part of a broader reform to make the Fund’s
measures are meant to safeguard IMF resources by
financial support more flexible and better tailored to
ensuring that the country’s balance of payments will be
the diverse needs of LICs, the ESF-HAC has been
strong enough to permit it to repay the loan.
superseded by the Standby Credit Facility (SCF), which
became effective in January 2010. Credit outstanding The member country has primary responsibility for
from ESF-HAC arrangements amounts to SDR 245.3 selecting, designing, and implementing policies to make
million as of end-February 2018, and ESF-HAC terms will the IMF-supported program successful. The program is
continue to apply to these balances. described in a letter of intent, which often has a
memorandum of economic and financial policies
attached. The program’s objectives and policies depend deviation was minor or temporary or because national
on a country’s circumstances. But the overarching goal authorities are taking corrective actions. Missed
is always to restore or maintain balance-of-payments structural benchmarks and indicative targets do not
viability and macroeconomic stability while setting the require waivers but are assessed in the context of
stage for sustained, high-quality growth and, in overall program performance. The IMF’s publicly
lowincome countries, reducing poverty. available database for the Monitoring of Fund
Arrangements covers all aspects of program
Most IMF financing is paid out in installments and linked
conditionality.
to demonstrable policy actions. This is intended to
ensure progress in program implementation and reduce Chapter 11: Central Banking for Socio-Economic
risks to IMF resources. Program reviews provide a Development
framework for the IMF Executive Board to assess
The Promotion of Human Dignity
whether the program is on track and whether
modifications are necessary. Periodic reviews combine Development is primarily concerned with the
an assessment of whether program conditions have promotion of human dignity. This is the priceless gift of
been met with a look ahead at whether the program God to man. Without human dignity, man is no better
needs to be adjusted in light of new developments. than an animal.
Policy commitments can come in different forms: The United States declares that:
• Prior actions 1. The aim of development should be the constant
improvement of the well-being of the peoples on the
o These are steps a country agrees to take before the
basis of their full participation in the process of
IMF approves financing or completes a review. They
development and a fair distribution of its benefits.
ensure that a program will have the necessary
foundation for success. 2. Each country has the right and responsibility to
choose its means and goals of development such as the
• Quantitative performance criteria (QPCs)
implementation of progressive economic and social
o Specific, measurable conditions for IMF lending that reforms.
always relate to macroeconomic variables under the
3. All the countries have the duty and, individually and
control of the authorities. Such variables include
collectively, to cooperate in removing the obstacles that
monetary and credit aggregates, international reserves,
hinder the mobilization and utilization of resources.
fiscal balances, and external borrowing.
As the UNESCO Director-General has stated: "The social
• Indicative targets (ITs)
reality of development is something much more than
o In addition to QPCs, ITs may be set for quantitative material well-being. Human Dignity is at least as
indicators to assess progress in meeting a program’s important a part of it as happiness, and that dignity is
objectives. Sometimes ITs are set instead of QPCs meaningless except in relation to those values which
because of uncertainty about economic trends. As make life worth living and of which culture is both
uncertainty is reduced, these targets may become custodian and the critic, the repository and the
QPCs, with appropriate modifications. originator."
o These are reform measures that often are The roots of poverty are the rural areas. The poorest of
nonquantifiable but are critical for achieving program the poor are found in such places. Hoping against hope,
goals and are intended as markers to assess program they go to the cities for possible better life. This influx of
implementation. rural poor to the urban centers has created slums and
squalor. Not a few of the live under the bridges and
If a country misses a QPC condition, the IMF Executive along river banks.
Board may approve a waiver if it is satisfied that the
program will still succeed. This may be because the
In urban societies of the world, the poorest of the poor • Housing is seen as a whole process of development
called "boat people" of Agriculture. They have no lands embracing all the needs important to man, his
of their own. They live in their small boats. They also community and the place he lives in;
use their boats as the principal source of their
livelihood. • Majority of the housing programs must be for the
poor since they have the largest need for decent shelter
Urbanization is a symbol of economic growth. However and deserve government assistance;
this is only for developed countries. Extreme rural
poverty has forced the people of the villages to move • The residents must actively participate in
into the cities in the hope of improving their economic improvement of their communities;
conditions. • Housing benefits, designs, and costs are planned
The Job of BSP according to the ability to pay of residents;
As the central monetary authority, the Bangko Sentral • Investments must be recovered either directly from
ng Pilipinas does not only control the volume of the beneficiaries or indirectly from other sources to sustain
money but also the allocation of available credit the efforts of the government to provide shelter to the
facilities. urban poor;
The main focus of the economic recovery is on the • Housing is the concern of everybody, thus every
development of agriculture and country side. sector of society must contribute to the solution of the
housing problem;
The Bangko Sentral extends loans either from domestic
or foreign sources - to the government for its various • All agencies of the government, both local and
socio-economic programs and projects. national, must participate in the total housing program;
and
Rural Development Programs and Urban Housing
Projects • Private resources, must be mobilized to satisfy the
housing need.
Here in the city, most poor families live in rooms and
apartments which are unfit for human habitation. On the other hand, rural development is primarily
Because of the law of supply and demand, rentals for concerned with optimum utilization resources - human,
bed spaces rooms and apartments have greatly economic, social, and physical - in a given area through
escalated. Those who cannot afford to pay put up their a systematic manner based on self-reliance.
shanties along river banks, railroads and seashores.
Many of our major rural development program and
Others erected their makeshift houses in vacant public
projects have been funded by the United States, Japan,
lots. The poorest groups sleep in Rizal Park, under the
Australia, and other rich countries. These include roads,
bridges and in underpass.
bridges, irrigation, electrification, water supply,
Our urban development program - which is primarily a communication, health and school facilities.
housing program - is largely funded by the World Bank.
The World Bank and the Asian Development Bank have
Nevertheless, the Bangko Sentral can also participate in
granted substantial loans for our rural development
the housing program for the poor by extending soft
which is the main focus of their development assistance
loans for housing projects through the government and
program.
the banking system.
The Social Responsibility of Central Banking
The urban poor can avail of such housing credit facilities
to be able to own their houses and lots on very easy The main function of central banking is the
installment scheme. Below are a few possible concepts management of money. The proper management of
on how to approach the housing issues for the urban money can lead to price stability, more jobs and better
poor: economic growth. With the vast resources and powers
of the central bank of any country, it can greatly
influence the direction of the financial system towards
the attainment of major economic goals.